No More Learning

He abandoned
the artificial emotions of heroic personages in favour of the joys
and sorrows of ordinary human life. The Orphan is, for the
1
1 It is probable that this tragedy was produced before The Orphan, for it ocours in
the Term Catalogue (ed. Arber, 1903) for Michaelmas term 1679, while The Orphan
occurs ibid. , for Easter term 1680, six months later.
1


## p. 183 (#205) ############################################

Thomas Otway
183
period, a singularly domestic play. Two brothers, Castalio and
Polydore, are in love with Monimia, their father's ward. Castalio
secretly contracts himself to her in marriage; but Polydore, over-
hearing their plans for meeting, and unaware of the nature of
the tie which unites them, contrives to supplant his brother on
the wedding night. Castalio, seeking admittance to the bridal
chamber, is supposed to be Polydore and rudely repulsed; and
he spends the night cursing all womankind. With the morrow
come explanations, and the misery of the situation becomes clear.
Whether the plot makes too large demands on the reader's credulity,
or whether it shocks his sense of decorum, the pathetic irony of the
situation in which the characters find themselves is indisputably
brought home with great tragic force.
A comedy called The Souldier's Fortune followed (1681), in
which the poet drew upon his military experiences. Langbaine
discovered in this piece numerous borrowings-notably from
Boccaccio and Scarron; but the episodes are so common to plays
of intrigue that it is difficult to say whence Otway derived them.
There is, however, more than a suggestion of Molière's L'École
des Maris.
Otway's next play, Venice Preserv'd, or a Plot Discover'd, a
tragedy in blank verse, was first acted in February 1682. The story
of this tragedy is taken from an anecdotal history entitled La
Conjuration des Espagnols contre la république de Venise en 1618,
published in 1674 by the Abbé de Saint-Réal. An English trans-
lation had appeared in 1675. The finest character in the play,
Belvidera, is, however, purely the creation of the poet's genius;
and the scenes between her and Jaffier, the weak, but at heart
noble, conspirator who is persuaded by his wife to reveal the plot
to the senate, are beyond praise. Jaffier, torn between his
passionate affection for Belvidera and his almost equal devotion
to his friends and their cause, presents a signally true picture
of the human soul seeking vainly to reconcile contending ideals.
His remorse and shame under the stinging reproaches of his dear
friend and fellow-conspirator Pierre, his inability to free himself
from the clinging love and fascination with which Belvidera has
enmeshed him, his agony of grief on the senate's breach of its
promise to spare the lives of all the conspirators as the reward
of his treachery-all these successive phases through which his
sensitive, but weak and vacillating, spirit has to pass are depicted
with consummate skill and true tragic power.
1 This may have been acted earlier, on Otway's return from Holland.


## p. 184 (#206) ############################################

184 The Restoration Drama
Otway's political leaning reveals itself in the secondary title,
with its obvious reference to the popish plot, and; still more
clearly, in the prologue and epilogue; and the play is further dis-
figured by some scandalous 'comic' scenes, written to ridicule
Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury, in the character of Antonio, a
lascivious old senator.
In Venice Preserv'd and, to a less extent, in The Orphan,
Otway produced plays which, for intensity of feeling and for the
display of elemental emotions, are worthy to rank with the
later masterpieces of the Elizabethan age, and with some of
Fletcher's plays in particular. The language of their finest
passages is of a notable simplicity, admirably conveying the
poet's conception of his characters. Unfortunately, passages
of noble poetry are, at times, intermixed with lines of
almost ludicrous ineptitude. More pathetic and convincing
pictures of women overwhelmed by grief, confusion and hopeless-
ness cannot be imagined than those drawn by Otway in his
Monimia--' the trembling, tender, kind, deceived Monimia'-and
the still finer Belvidera-a masterpiece of insight into the human
heart. Both characters were originally performed by Mrs Barry, the
celebrated actress who appeared in Otway's first play, Alcibiades,
and for whom the poet had conceived a hopeless passion. Some
of his letters to her have been preserved, and prove how deeply
he had fallen under her influence. His unrequited passion for
this fascinating woman had a manifest share in the uplifting of
his genius from the dusty commonplaces of lesser restoration
drama to the heights of characterisation and expression which
he reached in his two great tragedies.
The Orphan and Venice Preserv'd were extremely popular,
and were played with some frequency down to the middle of the
nineteenth century. Both plays are full of opportunities for
effective acting, and the principal characters in them continued
to be among the greatest triumphs, not only, when first produced,
of the Bettertons and Mrs Barry, but, also, of their most dis-
tinguished successors. Mrs Siddons and Miss O'Neill were famous
Belvideras and Monimias; Pierre was one of John Kemble's most
signal successes; and Garrick many times played Pierre, Jaffier
and Chamont'.
The Atheist, or The Second Part of The Souldier's Fortune
1 Venice Preserv'd was revived at Sadler's Wells, in 1845, with Phelps as Jaffier and
Mrs Warner as Belvidera, and, as recently as 1904, the play was acted in London by
the Otway Society.


## p. 185 (#207) ############################################

Nathaniel Lee
185
completes the list of Otway's plays. It was produced in 1684
and is as unsatisfactory as his previous efforts in comedy. In
addition to the plays mentioned above, Otway wrote some poems
and translations of no great importance. The most ambitious of
the poems are The Poet's Complaint of his Muse (1680), which
is full of curious autobiographical touches ; and Windsor Castle,
published posthumously in 1685, a panegyric on Charles II. He
also wrote, according to the fashion of the day, a few prologues
and epilogues for his fellow-dramatists. He died, in 1685, in the
utmost want and misery-one account says of actual starvation.
Though Otway failed as an actor, he possessed a strong sense
of dramatic possibilities; and it is the combination of this sense
with an original and individual genius, that will preserve his two
chief efforts from oblivion?
1
Nathaniel Lee, son of a clergyman, was born about 1653, and
educated at Westminster and Trinity college, Cambridge, where
he graduated B. A. in 1668. His early experiences bear a strong
resemblance to those of Otway. Like him, Lee began his life in
London in reliance upon some of the fitful patrons of letters in
whom the age abounded, and, also like Otway, he, in the same
year at the same theatre, failed utterly as an actor. The first
plays—and there is not much to choose between them-of the two
dramatists alike appeared in 1675. Between that date and 1681,
Lee produced in rapid succession eight tragedies and a tragi-
comedy, all with quasi-historical settings His first play, Nero,
Emperour of Rome (1675) was succeeded, in 1676, by Sophonista,
or Hannibals Overthrow; which seems to have been inspired by
Orrery's Parthenissa. To 1676, also, belongs Gloriana, or The
Court of Augustus Caesar. These three are heroic plays, for the
most part in rimed verse, and thoroughly typical of the period.
In 1677, Lee, following Dryden's lead, produced the blank verse
play entitled The Rival Queens, or The Death of Alexander the
Great, which proved an immediate and lasting success. It is
founded on Cassandre, a romance by La Calprenède, upon whose
Cléopâtre Lee had already drawn for some of the incidents in his
Gloriana. There followed, in 1678, Mithridates, King of Pontus,
1 For Hazlitt's criticism of these two plays see his Lectures on the Dramatic
Literature of the Age of Elizabeth, L. VII (Collected Works, edd. Waller, A. R. and
Glover, A. , vol. v, pp. 3545). In his first lecture (ib. p. 181) Hazlitt declares that
'with the exception of a single writer, Otway, and of a single play of his (Venice
Preserv'd) there is nobody in tragedy and dramatic poetry . . . to be compared to the
great men of the age of Shakespear and immediately after. '


## p. 186 (#208) ############################################

186
The Restoration Drama
another blank verse play; and, in 1679, Dryden and Lee co-
operated in the composition of Edipus, King of Thebes.
Theodosius, or the Force of Love, one of Lee's most successful
plays, was produced in 1680, and was acted very frequently
throughout the eighteenth century. Caesar Borgia, Son of Pope
Alexander the Sixth (1680), Lucius Junius Brutus, Father of
His Country (1681), and The Princess of Cleve, acted in 1681, but
not printed until 1689, are all more or less reminiscent of French
romances of the Scudéry type. (La Princesse de Clèves, by the
countess de La Fayette, was a late masterpiece of this school of
fiction. ) In 1682 Dryden and Lee again joined hands in The Duke
of Guise. Most of this play was Lee's work, and was drawn from a
piece called The Massacre of Paris, which, though written some
years previously, had not then been produced. In 1684 appeared
Constantine the Great, his last play, if we except the aforesaid
Massacre of Paris (1690). Lee went out of his mind in 1684
and was confined to Bedlam until 1689, when he was released.
He had been given to drink all his life; and, in 1692, an excess of
this kind brought about his death.
Lee's plays are not without a certain imposing picturesqueness
and broad effectiveness ; but he entirely lacked the sense of
measure and proportion, with that of humour. Neither delicacy
of perception, nor the power of characterisation-in short, none
of the finer qualities of the dramatist
are to be found in him.
His personages talk at the top of their voices on all occasions-
happy or the reverse—while rant and confusion, blood and dust,
ghosts and portents and hysterics, effectually conceal from all but
the most persevering student the occasional nobler features of
Lee's imagination. It is hardly fair, perhaps, to judge his plays
by reading them in cold blood. They were intended for acting;
and, as acting plays, they have abundantly justified themselves.
- The Rival Queens and Theodosius supplied favourite parts to
many of the most gifted tragic actors not only of their own day,
but, also, in the next century. Alexander, in The Rival Queens,
was one of Betterton's most popular róles, and he played leading
parts in all Lee's later productions ; while Hart and Mohun ac-
quired fame in his earlier pieces. At a later date, Charles Kemble
а
and Mrs Powell and Edmund Keen and Mrs Glover revived The
Rival Queens with marked success. And it is easy to understand
how thrilling, in their hands, must have been the scenes
of white-hot elemental passion in which Lee abounds. He was
consistently a candidate for immediate popular favour. He gave


## p. 187 (#209) ############################################

Nathaniel Lee. John Crowne 187
1
the court what it liked-heroic plays on French lines, with a strong
appeal to the senses, and characters capable of being played with
immense effect and abandon by gifted actors and actresses. It
may be accounted a significant, though hardly a surprising, fact
that, at a time when almost everything-good, bad and indifferent
-has been reprinted, no publisher has been found courageous
enough to undertake an edition of Lee. No analysis of his extra-
vagance can give so distinct an impression of it as an example, and
the following description in Lricius Junius Brutus, of a young
boy's grief, is typical of many similar absurdities scattered up and
down his plays:
His pretty eyes, ruddy and wet with tears,
Like two burst Cherries rolling in storml.
On the other hand, the lines frequently quoted :
Thou coward! yet
Art living? Canst not, wilt not, find the road
To the great palace of magnificent Death,
Though thousand ways lead to his thousand doors
Which day and night are still unbarred for all2 ?
may be taken as an instance of Lee at his best. Now and again,
a stray verse or metaphor reminds us of the Elizabethan heights
from which the restoration dramatists had fallen so far. But these
beauties are few and far between, and it must be frankly confessed
that, to-day, Lee is almost unreadable.
The birthday and parentage of John Crowne, one of the most
prolific of the crowd of restoration dramatists, are alike unknown.
From recent researches it appears probable that he was the son of
William Crowne, who emigrated to Nova Scotia, and that he was born
about 1640. He was certainly in London in 1665, for his first work
appeared in that year, the romance entitled Pandion and Amphi-
genia. In 1671 was acted and published his tragicomedy Juliana,
or the Princess of Poland-the first of a long series of dull and half-
forgotten tragedies. It was succeeded by The History of Charles
the Eighth of France (1672), in rimed couplets, and Andromache
(1675), in prose. The last seems to have been a mere adaptation
of a translation, chiefly in verse, by another hand, of Racine's
Andromaque. In 1675 also appeared the masque Calisto, or the
Chast Nymph, acted at court by members of the royal family and
household. It is without charm, and owes whatever interest it
1 Act v, sc. 2.
Oedipus, act v, 80. 1.


## p. 188 (#210) ############################################

188
The Restoration Drama
may retain to the personalities of the performers, and to the fact
that, on the occasion for which it was written, Dryden, the poet
laureate, was passed over in favour of Crowne through the interest
of Rochester.
Crowne's first comedy, The Country Wit, was acted in 1675.
It is founded on Molière’s Le Sicilien, ou l'Amour Peintre (1667),
and, in Sir Mannerly Shallow, contains a sort of first sketch of the
type--that of the pompous gull-which Crowne afterwards de-
veloped with marked success into the Podestà (in City Politiques),
Sir Courtly Nice (in the play of that name), and Lord Stately (in
The English Frier).
Then followed three tragedies of absolute dulness, The De-
struction of Jerusalem (1677); The Ambitious Statesman (1679),
of which the theme and sources are alike French; and Thyestes,
taken from Seneca (1681). The concentrated horror of the last-
mentioned piece has led to its receiving more notice from Crowne's
critics than his other tragic productions? ; but there is not any
nobility in his treatment of the awful story. Shortly before the
appearance of this tragedy, Crowne, in 1680, produced a hash of
Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part II, which he called The Misery
of Civil-War, and followed this, in 1681, with Henry the Sixth,
the First Part. With the Murder of Humphrey, Duke of
Glocester.
His best comedies came next: City Politiques (1683), and
Sir Courtly Nice, or It cannot be (1685). The date of the former
of these pieces, long a subject of debate, is now established. In
its elaborate and very amusing satire on the whigs, despite
Crowne's perfunctory professions to the contrary, the originals
from which some of the portraits were drawn may be detected
without difficulty. Titus Oates masquerades as Dr Panchy, and
Stephen Colledge is introduced in the guise of a bricklayer; while
frequent hits are made at Shaftesbury in the person of the Podestà
of the very un-Neapolitan ‘Naples' where the action is supposed
to take place.
1 Lamb thought it worth while to include scenes from this as well as from other
plays by Crowne in his Extracts from the Garrick plays.
Biographia Dramatica gives the date of production as 1675; while several other
authorities, including Genest, state that did not appear until 1688. The earlier
of these dates is, from internal evidence, impossible; for Dryden's Medal, published in
1682, is referred to by name, and the play is full of satire about plots and counterplots,
burning the city and letting in the French. It seems probable that this comedy was
confused with The Country Wit, which actually appeared in 1675; in any case, the
publication of the Term Catalogues establishes beyond further question the fact that
City Politiques was first published in 1683. It was re-issued in 1688.


## p. 189 (#211) ############################################

John Crowne
189
Sir Courtly Nice is by far the best of Crowne's plays, and has
in it something of the true spirit of comedy which, in this age,
reached its height in the group of comic dramatists headed
by Congreve? It is founded on Moreto's play No puede ser
guardar una mujer (No holding a Woman), which is itself an
imitation of Lope de Vega's Mayor Imposibile (The greatest of
impossibilities). An English version of Moreto’s comedy, by Sir
Thomas St Serfe, had been produced without success in 1668,
under the title Tarugo's Wiles, or the Coffee-House ; but Crowne
does not seem to have been aware of its existence. In any case,
the principal characters in Crowne's play are new. Sir Courtly
himself, with Hothead and Testimony-an admirably contrasted
pair, representing, in a most diverting manner, the extreme factions
of the age and Surly are all due to Crowne's invention!
The tragedies of Darius (1688), Regulus (1692) and Caligula
(1698) call for no more than a passing mention. Crowne's last two
comedies are, however, more interesting. The English Frier
(1690) is a mordant satire on the personal lives and characters of
the Catholic priests who had been high in favour at the court
of James II. Father Petre has been suggested as the original of
Father Finical; and the satire is certainly on much the same
lines as that of several scandalous narratives of the Martin's 'life.
The piece owes much to Molière’s Tartuffe (printed 1669), well
known in England by this time.
The story of The Curious Impertinent in Don Quixote, which
had been used ten years previously by Southerne in The Dis-
appointment, or the Mother in Fashion, furnished Crowne with
a central idea for his last comedy The Married Beau (1694). It
is less witty and coarser than his other comedies. Crowne seems
to have been alive in 1701.
Lee has been called an inferior Otway, and Crowne, so far as
1 See, ante chap. VI.
; Hothead is charged with not often attending church- What then, I'm for the
church. ' Timothy wants to know whether we can't be saved unless we go to Oxford.
Sir Courtly, though he has bestowed 'some garniture on plays, as a song or a prologue,'
holds to the principle that . Men of quality are above wit. ' The play is full of allusions
to the politics of the day, and an entirely new verb to Godfrey' is introduced, in obvious
allusion to the murder of Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey in 1678. Mountfort was un-
equalled in the part of Sir Courtly Nice, which he performed at its original production
at the Theatre Royal, though Colley Cibber made a great success of the part in the
eighteenth century, when it was frequently revived.
3 Cf. ante, chap. I, p. 48.
* According to Downes’s Roscius Anglicanus (facsimile reprint, 1886, p. 45) Crowne
produced a further comedy, Justice Busy; but it ‘prov'd not a living play' and was
never printed.


## p. 190 (#212) ############################################

190 The Restoration Drama
his tragedies are concerned, might be called a second-rate Lee.
His plays have all Lee's turgidity, with none of that author's
redeeming though crazy picturesqueness. They preserve a dead
level of mediocrity, and it seems almost incredible that such a
piece as The Destruction of Jerusalem could ever have gained
the marked success which it undoubtedly secured. Nothing but
mounting elaborate enough to impress an uncritical audience
could have saved such plays as these from immediate and final
damnation. Such originality and talent as Crowne possessed
found vent in his comedies; and it may be pointed out that,
of all the tragic dramatists of the time who wrote comedies, he
alone produced any that have a claim to be remembered. His
Sir Courtly Nice is a genuinely comic and living personage, and,
though he has found numerous imitators, the creation of the type
belongs to Crowne.
Thomas Southerne (or Southern, as his name is spelt in the first
editions of all his plays), was of Irish parentage; but he spent his
life in London, where his career was in striking contrast to those
of most contemporary dramatists, as to both its length and its
conduct. He produced two highly successful plays exactly calcu-
lated to hit the public taste, and by no means without intrinsic
merit. Southerne seems to bave possessed considerable personal
charm and was a valued friend of several of the most distinguished
men of his day. He enjoyed the intimate friendship of Dryden,
who wrote prologues and epilogues for several of his plays and
who, in 1692, entrusted him with the task of completing the last
act of his Cleomenes and revising the whole. Printed at the
end of his Works (1774) is a delightful letter addressed to him by
Lord Orrery, dated 1733, beginning 'My dear Old Man,' which
breathes throughout a spirit of the warmest friendship and regard.
Southerne's dedications sufficiently show that these were no
isolated instances. Not only was his literary work successful in
obtaining for him admiration and regard, but he also reaped from
it substantial pecuniary profit?
In his first play, The Loyal Brother (1682), Southerne discloses
strong tory sympathies, and the character of Ismael is supposed
to convey the inevitable attack on Shaftesbury. The play is
taken from a novel called Tachmas, Prince of Persia, translated
from the French by P. Porter in 1676.
1 For the copyright of The Spartan Dame (by no means his best play), Chetwood
the bookseller paid one hundred and twenty pounds, and Southerne is stated to have
made altogether five hundred pounds profit out of this rather commonplace production.


## p. 191 (#213) ############################################

Thomas Southerne
191
This was followed by four comedies, for the most part in
prose. The Disappointment, or the Mother in Fashion (1684) is
(once more) founded on the story of The Curious Impertinent in
Don Quixote. Sir Anthony Love, or The Rambling Lady (1691)
was 'acted with extraordinary applause,' the part of Sir Anthony
being ‘most masterly played' by Mrs Mountfort. The Wives
Excuse, or Cuckolds make themselves (1692) was not so successful,
and seems to have given offence in some quarters by its too
faithful delineation of polite life. The Maids Last Prayer, or
Any, rather than Fail (1693) is chiefly notable as containing a
song said to have been the earliest acknowledged piece of Con-
greve's writing. However, Southerne's strength; did not lie in
comedy, though his comic productions are, in general, considerably
less gross, and decidedly more witty, than those of most of his
contemporaries; and it was not until 1694 that, in The Fatal
Marriage, or the Innocent Adultery, he achieved a play worthy
of his talent. This popular drama was founded on Mrs Aphra
Behn's novel The Nun, or The Perjur'd Beauty. Its success
was immediatel. The Fatal Marriage was frequently acted
during the eighteenth century, Garrick, in particular, reviving it,
in an abridged version, in 17572
In 1696 appeared Southerne's other great success, Oroonoko, or
the Royal Slave, like its predecessor a mixture of blank verse and
prose. Mrs Behn again supplied the plot in her novel of the same
name, and the piece, as adapted by Hawkesworth, had an even
- longer life than The Fatal Marriage. It is not, however, intrin-
sically so effective; though the novelty of its story and setting
(a slave plantation in the West Indies), and the acting of Ver-
bruggen, as the noble-minded, if somewhat tedious, negro, the hero
of the piece, gave it a high place in public favour.
In none of his last three plays did Southerne reach so high a
level. The Fate of Capua (1700) was a failure; nor can The
Spartan Dame (1719), founded on Plutarch’s Life of Agis, in
spite of its stage success, be pronounced a good play. Money the
Mistress (1726), Southerne's last production, was quite unsuccessful;
its plot is taken from the countess D’Aulnoy's Travels into Spain.
When at his best, Southerne reminds us of Otway in his power of
1 Mrs Barry played Isabella, which remained one of her most telling parts.
Betterton played Villeroy, Isabella's seoond husband.
: On this occasion, Mrs Cibber played Isabella to Garrick's Biron. Later, Mrs
Siddons played the same part with immense effeot, and it remained her most popular
part outside Shakespeare.


## p. 192 (#214) ############################################

192
The Restoration Drama
pathos and his perception of stage effect. The character of Isa-
bella is well conceived and worked out with great sympathy.
Her gradual yielding to the importunate advances of Villeroy, her
second husband, and her grief and horror at the discovery that
Biron, her first husband, is alive, and has returned to her, are
depicted with considerable power, and are not unworthy to be
compared with passages of Fletcher. The introduction of Isabella's
and Biron's child is a stroke of dramatic genius, and must have
materially strengthened the play, as the same device has strength-
ened many a popular drama since. Indeed, The Fatal Marriage
and Oroonoko may be regarded as the prototypes of a host of
popular melodramas. Yet, though, on occasion, a master of stage
effect, Southerne never rises, and did not aspire to rise, above
supplying the dramatic needs of his day. In another age, he might,
perhaps, have done better things; for, though he pandered to the
vicious tastes of his audiences, he seems fully to have realised how
far it was necessary to sink in order to gratify those tastes; and
he half apologised---not without reason—for the 'comic'scenes in
his best two plays.
Elkanah Settle and Thomas Shadwell were described by
Dryden as
Two fools that crutch their feeble sense on verse;
Who, by my muse, to all succeeding times
Shall live, in spite of their own doggrel rhymes l;
and, in Settle's case, at all events, the prophecy has come true.
Of the numerous publications which remain to show the fruits of
his busy pen, scarce one is read to-day. He made a bid for success
in almost every department of literature; but he is only remem-
bered as Doeg, the victim of some of the most scathing lines in
English satirical poetry.
Settle began his career as a dramatist with the tragedy
Cambyses, King of Persia, produced, according to Downes, by
Betterton in 1666, when it met with considerable success. It was
not printed till 1671, and was followed by The Empress of Morocco
(1673). For a brief period, the latter play carried all before
it; and the applause bestowed on it, together with the absurd
comparisons of Settle to Dryden, to the detriment of the latter,
which it evoked, seem to have more or less turned Settle's head.
As a matter of fact, The Empress of Morocco owed its success
>
i Absalom and Achitophel, Part 11.
Roscius Anglicanus (facsimile reprint (1886)), p. 27.


## p. 193 (#215) ############################################

Elkanah Settle. John Dennis
193
mainly to the good offices of Rochester, who patronised Settle to
annoy Dryden. It displays considerable ingenuity and knowledge
of stage effect, always Settle's strong pointThe success of the
play, and the pompous manner of its publication, drew forth some
abusive Notes and Observations, said, by Dennis, to have been
the joint work of Crowne, Dryden and Shadwell, to which Settle
replied; and, though Crowne claimed the lion's share of the
attack, a paper war arose between Settle and Dryden.
The Empress of Morocco was succeeded by Love and Revenge
(1675); and Ibrahim, the Illustrious Bassa (1677), founded op
Madeleine de Scudéry's romance, turned by her brother Georges
into a play of the same name. From that time until 1718, Settle
produced a large number of plays, mostly bombastic tragedies of
the poorest sort, the very names of which are now unfamiliar.
About 1680, he made the first of his several changes of political
tenets and opened fire on the adherents of the court and catholic
party, his earliest patrons. The disgraceful play, The Female
Prelate, marks this stage in his career. In 1683, he was a tory
once more, and involved himself in an acrimonious controversy
concerning the popish plot. In 1691, he was appointed city
poet, and, in that capacity, produced the annual pageant on lord
mayor's day, of which the official printed record for several years
is extant. In the duties of this office, Settle must have found
himself at home, for the fertility of his scenic invention is un-
doubted. It was not, however, sufficiently lucrative to keep him
from want, nor did he turn his coat cleverly enough to profit
greatly by these successive changes. He sank lower and lower,
and, at last, was obliged to write drolls for Bartholomew fair, and
even, according to a tradition maliciously repeated by Pope, to act
in them himself. In 1718, the forlorn hack found a haven in the
Charterhouse, where he died early in 1724.
Before considering Nicholas Rowe, whose principal plays belong
to the earlier years of the eighteenth century, we may mention the
names of a few tragic dramatists of even slighter calibre than
Elkanah Settle's.
John Dennis, the butt of many of Pope's most savage sarcasms,
but well equipped as a literary critic? , was the father of a very
1 The principal interest which, at the present day, attaches to this declamatory
performance is due to the engravings which were published with the play in 1673, and
which give a very good idea of the magnificence of the Dorset garden theatre, both
without and within.
2 His Three Letters on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare (1711) were written
E. L. VIII.
13
CH, VII.


## p. 194 (#216) ############################################

194
The Restoration Drama
numerous literary progeny, the dramatic section of which included
tragedies, comedies and a masque. But, though he borrowed with
equal freedom from Euripides, Tasso, and Shakespeare, his efforts
were almost uniformly unsuccessful. In the closing years of the
seventeenth century, he produced the comedy A Plot and No Plot
(1697), a satire on the Jacobites; and Rinaldo and Armida, a
tragedy founded on Tasso, played in 1699.
Of the seven plays written by John Banks, the most successful
were The Unhappy Favourite, or the Earl of Essex (1682) and
Vertue Betray'd, or Anna Bullen, also acted in 1682. He seems
to have been an admirer of Lee, and faithfully reproduced that
author's worst characteristics. Like Lee, he plundered the French
romances, and, in 1696, brought out a play taken from Le Grand
Cyrus. His forte, however, was melodrama based on English
history, and, in this field, he enjoyed a great popular success.
John Hughes belongs, in point of time, to the next period, but
his manner is emphatically that of the restoration. Besides the
operas Calypso and Telemachus (1712) and Apollo and Daphne
(1716), he wrote a piece called The Siege of Damascus, which was
produced on the day of the author's death (17 February 1720), and
was received with much approval. It owes much to D'Avenant's
The Siege (printed 1673); and its success, as well as that of Hughes's
other dramatic efforts, depends largely on the opportunities for
spectacular display which it affords. His plays, nevertheless,
show considerable power of construction, and are often forcibly
and picturesquely written.
George Granville, lord Lansdowne, besides a disastrous adap-
tation of The Merchant of Venice, produced, in 1696, the comedy
entitled The She-Gallants, and, in 1698, Heroick Love, a tragedy
sufficiently described by its composite title. Both these pieces
seem to have been successful. His last effort, an opera entitled
The British Enchanters, was produced by Betterton in 1706 and
well receivedl.
Edward Ravenscroft, though chiefly a writer of comedy, pro-
duced a tragicomedy called King Edgar and Alfreda (1677); and
a tragedy, The Italian Husband, acted 1697, and full of horrors.
It was probably suggested by a tale in Thomas Wright's The
Glory of God's Revenge against Murther and Adultery (1685).
in reply to Rymer, and are creditable to Dennis's perception of the greatness of
Shakespeare's tragic genius; his earlier critical works likewise deserve notice. His
disputes with Collier, Addison and Pope belong to the literary biographies of those
writers.
1 Cf. ante, p. 53 note.


## p. 195 (#217) ############################################

Lesser Tragic Dramatists. Nicholas Rowe 195
Mrs Aphra Behn, though principally known through the medium of
her comedies and novels, wrote several tragedies, the first of
which, Abdelazer, or the Moor's Revenge (1677), was altered from
Marlowe's Lust's Dominion? Mrs Manley, who achieved an un-
enviable reputation as a novelist, also produced several lurid
tragedies, of which the first, The Royal Mischief, appeared in 1696.
Thomas Rymer, author of The Tragedies of the Last Age (1678)
and of other critical work, in which he attacked the Elizabethan
tragic poets, chiefly on account of their failure to observe the
unities? , published, in 1678, one of the last rimed tragedies in
Edgar, or the English Monarch, which strictly observes the
classic rules.
J
Nicholas Rowe holds a unique position as forming a link be-
tween the late restoration dramatists and those of the Augustan
age. For, though all his plays were produced in the early years of
the eighteenth century, his work is thoroughly typical of the drama
at the close of the restoration period, and he is more at home with
Banks and Southerne than with the writers of the age of Pope.
Born in 1674, in comfortable circumstances, Rowe, in due
course, was called to the bar, but soon abandoned law in order to
devote himself wholly to literature. His first play, The Ambitious
Step-Mother, was produced, in 1700, at Lincoln's Inn fields by
Betterton, and was well received. It is one of the large group of
plays in which the scene is laid in conventionally 'eastern' sur-
roundings. This was followed by Tamerlane (1702), which,
as a drama, is ineffective; it has, however, a certain historic
interest, for Louis XIV, the author tells us, was satirised under
the name of Bajazet—the villain of the piece, while the high-
minded hero, a sort of Admirable Crichton among princes, and
much given to improving the occasion-was intended to personify
William III. It was revived yearly on 5 November, the anni-
versary of the landing of William of Orange, until 1815.
Rowe's next piece, The Fair Penitent (1703), proved one of
the most popular plays of its time. It is borrowed, as to plot,
from Massinger and Field's The Fatal Dowry (1632); but Rowe
greatly reduced the older play, omitted its force and flavour, and
deluged his version with a moral tone which is all his own. This
1 As to her comedies, see ante, pp. 140_2.
: A Short View of Tragedy appeared in 1693. Rymer was appointed historiographer-
royal in 1692, and published 15 volumes of his Foedera between 1704 and his death in
1713. Cf. post, vol. 17.
13-2


## p. 196 (#218) ############################################

196
The Restoration Drama
simple domestic drama, written, like Rowe's other tragedies, in
rather fluent blank-verse, met with extraordinary success and was
constantly before the public till 1825, or thereabouts. The author
promises in the prologue that 'you shall meet with sorrows like
your own. ' The public found that Rowe kept his word; and, to
this fact, and to the rather cheap appeal of the last act, with
its accumulated furniture of the charnel-house and the grave,
rather than to any depth of tragic power in the play, the lon-
gevity of the piece must be attributed. The 'haughty, gallant,
gay Lothario' of this tragedy has become a familiar synonym
for a heartless libertine, and was the model for Lovelace in
Richardson's Clarissa Harlowe. No play was more popular in
the eighteenth century? .
Rowe's solitary comedy, The Biter, produced in 1705, was a
failure. According to Johnson, the author's applause was the
only sound of approval heard in the theatre at its production.
It was succeeded by the tragedy Ulysses (1706), a tedious and
ineffective drama which lacks Rowe's usual strong appeal to the
pity of his audience. Neither this play nor The Royal Convert
(1707)very dull, with a background of mythical British history,
calls for special comment. Rowe's last two plays bear a strong
likeness to one another. The Tragedy of Jane Shore 'in imita-
tion of Shakespeare's style,' produced in 1714, has been said to bear
no closer resemblance to Shakespeare than is to be found in the
fact that like some of his plays it is based upon an episode in the
history of England. It is, however, a good acting play, which,
even now, has not entirely disappeared from the stage. It af-
forded Mrs Siddons one of her most tremendous opportunities for
realistic acting. As Jane Shore, drifting half-starved about the
streets of London, eye-witnesses report that the audience 'abso-
lutely thought her the creature perishing through want'-and
'could not avoid turning from the suffering object. '
In the following year (1715), Rowe succeeded Tate as poet
laureate and produced his last play, The Tragedy of the Lady
Jane Gray. This play, as well as its predecessor, and, to some
extent, Rowe's other dramatic works, display a certain nobility of
outlook and purity of purpose, in marked and refreshing contrast
1 Among the most interesting revivals were those by Garrick in 1743 and 1746,
when he played Lothario, and those of 1782 and subsequent years when Mrs Siddons,
as Calista, electrified her audiences, particularly in the scene with Horatio in the third
act, where he accuses her of being false to her husband and his friend, Altamont. In
1803, a revival of the play took place, when the cast included Mrs Siddons and both
the Kemble brothers.


## p. 197 (#219) ############################################

Nicholas Rowe
197
to the pruriency in which the English drama bad for half a
century been steeped. The unexceptionably moral and patriotic
tone of Rowe's last play, as well as its protestant spirit, affords a
very striking proof of the change that had come over the English
stage since the revolution and the publication of Jeremy Collier's
Short View.
.
Like Otway, Rowe attempted to move his audiences to pity
and terror; but, with few exceptions, his dramas leave us cold
and unmoved. He contrives situations with considerable skill,
but he generally fails to make his characters rise to them; nor do
they give vent to their feelings in language which is always either
touching in itself, or suitable to the surrounding circumstances.
His plays are the calm and finished performances of an author
who felt but faintly the emotions which he sought to portray, and
who, by the introduction of what he very aptly calls 'the pomp of
horror,' hoped to find his way to the feelings of his readers.
Criticism and the public taste, in fact, have alike moved far since
Johnson wrote of Rowe’s The Fair Penitent, 'There is scarcely
any work of any poet at once so interesting by the fable, and so
delightful by the language. ' He has, however, other claims to
the respect of posterity. Of the significance of his edition of
Shakespeare's works (1709), something has been said in an earlier
volume? ; while his translation of Lucan's Pharsalia, which was
first published as a whole in 1718 (shortly after his death), and
of which at least nine editions appeared between that date and
1822, is, probably, at the present day, his least forgotten work.
He also translated in verse Boileau's Lutrin (1708). Rowe was
an accomplished modern, as well as classical, scholar, and his
personality is one of dignity, as well as of interest, in the history
of English literature.
* See vol. V, chap. XI, pp. 267—8.


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CHAPTER VIII
THE COURT POETS
6
THE career of the Court Poets is an episode not merely in the
history of literature but in the history of manners. In their lives
as in their art, they were an outspoken protest against the domina-
tion of the puritans. Whatever their predecessors in their stern
morality had disdained, they pursued with a rare fervency of spirit.
The chief end of their ambition was to catch pleasure on the wing,
and they gave to pleasure a liberal interpretation. Gallantry was
not enough for them. No courtier could hope to win the approval
of his sovereign who had not given proof of his wit,' who had not
publicly burned incense before the muse of frivolity. So it came
about that, in Sedley's phrase, 'every fop wrote songs,' that few
refrained from libelling their friends in satire, and that a freedom
in written, as in spoken, speech matched the prevailing freedom of
thought and conduct
The court, in brief, cherished an ideal hitherto strange to
English austerity. It no longer took a keen interest in rival policies.
The bitter conflict of the civil war, followed by the domination of
Oliver, had obscured the spark of patriotism which burned only
in a few loyal hearts. The king and his courtiers were determined
to amuse themselves. They had learned in Paris how to temper
their magnificence with wit and politesse, and, in the glamour of
beauty and courage, they forgot the long, dark days when all
the decorative arts of life had been banished, when even the smile
of irony was deemed a disgrace. Charles II, a monarch to whom
most things were easy save wisdom, led the band of revellers,
preferred the ribaldry of Buckhurst and Sedley to the grave advice
of Arlington, sauntered away his days in the society of his
mistresses, and delighted in satire, even though it was directed
against himself. It was a golden age, truly, in which life seemed
desirable for its own sake, and in which nobody thought of its
drearier purpose.
Les plus honnêtes gens du monde, says


## p. 199 (#221) ############################################

The Circle of Whitehall 199
Saint-Évremond, ce sont les Français qui pensent, et les Anglais
qui parlent. And at Whitehall, which he graced by his presence
for many years, he might have encountered them both.
Such is one side of the medal. The reverse is less attractive.
If it were frivolity whose muse reigned in Whitehall, it was a
pompous frivolity. There was very little spontaneous gaiety in the
court of the returned king. The intention to be gay was so loudly
expressed that it seemed to come from the head rather than from
the heart. The sense of relief, the determination to be happy at
all costs, suggest that a spice of malice flavoured the joyousness of
the courtiers. In what they said and did there was no trace of the
golden mean. Their merriment was too often the merriment of
constraint. Rochester declares in one of his letters that it wasn't
safe for a man to leave the court, if he didn't want to be hanged.
The exploits set forth in the Mémoires de Gramont, are, so to say,
conscious of reaction. Their persistent monotony fatigues us who
read of them, as perchance they fatigued the courtiers who are
their heroes. The king and his friends were too flagrantly
industrious in the pursuit of pleasure. Gramont himself was not
content to rely upon his own graces for success. He wooed his
goddesses with 'gloves, pocket looking-glasses, elegant boxes,
apricot paste, essences, and other small wares of love. ' To be
jealous without being in love, to play for stakes so high that they
could not be paid without distress, to indulge in practical jokes
which had no better excuse than physical infirmity—these are not
the marks of happiness. They were the misfortunes of everyone
who came within the circle of Whitehall. The manners of the
time thus proved the best material for satire and comedy. There
was, perhaps, more joy in their contemplation than in their exercise.
Pepys, who lived on the fringe of the Court, was gay, because he
carried his indomitable gaiety into the simplest affairs of his life.
We can believe that there was a flash of genuine gaiety at Epsom,
when Nell Gwynn and Buckhurst ‘kept mery house' there. But
the pleasure of Charles II's court was marred by the inverse of
puritanism. It was austere even in its love-making.
At times, the courtiers broke through all the bonds of restraint.
They thought it no shame to commit acts of violence in the streets.
Once upon a time, Buckhurst and his friends killed a tanner at
Stoke Newington whom they suspected of theft, and whose pockets
they emptied, as of stolen goods. A far worse scandal was caused
by Sir Charles Sedley's amazing apparition at Oxford Kate's in
Bow street. He came in open day, as Pepys tells us,


## p. 200 (#222) ############################################

200
The Court Poets
into the Balconie and showed his nakedness. . . and abusing of scripture and
as it were from thence preaching a mountebank sermon from the pulpit,
saying that there he had to sell such a powder as should make all the women
run after him, 1,000 people standing underneath to see and hear him, and
that being done he took a glass of wine, and drank it off, and then took
another and drank the King's health.
It is not surprising that the unbridled conduct of Sir Charles
Sedley and of Buckhurst, who was of the company, came near to
causing a riot, brought the offenders before the court, and received
from the lord chief justice 'a most high reproof. ' The news of
these pranks, moreover, went abroad, and lost nothing, we may be
sure, in the telling. The voice of scandal was noisy and unscrupu-
lous, then as now; and, though it is evident that the 'wits' were
not innocent of brutality, it is unfair to judge all their lives by one
or two episodes. Hasty generalisation is ever the foe of truth, and
charges are more lightly made than refuted. No man, for instance,
was ever so careless of his reputation as Rochester, and even he
protests in a letter addressed to Savile against an unfounded
indictment. Accused of the same folly as that of which Sedley
and Buckhurst were guilty, he was eager in excuse.
'For the hideous deportment,' he writes, which you have heard of, concern-
ing running naked, so much is true, that we went into the river somewhat
late in the year, and had a frisk for forty yards in a meadow, to dry ourselves. '
The trivial adventure was instantly turned to his disgrace, and so
deeply sensible was he of the public contempt that he confessed
himself 'extremely revived at the receipt of a kind letter from an
old friend. ' 'I ever thought you an extraordinary man,' says he,
and must now think you such a friend, who, being a courtier, as
you are, can love a man, whom it is the great mode to hate. '
Nor was exaggeration the only foe of the wits. Many there
were, without a spark of talent, who imitated the vices of Rochester
and Sedley, and who, by their senseless extravagance, brought their
betters into contempt. When wit became a fashion, the fools
could ape it, and the poets have been compelled ever since to bear a
weight of unmerited odium. Pepys once strayed into the society of
these pretenders, and their talk made even his hard heart ache.
‘But, Lord! what cursed loose company was this,' says he, that I was
in to-night, though full of wit; and worth a man's being in once to
know the nature of it, and their manner of talk, and lives. ' Pepys's
curiosity no doubt got the better of his judgment, and the wit of
these men, who called themselves the 'Ballers,' was probably as
false as their pretence. They are memorable only because they did
the poets an injustice-an injustice which no less a man than


## p. 201 (#223) ############################################

Men of Action
201
Dryden has removed. None knew better than he their talents and
their lives, and he treated them as true Augustans, praising their
eruditam voluptatem.
“We have,' said he, like the poets of the Horatian age, our genial nights,
when our discourse is neither too serious nor too light, but always pleasant,
and for the most part instructive; the raillery neither too sharp upon the
present, nor too censorious on the absent, and the cups only such as will raise
the conversation of the night, without disturbing the business of the morrow. '
As in duty bound, he who had been admitted to these banquets of
wit and sense defended them against the detraction of pedants.
The wits, said he, were insulted by those who knew them not.
'As we draw giants and anthropophagi. '—to cite his words in those vacan-
cies of our maps, where we have not travelled to discover better, so those
wretches paint lewdness, atheism, folly, ill-reasoning, and all manner of
extravagances amongst us, for want of knowing what we are. '
It was not difficult to rebut precise charges. The wits, described
by the ignorant, were the fops whom Dryden and his friends
banished. As for blasphemy and atheism, even if they were not
ill manners, they were worn threadbare. In other words, the true
wits are blamed for the excesses of those who had never tasted the
waters of Helicon.
If the court poets needed a defence, they could not have
found a wiser, juster defence than Dryden's. But even when they
have been relieved of the crimes of which others were guilty, there
is another misunderstanding which should be dispelled. The
brutalities of Rochester, Buckhurst and Sedley were the brutalities
of a fierce, unscrupulous youth, and mere incidents in long and
honourable careers. To pretend that these courtiers carried their
pranks into a ripe old age is to endow them with perpetual strength
and high spirits. Rochester, it is true, died on the very threshold
of middle life. The rest grew sober with the years. Buckhurst
was presently transformed into a grave and taciturn man, well
versed in affairs, and entrusted, in William III's absence, with the
regency of the kingdom. Sedley, too, turned politician, was guilty
of 'reflections on our late proceedings and delivered speeches
upon ways and means. In brief, the court poets were like those
who, in other times, shared their talent and temperament. They
seized life with both hands, and wrung from it at each stage
whatever of varying ease and pleasure it held.
And they were men of action as well as men of letters. There
was scarcely one of them that had not taken arms in the service of
their country. They proved their gallantry on the field of battle
as on the field of love. In later years, a charge of cowardice was


## p. 202 (#224) ############################################

202
The Court Poets
brought against Rochester.