No More Learning

Some Daoist texts, however, were not written with the ''intention'' of hiding secret meanings. But as Daoism became more a discipline of study than a practice, the number of practitioners dwindled, and meanings that were once known among a large community of practitioners became ''hidden'' or lost. I think this is why certain sections of the Daode jing (especially the parts concerned with the arts of health and longevity) have become esoteric. I do not believe that these sections of the text contain dangerous knowledge; it is more likely that they contain lost knowledge.
It is known that the Daode jing was written by more than one person. Its contents clearly fall into four separate categories: statecraft and politics, the nature of reality (the Dao), sagehood, and the arts of health and longevity. The parts of the text concerned with statecraft and politics are relatively easy to understand. The sections on the nature of the Dao contain more cryptic references. This is probably because anything that we can say about the Dao can only be indirect: ''The way that can be spoken of is not the unchanging Way'' (chapter 1). The parts of the text concerned with sagehood are easily decipherable if we listen to them with a receptive mind; most of them offer practical advice on daily living. The portions of the text that deal with the arts of health and longevity are considered to be the most esoteric and the most
difficult to understand. Later in the chapter, I show that these esoteric pas- sages of the Daode jing can easily be deciphered by ''practice''.
Deciphering the Meaning of a Text with Practice
From the hermeneutical point of view, the subsurface semantics (and prag- matics) of a text can be uncovered by deconstruction, but hidden meanings can be revealed only by listening to the language of a text. To these two methods of deciphering a text I would like to add the use of ''practice''. ''Practice'' can be a powerful tool for recovering meanings that cannot be accessed by semantics or pragmatics or by listening to the language. Listening to the Daode jing can help us understand its teachings, but practice can help us to recover its lost meanings.
Understanding the Daode Jing from the Perspective of Practice
The goal of Daoist practice is to maintain a healthy body and a clear mind, to be free from stress and anxiety, and to live a contented and long life. To this end, Daoists advocate cultivating the mind by emptying it of desire, cultivating the body by filling it with life energy, and adopting a lifestyle of simplicity and quietude. We shall consider the Daode jing's teachings on each of these topics in turn.
The Daode jing on Cultivating the Mind
First we shall examine the Daode jing's teachings on cultivating the mind by listening to the language of the text.
According to the Daode jing, desire is the cause of poor health, anxiety, mental anguish, and the inability to live a happy and contented life. Desire is attachment. The desire for material things comes from attachment to objects or things in the world; the desire to be important, to be recognized, to achieve, and to be in control comes from attachment to the self.
Anxiety arises as a result of attachment to material things. We are anxious to get what we don't have and anxious about losing what we have. Desire can blind us to the distinction between needs and wants. Consequently, many people end up spending more time and effort accumulating possessions than enjoying them. And the more possessions they have, the more afraid they are of losing them. The Daode jing (chapter 44) says, ''If you have a lot of
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desire, you will probably be extravagant. The more you hoard, the more you will lose. ''
Attachment to material things can also affect the functioning of the senses. Instead of simply being things in the world, objects become attractive or unattractive (to the eyes), pleasant or unpleasant (to the ears), and pleasing or unpleasing (to the palate). When the senses become overstimulated, they become dull. When they become dull, they cease to function properly, and when they stop functioning, we become confused and disoriented. Moreover, if the senses are too preoccupied with objects of desire, they can no longer warn us of impending dangers. The Daode jing (chapter 12) says:
The five colors can confuse your sight.
The five sounds can dull your hearing.
The five flavors can injure your sense of taste.
Racing and hunting can drive you mad.
Material goods that are hard to get will hinder your movement.
Excessive excitement can be detrimental to health. Activities that pump up the adrenaline (such as racing and hunting) may give us a temporary ''high'', but since excitement cannot last forever, a ''high'' is always followed by a ''low''. This cyclical swing between excitement and the return to normal levels of stimulation is harmful to both physical and mental health because it does not give the mind and the body sufficient time to adjust to two extreme states of functioning.
Desire is not just directed toward material things. We can also desire immaterial things, such as knowledge, fame, achievement, and power. Ac- cording to the Daode jing, desire for knowledge can make thinking rigid and one-sided. This is because the pursuit of knowledge requires the mind to be oriented toward objects in the world, whether things, people, or ideas. If we place too much emphasis on knowing about the object-world, we will not be able to look inward and learn about ourselves. Chapter 33 of the Daode jing says:
To understand others is to be clever.
To understand yourself is to be enlightened. You can use force to conquer others.
But you will need strength to conquer yourself.
Let us listen to the language in this passage more closely. First, the text con- trasts ''clever'' (zhi) with ''enlightened'' (ming) to distinguish object-knowledge, which is associated with cleverness, from self-knowledge, which is associated with enlightenment. In Chinese, the word for cleverness, ''zhi,'' has connota- tions of ''know-how'' and ''knowledge gained by trickery. '' In fact, zhi is used
often with ''qu,'' as in zhiqu to mean using trickery and underhandedness to win. On the other hand, enlightenment is ''ming,'' which has the connotation of brightness. Thus, while cleverness can give us small gains and temporary knowledge, it is enlightenment (or self-knowledge) that can illuminate and guide us in our daily lives.
Second, the text contrasts ''force'' (li) with ''strength'' (qiang). ''Li'' has the connotation of brute force. Li has no intelligence and is incapable of admitting failure; it is like a bulldozer crashing against a wall. If the wall is weak, brute force will break it, but if the wall is strong, brute force will be ineffective. On the other hand, qiang has the connotation of inner strength. Qiang is intelli- gent; it recognizes its limits and is capable of accepting its own weakness. Thus, while force can give us temporary control of a situation, it is strength that allows us to evaluate the external situation, understand ourselves, and act accordingly.
A more subtle form of desire is the desire for self-importance. The desire for self-importance is associated with the desire to achieve and to be recog- nized. According to the Daode jing, the notion of ''achievement'' is created by us so that we can give importance to our actions. When insects procreate, flowers bloom, and water nourishes the soil, they do not consider their ac- tions as ''achievements''. In contrast, humanity has transformed ''action'' into ''achievement'', and in doing so, we have given ourselves a false sense of self- respect as well as distanced ourselves from the natural way of things. Of self- importance, the Daode jing (chapter 24) says:
Those who boast are not rooted.
Those who inflate themselves will get nowhere.
Those who display themselves do not shine.
Those who publicize their actions accomplish nothing. Those who praise themselves do not last long.
The words ''boast,'' ''inflate,'' ''display,'' ''publicize,'' and ''praise'' describe dif- ferent ways of distorting reality. To boast is to distort by adding personal opin- ions: the choice to emphasize particular actions is also the choice to omit others. To inflate is to distort by making something appear more important than it really is. To display is to distort by making one thing more prominent than others. To publicize is to distort by making one thing more obvious than others: the choice to make one thing known is also the choice to render certain things unknown. Finally, to praise is to distort by giving a favorable opinion: to praise oneself is to boast behind a veil of modesty.
The desire to achieve often leads people to do heroic and stupid things that can hurt or kill them. The Daode jing (chapter 73) says, ''If you are brave
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and daring, you'll be killed. However, if you are brave and not daring, you'll survive. ''
Here the words ''brave'' (yong) and ''daring'' (gan) are used jointly to define the meaning of courage. The contrast is not between ''brave'' and ''daring,'' but between ''brave and daring'' and ''brave and not daring. '' ''Yong'' is a state of mind, and ''gan'' is a display of courage. Thus, to be ''brave and daring'' is to act like a hero with reckless disregard for consequences. We can think of gan as dumb courage. To be ''brave and not daring'' is to take the appropriate and necessary action after assessing the situation.
People who are brave and daring will usually find it hard to yield, because for them, to yield is to be cowardly. Thus, they would rather forfeit their lives than retreat. However, people who are brave and not daring will know when to yield, and in yielding, they will survive.
The desire to be in control makes people want to interfere, believing that they can make things happen or not happen. However, since we cannot control everything, to believe that we are in control only gives us a false sense of security, a security that is shattered when things do not turn out the way we expect them to. Thus, if we believe that we are in control, we will likely be sad, frustrated, irritated, and disappointed if things go wrong. However, if we accept that there are certain things that we cannot control, we will be better prepared when situations turn aversive.
Sometimes we can actually make things worse by trying to interfere and make them happen. Chapter 64 of the Daode jing says:
Those who act on it will ruin it. Those who hold on to it will lose it. The sage does not act upon things, Therefore he does not ruin them. He does not hold on to things, Therefore he does not lose them.
In this passage we find the famous contrast between ''action'' (wei) and ''non- action'' (wuwei). ''Wei'' is the act of interfering. By acting upon something, we modify and transform it. On the other hand, wuwei is the act of not-interfering. By not-acting on something, we let it run its natural course and do not interfere with its natural tendencies. Wuwei does not mean ''doing nothing''; rather, it means acting appropriately according to the natural way of things. If wuwei had meant doing nothing, then the text would have said ''those who act,'' not ''those who act on it. '' The Daode jing does not teach us to do nothing. Rather, it tells us to abstain from actions whose ends are to manipulate and to control.
To hold on to something is to be attached to it. In Chinese, the word for ''hold'' (zhi) also means to grasp, and to grasp means not to let go. If we cannot let go of things, ideas, and even relationships, we will always be anxious about gains and losses. There is a Chinese phrase that describes the meaning of ''letting go'' most aptly: ''to be able to pick it up and to be able to put it down. ''
The Daode jing not only describes the causes of ill health, anxiety, and the inability to live a happy and contented life. It also teaches us how to overcome desire by cultivating a mind that is free of attachments. One way to cultivate the mind is to change our attitude toward ourselves and toward things in the world. In Daoist practice, decreasing self-importance, knowing our limits, learning to yield, practicing noninterference, and living a simple life are all part of the discipline called ''taming the mind. '' Another way to cultivate the mind is to change it from being centered on itself to being centered on nothing. The practice of emptying the mind of thoughts through silence is part of the dis- cipline called ''stilling the mind. '' While the practice of ''taming the mind'' is typically integrated into everyday living and does not require formal supervi- sion, the practice of ''stilling the mind'' requires rigorous training and formal instruction. Today, the techniques of ''stilling the mind'' are collectively known as ''meditation. ''
In taming the mind, we must first dissolve the desire for material things. However, Daoism does not promote deprivation or even asceticism. Rather, it teaches us to live in moderation and understand the difference between wants and needs. The Daode jing (chapter 29) says, ''The sage rejects the extreme, the extravagant, and the excessive. '' To be moderate is not to live in extremes; to live simply is not to be extravagant; and to live contently is not to indulge in excessiveness. If the Daode jing had favored asceticism, it would have en- dorsed hardship and told us to abandon all comforts in life.
Second, we need to minimize self-importance. This means doing things out of necessity and not for praise and recognition. In fact, we need to un- derstand that ''achievement'' and ''accomplishment'' are the creations of a self- centered mind, and that in this world there are only appropriate and inap- propriate actions. Pulling someone out of a burning house is not a heroic act or an achievement; it is the natural and appropriate thing to do given the situation. Of decreasing self-importance and self-centeredness, chapter 30 of the Daode jing says:
The sage produces results and does not brag about it. He produces results and does not praise himself for it. He produces results and does not boast about it.
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He produces results because that's what he would do. And he gets things done without using any force.
It is interesting to note that in the text, the word ''guo,'' which I have translated as ''produces results,'' is used to describe the actions of the sage. Guo's original and literal meaning is ''fruit. '' Therefore, guo means actions that yield fruits, results, or effects. The sage ''produces results'' with his actions and understands that it is the fruit of the action, not the actor, that is important.
Third, in taming the mind, we need to know our limits and not indulge in excesses. The Daode jing (chapter 44) says, ''Know when to stop, and you will be around for a long time. '' All things have their limits. The key to health and longevity is in knowing when something is excessive, be it eating, drinking, walking, sitting, sleeping, or thinking. Excessive eating and drinking damage the bowels; excessive walking damages the tendons; excessive sitting and sleeping damage the bones; and excessive thinking tires the mind. If the ac- tivities in our daily life are balanced, then mind and body will be balanced and healthy.
Fourth, we need to let go of the desire to interfere and to be in control. Chapter 2 of the Daode jing says:
The sage attends to the affairs of non-action and practices wordless teachings.
The ten thousand things are set in motion but he is not their agent. He gives birth to them but does not hold on to them.
He finishes his tasks but is not attached to them.
He retires when the work is done.
If we understand that we are not the prime mover of events, and that many things are better off when they are left to run their natural course, we will be less prone to interfere or try to take control. The less we see ourselves as the center of things, the less we will be entangled in the affairs of others, and the less we will bring trouble and unnecessary worries into our lives.
Apart from changing attitudes and incorporating the changes into their daily lives, Daoist practitioners also use meditation to empty the mind of thoughts and desire. The passages that describe the techniques of ''stilling the mind'' (or meditation) are found in chapters 10 and 36. The meanings in these passages, I think, are best deciphered by ''practice. '' There are three lines in chapter 10 that allude to three different forms of Daoist meditation. The first line reads, ''In nourishing the soul--can you embrace the One and not let it leave? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation known as ''Holding or Embracing the One. '' Holding or Embracing the One means keeping the undifferentiated
energy of the Dao within. We are born with the primordial energy of the Dao, and this energy is kept within us by our spirit. However, desire and attach- ment to things in the world can lead the spirit away by drawing it toward the objects of desire. When the spirit departs, we can no longer keep the pri- mordial energy within, and when the primordial energy leaves, we will be- come ill. A commentary on the Daode jing by Heshang Gong, believed to have been written in the Han dynasty (third century b. c. e. to third century c. e. ), states, ''If people can hold onto the spirit and unite it with the One, they will not die. ''
To keep the spirit within so that it can hold on to the primordial energy of the Dao, the practitioner first slows the thoughts and stills the mind until no mental activity is present. Physical stillness is recommended but not neces- sary; the mind can be still when one is walking. Once stillness is attained, the undifferentiated energy of the Dao can be held and gathered to nourish the body and clear the mind.
The second line reads, ''In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant? '' There is a form of Daoist meditation that uses techniques of circulating and regulating breath to cultivate physical health and mental clarity. Daoists believe that breath sustains life by circulating energy in the body. Thus, proper breathing can enhance health and longevity.
This passage refers to a form of breathing in Daoist practice that is known as ''infant breathing. '' Infant breathing involves synchronizing abdominal movement with inhalation and exhalation. It is soft and slow and is never forced or controlled by conscious thoughts. The Daode jing (chapter 55) states, ''If the mind were to control the breath, this would be forcing things. '' When we can breathe like an infant, energy in the body will be replenished and we will be rejuvenated.
Abdominal breathing itself is deep breathing. In this form of breath- ing, the air is allowed to sink into the belly before it is exhaled. Abdominal breathing requires much diaphragmatic action and the internal organs must be pliable enough to move out of the way when the diaphragm presses down during inhalation. Modern practitioners of the Daoist arts incorporate the techniques of circulating and regulating breath into a discipline called qigong (which literally means ''the work of breath and energy''). Fetal or infant breathing is the most advanced stage of qigong, and it can be practiced only after many years of training.
The third line reads, ''In cleaning the subtle mirror--can you make it spotless? ''
There is a form of Daoist meditation that is designed to empty the mind of desire by stopping thoughts. The subtle mirror is the mind, which when
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cleaned (that is, emptied), can see through the illusions of desire. The image of the mind as a mirror and the metaphor of cleaning it are used also by the Chan (Zen) Buddhists (who were influenced by Daoism) to describe the process of stopping the thought processes and recovering the original empty mind.
Today, this form of Daoist meditation is practiced widely by members of the Complete Reality (quanzhen) School of Daoism, who believe that the mind must be emptied of thoughts and desire before the techniques of rejuvenating the body can be practiced.
Another form of meditation practiced by Daoists is ''Internal Observa- tion'' (dingguan or neiguan). The principles behind this form of meditation are described in chapter 36 of the Daode jing:
If you want to get rid of it, you must cooperate with it.
If you wish to take something away from it, you must contribute to it.
Internal observation requires the practitioner to use the mind to subdue the mind. In this form of meditation, one observes the rise and fall of sensations, emotions, thoughts, and desires, becoming mindful that such phenomena are products of an active mind that is attached to desire. Internal observation encourages the use of ''productive'' mental activity (mindfulness) to conquer ''wayward'' mental activity.
Productive mental activity is the mindful activity that analyzes the rise and fall of thoughts and sensations and eventually understands the futility of attachment. On the other hand, wayward mental activity is thinking that is directed toward objects of desire. To use productive mental activity to defeat wayward mental activity is what is meant by ''getting rid of it by cooperating with it'' and ''taking it away by contributing to it. ''
The Daode jing on Cultivating the Body
Daoists believe that health and longevity are intimately linked to the level of energy in the body. When we were in our mother's womb, we were nourished by the primordial energy of the Dao. After we are born, the contact with that primordial energy is lost. From then on, any energy spent can no longer be replenished by this inexhaustible source. With growth, puberty, and maturity, energy continues to be spent as we think, desire, and have sex. The more we indulge in these activities, the faster the energy will dissipate. The faster the energy dissipates, the faster we will age. When the body does not have enough energy to heal its injuries or protect itself from diseases, we will become weak and ill. When the energy is completely spent, we will die.
Chapter 13 of the Daode jing says:
The reason why I have a problem
Is because I have a body.
If I had no body, then all my problems would go away.
Although Daoists believe that the body is the root of the problem of ill health, they do not believe that it is ''evil'' or ''extraneous. '' The body is the source of the problem only because it is where desire originates. Daoists do not deny the body. If they had believed in the denial of the body, they would not have developed techniques to nourish it.
Desire damages health, because when energy is spent on satisfying wants, it cannot be used to nourish the body. The Daode jing (chapter 44) puts this choice between health and desire very bluntly:
Fame or your body, which do you want more?
Your Body or your wealth, which do you value more?
Energy can also dissipate through openings in the body. The mouth, for example, is an area of the body where energy can leak out. This is why the Daode jing (chapter 5) says, ''Talk too much and you'll be exhausted. '' Speaking is an activity that can cause energy to escape from the body. This is because two major channels of energy in the body (the du and ren meridians) connect at the palate of the mouth. If we close the mouth, the channels are connected and energy is kept within the body. If we open the mouth, the two meridians are disconnected and an opening has been created for the energy to escape. Therefore, maintaining silence and speaking only when necessary can help us conserve energy.
One technique used by Daoists to cultivate health and longevity involves blocking the openings to prevent the energy from flowing out of the body. Consider this passage from chapter 52 of the Daode jing:
Block the holes and close the doors,
And you will not be labored all your life. Open the holes and meddle in affairs, And all your life you will never be saved.
Blocking the holes and closing the doors mean closing the orifices of the body so that energy does not leak out. The orifices are the mouth, the nostrils, the anus, and the sexual organs. (The ears are not considered orifices because the eardrum is a physical barrier. ) If these openings are not blocked, energy will escape out of the body.
To prevent the leakage of energy, Daoists have developed techniques to block the four openings. To block the orifice at the mouth, we minimize speech
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and keep the tongue against the palate. To block the orifice at the nose, we soften the breath and breathe with the diaphragm. To block the orifice at the anus, we sit and sleep in postures designed to cover that opening. And to pre- vent the energy from escaping through the sexual organs, Daoists use special techniques to conserve and control the expenditure of energy during sexual intercourse. These techniques are called ''bedchamber techniques'' and are also recognized by the classics of traditional Chinese medicine such as The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine (Huangdi neijing suwen) and The Spiritual Pivot (Lingshu) as methods of conserving energy and cultivating health.
Another way to cultivate energy is to refine it. Chapter 10 of the Daode jing says:
In circulating the breath and making it soft--can you do it like that of an infant?
In opening and closing the celestial gates, can you become the female?
The circulation and regulation of breath can help us to cultivate and refine energy. Using the appropriate techniques, mundane breath (the air we inhale) can be transmuted and purified into primordial and pristine energy. Fetal and abdominal breathing (described earlier) are examples of how this process of transmutation can be accomplished.
In the transmutation of breath (qi) into energy (qi), the timing of the cycles of inhalation and exhalation is critical. During inhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are opened to allow the outside air to enter. During exhalation, the ''valves'' along the energy channels are closed to keep the purified energy within while the impurities are expelled. The ''valves'' along the energy chan- nels are called the ''celestial gates'' (tianmen), and the energy circuit inside the body is called the ''celestial'' or ''royal'' pathway (huang Dao). The more com- mon name for this pathway is the Microcosmic Orbit (xiaozhoutian).
Energy spent is energy lost if it is not replenished. One way to replenish energy is to gather it from a source that has an inexhaustible supply. This source is referred to as the ''valley spirit'' and the ''mysterious female. '' Chapter 6 of the Daode jing says:
The valley spirit does not die.
It is called the mysterious female.
The gates of the mysterious female Are the roots of the sky and the earth. Lasting and existing forever,
It cannot be exhausted.
The ''valley spirit'' refers to the exhaustible energy of the female that has the power to nourish and give birth. That is why it ''does not die. '' Daoists call it the procreative or generative energy, and to be able to gather this energy is to renew life. Procreative energy in both men and women is considered ''female'' energy because, being liquid and formless, it is said to have a ''yin'' nature. It is referred to as the ''mysterious female'' because it is hidden and emerges only when aroused. The primordial energy of the Dao, which is the source of things, is manifested in the procreative energy that is present in all living things. This generative energy is called the ''roots of the sky and earth'' be- cause both sky and earth are said to have been created from the copulation of the yin and yang components of the primordial energy of the Dao. Daoists believe that if we can arouse procreative energy and then draw it back into the body, we will be revitalized and rejuvenated. Chapter 55 describes a person who is filled with procreative energy:
Although his bones are weak and his tendons soft,
His grasp is firm.
He does not understand the copulation of male and female, Yet his organ can be aroused.
This is because his generative energy is at its height.
He can scream all day and not become hoarse.
This is because his harmony is at its height.
The Daode jing on Lifestyle
The techniques of cultivating the mind and body should be accompanied by a lifestyle that complements them. Otherwise, what is cultivated in meditation or qigong will be lost in daily living.
First, the Daode jing advises practitioners to live a simple contented life, to be moderate in all activities, and not to be involved with worldly affairs. Chapter 9 says:
Even if your rooms are filled with gold and jade, You will not be able to protect them.
Pride and arrogance invite disaster.
When your work is done, you should retire. That is the way of Heaven.
If we do not have many possessions, we will not have to worry about losing them. If we are not famous, we will have less trouble in life. Famous people are scrutinized and investigated; on the other hand, unknown people are left
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to live a peaceful life. In a world where many are trapped by fame, fortune, approval, and greed, those who hide their skills are the ones who survive.
Second, the Daode jing recommends that practitioners live a quiet life. An overinquisitive mind and overactive body can be detrimental to health as well as be an obstacle to enlightenment. Knowledge is not equivalent to enlight- enment. Whereas knowledge is involved with knowing about the world and is directed outward, enlightenment is insight into oneself and is directed in- ward. If we do not understand this difference, obsessive pursuit of knowledge can cost us insight into ourselves. Chapter 47 of the Daode jing says:
You don't need to leave your home to know the world.
You don't need to look out of your window to see the celestial way Because the farther you go, the less you'll know.
Therefore the sage does not need to travel to know.
He does not need to see to name.
And he does not need to do to accomplish.
Finally, the Daode jing advises the practitioner to learn to accept the natural course of things. Accepting the way of things does not mean that we should believe in fate. Rather, it means that we should understand that we cannot control everything. If we try to make things happen or not happen, we will only bring trouble into our lives. Chapter 16 of the Daode jing says:
To return to the roots is to be still.
To be still is to accept your destiny.
To accept your destiny is to know what is constant and unchanging. If you know what is constant, you are wise.
If you don't know what is constant, your actions will bring you
misfortune.
The sage accepts the natural way of things because he understands the ''constant. '' ''Constant'' (chang) means ''unchanging,'' and to understand the ''constant'' is to understand both the changing and the unchanging aspects of the Dao. It is this ability to distinguish between that which can be changed and that which cannot be changed that allows the sage to embrace life and accept death.
Conclusions
For practitioners, the value of a text lies in its use. Can the Daode jing be used as a guide to living a healthy and long life? I believe the answer is ''yes. '' For
over two thousand years, the Daode jing has influenced the Chinese arts and sciences of cultivating health and longevity. Today, its teachings on cultivating mind and body can be found in the practice of Chinese medicine, meditation, qi gong, and martial arts. Do the teachings of the Daode jing work? I think this question is best answered by practice. From my experience, they do.
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? Imagine Teaching the Daode Jing!
Judith Berling, Geoffrey Foy, and John Thompson
The invitation to participate in this volume arrived while the three of us were working our way through the Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi has a way of challenging readers to imagine manifold viewpoints. Perhaps he inspired us. Although the three of us have different teaching back- grounds, we share a passion for teaching texts such as the Daode jing. We began a seriously playful conversation about teaching this text. We both expanded and honed our initial ideas as we learned from and with one another.
The three approaches we suggest represent three particular embodiments of the pedagogical strategies we explored. They have in common two basic moves: (1) an exercise in which students reflect and comment on their initial experience of and response to the text, and (2) an exercise to engage students with the text imagina- tively, creatively, and constructively. The three particular approaches are complementary ways of implementing these principles. It is our hope that three options will inspire our readers to imagine cre- ative approaches to teaching the Daode jing that will suit them and their students.
Letting the Daode Jing Teach
Most Chinese texts clearly situate themselves, providing not only an author but the date, place, and circumstances of their origins.
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They fairly plead to be taught as the reflections of a specific person in a spe- cific historical context. The Daode jing is an exception to this rule, its author shrouded in a dense mist of questionable traditions. Although we have some sense of the period in which the book was produced, the Old Master (Laozi) to whom it is attributed remains a figure of controversy and legend; the more one pursues his historical origins, the more one is convinced that the party or parties behind this remarkable book chose to remain obscure. The hiddenness of the author coincides well with the teachings of the book: avoiding fame, unlearning, and leading by nondoing. I seek to honor the text by letting it teach itself, as far as possible. That is, I teach the text by allowing the students to learn from it for themselves.
The Daode jing is difficult to teach satisfactorily in a lecture mode, but it offers wonderful possibilities for student engagement and reflection. A careful setup by an instructor to give the students a feel for the text and its inter- locutors and then to highlight central themes and images can yield very successful self-learning experiences for students, alone and in small groups.
Some contextualization is required to engage students fruitfully with the text. Situating the Daode jing is best accomplished if the text is taught in a course or a unit that deals with classical Chinese thought. In that case, the context of late Zhou China will already have been introduced, with its lively debate over the foundation of a strong and stable government. Those vying for positions as political advisors competed by offering ''better ideas. '' Prevailing wisdom held that the sine qua nons of a strong state were keen understanding of political and military institutions, crafty political scheming, skilled negoti- ation, and strong legal and military strategies. 1 The other classical philosoph- ical and religious positions, which came to define Chinese cultural discourse, all arose in contradistinction to the prevailing view. The Daode jing was one of those countervailing voices. It was also a counter to the opposition voice of the early Confucians, who argued for reestablishment of civic virtues and rituals of propriety as the key to establishing a strong stable society.
If these broader themes have already been introduced, then the Daode jing, in responding to that context, will virtually speak for itself. If not, then I create an exercise to identify the rhetorical opponents of the book. In what follows I assume that the Daode jing is being taught in isolation, although recognizing that such isolation is the exception, not the general rule.
In my experience, teaching the Daode jing requires at least two or three class sessions. This is because the book requires some getting used to by the students. Moreover, it takes time for students to move from passive responses (What is this book like/about? ) to more constructive responses (How would nonaction work in my life? ).
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The first assignment is a get-acquainted reading. Students read the book from beginning to end, reflecting on the following questions: How would you characterize the book? What was it like to read? Did you perceive any threads of continuity? What response(s) did the book draw from you? Who were the targets of criticism in the book? I facilitate responses to this last question by highlighting a few chapters for special comment. Given these chapters, what would you say is the primary target of this book's teaching? What errors is it trying to address? 2
Subsequent assignments build on the first. I take the poetic language and the suggestive imagery of the book as its teaching device and group chapters along such themes and images (Dao, water, the uncarved block, the female, the infant; nondoing, the power and virtue of Dao [de], the Daoist ruler/sage/ master). 3 The first five pertain to the nature and movements of Dao, the second three to human activity based on the Dao. There is, of course, considerable overlap between these two groupings. I ask students to read and think about the themes and images offered in these grouped chapters. Each student is asked to select a theme (a group of chapters) and write a brief reflection paper (one to three pages long). That paper is used as the basis of small group discussions in the next class period. Each group becomes expert on a theme or image in the Daode jing. The small groups report back their reflections to the larger class, thereby becoming teachers of the book. If time allows, the two subgroups (images of Dao and humans modeling themselves on the Dao) can be separate class sessions.
Although the experience of inviting class members to become interpret- ers and teachers of the Daode jing is the primary goal of my teaching strategy, I also include an exercise for constructive reflection focused on nondoing or the ruler/sage who leads and teaches by nonaction. My experience is that undergraduates who have spent a little time with this text begin to ask very challenging and probing questions, questions that are not easy to answer. The difficulty of the questions posed has led me to lead a plenary discussion on these questions; as a teacher, I can acknowledge the profound challenge of questions raised and help the class negotiate the difficult path of addressing them. Shortly after several undergraduates had died in drinking and driving accidents, one class asked whether a Daoist would let a friend drive drunk. Is there any way to intervene without violating the premises of nonaction? An- other asked, ''What would a Daoist do if his or her child were being threatened with bodily harm? ''
These are extremely difficult questions. If the Daode jing is taught in a unit on classical Chinese thought, the teacher has the option (or escape route) of asking the class whether Confucians would have a more satisfying response
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to such dilemmas. This question raises the important issue of the relationship of Confucianism and Daoism. Although Westerners tend to construct these two streams of thought as competing and exclusive, the Chinese viewed them as complementary options. If the Daode jing is taught in isolation, I lead the class to the best possible Daoist response to such difficult moral conundrums. My classes have delighted me with their ability, after just two or three sessions with the Daode jing, to raise and wrestle collectively with difficult Daoist moral questions. I have been more successful with this text than with any other at engaging undergraduates not only in interpretation, but also in constructive response.
The Daode jing is genuinely a paradoxical text. On the one hand, it is difficult because it is hard to pin down historically and to summarize as a clear-cut position. On the other hand, its poetic language and richly suggestive images invite interpretation and reflection, drawing readers into the vision of the text, inviting them to try on an alternative approach to life. True to its own philosophy, the Daode jing teaches itself with some prior setup by the teacher.
Gender and the Daode Jing
The Daode jing can also be taught by using gender as a framework of explora- tion. There are several ways of conceptualizing gender as a teaching frame- work. I discuss one of them here.
I begin with the language and meaning of polarity as represented in the dialectic of yin and yang, the cosmic principles that produce and sustain crea- tion in its harmony. This yin-yang polarity is basic to understanding the cosmic dimensions of the Dao. One way we witness the existence of the Dao is through the activity of yin and yang as manifested in polar opposites, such as being/ nonbeing, action/nonaction, luminous/shadowy, hot/cold, up/down, right/ left, male/female. A class session directly or indirectly dealing with the last relationship (male/female) presents a viable approach to the text by engaging students in a familiar issue: women's and men's experience in culture. Gran- ted, gender is a culturally conditioned construct and its representations in culture are enigmatic. Nevertheless, its ambiguity is the very characteristic that lends itself to be a useful heuristic. As Caroline Walker Bynum suggests in her introduction to Gender and Religion, gender-related symbols are ''polysemic''; they possess a variety of meanings that concurrently engender manifold ques- tions. With this perspective in mind, students not only investigate issues con- cerning the text itself, but they also examine issues concerning the context of
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the text and their own interpretations of it. The matter of students' interpre- tations deserves more attention here.