)
Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician author, who, if the
fragments of bis works that have reached us be genu-
ne, and if such a person ever existed, must be re-
garded as the most ancient writer of whom we have
>ny knowledge after Moses.
Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician author, who, if the
fragments of bis works that have reached us be genu-
ne, and if such a person ever existed, must be re-
garded as the most ancient writer of whom we have
>ny knowledge after Moses.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
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hathitrust.
org/access_use#pd-google
? SAM
SAM
? "eibolt, and placed in the infernal regions near his
brother Sisyphus. --Consult, in explanation of this le-
gend, the article Elicius, p. 467, col. 1, near the end.
[Horn. , Od. , 11, 235-- ApoUod , 1, 9. --Hygin. ,fal. ,
60 -- Virg. , JEn. , 6, 5, 86. )
Salmydessos (ZafyvdnooSf), or, as the later Greek
and the Latin writers give the name, Halmydessus ('A A-
Kvdyvcoc), a city of Thrace, on the coast of the Eux-
ir. e, below the promontory of Thynias. The name
properly belonged to the entire range of coast from
the Thynian promontory tr '. he mouth of tho Bospo-
rus. And it was this port. on of the coast in particu-
lar that obtained for the Euxine its earlier name of
Azr. nos, or " inhospitable. " The shore was rendered
dangerous by shallows and marshes; and when any
vessels, either through want of skill or the violence
of the wind, became entangled among these, the Thra-
cian inhabitants poured down upon them, plundered
the cargoes, and made the inhabitants slaves. In
their eagerness to obtain the booty, quarrels often
arose among the petty tribes in this quarter, and hence
came eventually the singular custom of marking out
the shore with stones, as so many limits within which
each were to plunder. (Xen. , Anab. , 7, 6. ) Strain)
names the Astoe as the inhabitants of this region,
whose territory reached to the north as far as Apollo-
nia. The Thyni, no doubt, are included under this
name. The republic of Byzantium put an end to this
system of plunder. --The modern Midjeh answers to
the ancient city of Salmydessus. (Mela, 2, 2. --
Plin. , 4, 11. --Diod. Sic. , 14, 38. --Mannert, Geogr. ,
rol. 7, p. 149 )
Salon, now Salona, the principal harbour of Dal-
matia, and always considered as an important post by
the Romans after their conquest of that country. Pliny
styles it a colony (3, 22), which is confirmed by vari-
ous inscriptions. (Gruter. , TAes. ,32, 12. ) The name
is sometimes written Sslona and Salonae. (Cat. , B.
<? . , 3, 9. --Hirt. , B. Alex. , 43. ) It was not the na-
tive place of the Emperor Dioclesian, as is commonly
supposed. That monarch was born at Diodes, in its
vicinity; and to this quarter he retired after be had
abdicated the imperial power. Here he built a splen-
did palace, the ruins of which arc still to be seen at
Spalalro, about three miles from Salona. (Wesscl-
mg, ad. Itin. Anton. , p. 270. --Adam's Antiquities of
Spalalro. --Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 36. )
SkLvilNus, a native of Colonia Agrippina {Co-
logne), one of the early fathers of the Christian Church.
He led a religious life at Massilia during the greater
part of the 5th century, and died in that city. Salvian
was the author of several works on devotional sub-
jects, of which there are yet extant a treatise "on
the Providence of God" (De gubernatione Dei, dec),
in eight books; another in four books, written
"Against avarice, especially in priests and clerical
persons'," and nine pastoral letters. His works, as
far as they remain, were collected and printed to-
gether, in two volumes 8vo, by Haluzius, Paris, 1663.
Sautes, a people of Gaul, extending from the
Rhone, along the southern bank of the Druentia or
Durance, almost to the Alps. They were powerful
opponents to the Greeks of Massilia. (Lit. , 5, 34. )
Samara, a river of Gaul, now called the Somme.
The name of this stream in intermediate geography
was Sttmina or Sumcna, corrupted into Somona;
whence the modern appellation. (Vid. Samarobriva. )
? ? Samaria, a city and country of Palestine, famous
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? SAMNITES.
SAM
imbitious and rising nation, rendered confident by their
successes over the Tuscans and the Oscans of Cam-
pania; and formidable not only from their own re-
sources, but also from the ties of consanguinity which
connected them with the Frentani, Vestini, Peligui, and
other hardy tribes of Central Italy. The rich and fer-
tile territory of Campania was then the nominal object
of the contest which ensued, but in reality they fought
for the dominion of Italy, and consequently that of the
world; which was at stake so long as the issue of the
war was doubtful. Livy seems to have formed a just
vlea of the importance of that struggle, and the fierce
obstinacy with which it was carried on, when he pauses
in the midst of his narrative, in order to point out the
unwearied constancy with which the Samnites, though
to often defeated, renewed their efforts, if not for em-
pire, at least for freedom and independence (10, 32).
But when that historian recounts an endless succession
of reverses sustained by, this nation, attended with
losses which must have quickly drained a far greater
population, it is impossible to avoid suspecting him of
considerable exaggeration and repetition; especially
as several campaigns are mentioned without a single
distinct fact or topographical mark to give reality and
an appearance of truth to the narrative. Nor is Livy
always careful to point out the danger which not un-
'jequently threatened Rome on the part of these for-
nidable adversaries. It is true that he relates with
great beauty and force of description the disaster
which befell the Roman arms at the defiles of Caudi-
fiin; but has he been equally explicit in laying before
his readers the consequences of that event, which not
only opened to the victorious Samnites the gates of
several Volscian cities, but exposed a great portion of
Latium to be ravaged by their troops, and brought
them nearly to the gates of RomeT (Lin. , 9, 12. --
Compare Strabo, 232, 249. ) In fact, though often at-
tacked in their own territory, we as often find the
Samnite legions opposed to their inveterate foes in
Apulia, iu the territories of the Volsci and Hernici,
ind even in those of the Umbrians and Etruscans.
(Lit? . , 10. ) Admirably trained and disciplined, they
executed the orders of their commanders with the
greatest alacrity and promptitude; and such was the
warlike spirit of the whole population, that they not
unfrequently brought into the field 80,000 foot and
8000 horse. (Strabo, 259. ) A victory over such a
foe might well deserve the honours of a triumph; and
when the Romans had at length, by repeated successes,
established their superiority, they could then justly lay
claim to the title of the first troops in the world. But
though the Samnites were often overmatched and
finally crushed by the superior conduct and power
of the Romans, it is evident that the spirit of inde-
pendence still breathed strong in their hearts, and
waited but for an opportunity to display itself. Thus,
when Pyrrhus raised his standard in the plains of
Apulia, the Samnite bands swelled his ranks, and
seemed rather to strengthen the forces of that prince
than to derive assistance from hi>>army. Nor did they
neglect the occasion which presented itself, on the ap-
pearance of Hannibal in their country, for shaking off
the Roman yoke, but voluntarily offered to join him in
the field against the common enemy. (Lin. , 23, 42. )
Rome had already triumphed over Carthage, Macedon,
and Antiochus, and was regarded as mistress of the
world, when a greater danger than any she had before
? ? encountered threatened her dominion in Italy, and
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? SAMOS
SAM
o. ycrates ) Atler the death of this luler, the govern-
ment was held for some time by Mceandrius, his sec-
retary; but he was expelled by the troops of Darius,
who placed on the throne Syloson, the brother of Po-
lycrates, on account of some service he had rendered
him in Egypt, when as yet he was but a private per-
son, (litrod , 3, 140. ) Strabo reports, that the yoke
at' this it i tyrant pressed more heavily on the Salm-
ans thai, that of Polycrates, and that, in consequence,
the island became nearly deserted, whence arose the
proverb, "E/ci/rt ~Zv\oauvroc evovx^pi-v- (Strab. , 638.
--Compare Heraclid. , Pom. , p. 211. ) From Herodo-
tus, however, we learn, that the Samians took an ac-
'tive part in the Ionian revolt, and furnished sixty ships
to the fleet assembled at Lade; but, by the intrigues
of . Liens, son of Syloson, who had been deposed by
Aristagoras, and consequently favoured the Persian
arms, the greater part ? f their squadron deserted the
confederacy in the battle that ensued, and thus con-
tributed greatly to the defeat of the allies. (Herod. ,
6, 8, seqq. ) On learning the result of the battle, many
of the Samians determined to quit the island rather
than submit to the Persian yoke, or that of a tyrant
imposed by them. They accordingly embarked on
board their ships, and sailed for Sicily, where they
first occupied Calacte, and soon after, with the assist-
ance of Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhcgium, the important
town and harbour of Zancle. . lEaces was replaced on
the throne of Samos, and, out of consideration for his
services, the town and its temples wcro spared. After
the battle of Salamis, the Samians secretly sent a dep-
utation to the Greek fleet stationed at Dolos, to urge
them to liberate Ionia, they being at that time gov-
erned by a tyrant named Theomestor, appointed by
the Persian king. (Herod. , 9, 90. ) In consequence
of this invitation, Leotychidaa, the Spartan command-
er, advanced with his fleet to the coast of Ionia, and
gained the important victory of Mycale. The Sami-
ans having regained their independence, joined, to-
gether with the other Ionian states, the Grecian con-
federacy, and with them passed under the protection,
or, rather, the dominion of Athens. The latter power,
however, having attempted to change the constitution
of the island to a democracy, had nearly been expelled
by the oligarchical party, aided by Pissuthnes, satrap
of Sardis. . Being overpowered, however, finally by
the overwhelming force brought against them by the
Athenians under Pericles, the Samians were com-
pelled to destroy their fortifications, give up their ships,
deliver hostages, and pay the expense of the war by
instalments. This occurred a few years before the
breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. (Tkueyd. , I,
115, seqq) After this we hear little of Samos till
the end of the Sicilian expedition, when the maritime
war was transferred to the Ionian coast and islands.
At this time Samos became the great point d'appui of
the Athenian fleet, which was stationed there for the
defence of the colonics and subject states; and there
is little doubt that the power of Athens was alone pre-
served- at this time by means of that island. We
learn from Polybius (5, 35, 11), that, after the death
of Alexander, Samos became for a time subject to the
kings of Egypt. Subsequently it fell into the hands
of Antiochus, and, on his defeat, into those of the Ro-
mans. It lost the last shadow of republican freedom
under the Emperor Vesnasian, A. C. 70. --The tem-
ple and worship of Juno contributed not a little to the
? ? fame and affluence of Samos. Pausanias asserts that
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? BAN
S AN
lid which, by some writers, was from that circum-
stance named Dardania. (Callim. , ap. Plin. , 4, 12. )
Samothrace was also famous for the worship of the
Cabiri, with which these mysteries were intimately
connected. (Vid. Cabiri. )--Various are the names
which this island is said to have borne at different pe-
riods. It was called Dardania, as we have already
seen ; also Electris, Melite, Leucosis (Sirabo, 472. --
Schol. in Apoll. Rhod. , 1, 917), and was said to have
been named Samothrace (Thracian Samos) by a col-
ony from the Ionian Samos, though Strabo conceives
this assertion to have been an invention of the Simi-
ans. He deduces the name either from the word
l<junr, which implies an elevated spot, or from the
Saii, a Thracian people, who at an early period were
in possession of the island. {Sirabo, 457. ) Homer,
in his frequent allusion to it, sometimes calls it sim-
ply Samos (//. , 24, 78. --//. , 24, 753); at other times
the Thracian Samos. {II. , 13, 12. )--The Samothra-
cians joined the Persian fleet in the expedition of
Xerxes; and one of their vessels distinguished itself
in the battle of Salamis. (Herod. , 8, 90. ) Perseus,
after the battle of Pydna, took refuge in Samothrace,
and was there seized by the Romans when preparing
to escape from Demetrium, a small harbour near one
of the promontories of the island. On this occasion,
Livy asserts that the chief magistrate of Samothrace
was dignified with the title of king (45,6). Stephanus
Byzantinus informs us there was a town of the same
name with the island. This island was reduced, in
the reign of Vespasian, along with the other isles of
the . -Egcan, to the form of a province. It is now Sam-
otbuHi. [Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 335. )
Sani, a low:i of Macedonia, on the Sinus Singiti-
eus, and situated on a neck of land connecting Athos
with the continent. On the opposite side was Acan-
thus, and between the two places was cut the canal
of Xerxes. ( Vid. Acanthus.
)
Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician author, who, if the
fragments of bis works that have reached us be genu-
ne, and if such a person ever existed, must be re-
garded as the most ancient writer of whom we have
>ny knowledge after Moses. His father's name was
Fhabion, and he himself was chief hierophant of the
Phoenicians. According to some, he was a native of
Berytus, but Athenseus (3, 37) and Suidas make him
i Tyrian. As to the period when he flourished, all is
mccrtain. Some accounts carry him back to the era
of Semiramis, others assign him to the period of the
Trojan war. St. Martin, however, endeavours to prove
that he was a contemporary of Gideon, the judge of
Israel, and flourished during the fourteenth century
hefore the Christian era. (Biographic Univ. , vol. 40,
p. 305, seqq. ) The titles of the three principal works
of this writer are as follows: 1. llrpl rye 'Ep/iov <pv-
mofoyiar (" Of the Physical System of Hermes"). --
2. ? KlyvirTianii QtoXoyia (" Egyptian Theology"). --3.
4>o<<v<<d (" Phoenician History"), cited also under
other titles, one of which is i<otvinuv QeoXoyia (" The-
ology of the Phoenicians"). --All these works were
written in Phoenician, and the preceding are their ti-
tles in Greek. The history was translated into the
Greek language by Herennius Philo, a native of Byb-
ius, who lived in the second century of our era. It is
from this translation that we obtain all the fragments
jf Sanchoniathon that have reached our times. Philo
lad divided his translation into nine books, of which
? ? Porphyry made use in his diatribe against the Chris-
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? SAP
SAP
KrueO i > v him into an omen of future success. Hav-
Big collected, 'herelore, a band of robbers, and having
roused the people of India to a change of affairs, he
finally attained to sovereign power, and made himself
master of a part of the country which had been previ-
'Dsly in the hands of Seleucus. It is said, that,
while waging wat, and before coming to the throne, a
Tild elephant of very large size approached him on
one occasion, and with the greatest docility suffered
him to mount on its back, and used after this to bear
him into the fight. (Justin, 15, 4. ) The Sandrocot-
:us of the Greeks is thought to be the same with
the Chandragoupta of the Hindu writers. And Chan-
d/agoupta (i. e. , "saved the moon") is regarded by
many as a mere epithet or surname of the Hindu
monarch Vischarada. (De Maries, Hist, de I'Inde,
vol. 3, p. 255. ---Id. ib. , vol. 1, p. 420. )
SANOAKIUS, a river of Asia Minor, rising near a
place called Sangia (Sayyi'a), in Mount Adoreus, a
branch of Mount Dindymus, in Galatia, and falling into
the Euxine on the coast of Bithynia. Its source was
150 stadia from Pessinus. According to Strabo (543),
it formed the true eastern boundary of Bithynia, and
bis account coincides in this with that of the earlier
writers. (Scylax, p. 34. --Apoll. Rhad. . ,1, 724. ) The
Bithynian kings, however, gradually extended their
dominions farther to the east, and the Romans gave
the country a still farther enlargement on this side.
This river is called Sangaris by Constantino Porphy-
rogenitus (1, 5), and Sagaris by Ovid (ep. e Pont. , 4,
10). The modern name is the Sakaria. . (Manncrl't
Gcogr, vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 607. )
SANNYKION, an Athenian comic poet, contemporary
with Aristophanes. Little is known of him. One of
bis p'ays, entitled Aaxcj? (/),<v. -i. '). in which he bur-
lesqued a verse of the Orestes of Euripides (Sckol. ad
Aristoph. , Ran, p. 142. -- Schol. ad Eurip. , Orett. ,
279), appears to have been acted about 407 B. C.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 81. ) Another comedy of
ii<<, entitled Fc'Xur ("Laughter"), is also mentioned.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 91. -- Bentley's Pkalarii,
rul. 1, p. 261, . erf. Dyce. )
SANTONKS, a people of Gallia Aquitanica. north ol
the mouth of the Garumna, on the coast. Their cap-
ital was Mediolanum Santonum, now Saintcs. (Plin. ,
4, 19. --Cos. , B. G , 1. 10. --Id. ibid. , 3, 111 )
SiFig, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in Umbria,
and falling into the Hadriatic below Ravenna. It is
now the Sana or Alps. It was also called Isapis
(Plin. , 3, 15. --Sil. Ital. , 8, 449. --Lucan , 2, 405. )
SAPOR, I. a king of Persia, who succeeded his fa-
tner, Artazerxes, about the 238th year of the Christian
era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, Sapor wished to
increase his paternal dominions by conquest; and, as
the indolence of the emperors of Rome seemed favour-
able to his views, he laid waste the provinces of Meso-
potamia, Syria, and Cilicia; and ho might have be-
come master of all Asia if Odenatus had not stoppoc
bis progress. If Gordian attempted to repel him, his
efforts were weak, and Philip, who succeeded him on
tho imperial throne, bought the peace of Sapor will
money. Valerian, who was afterward invested will
the purple, marched against the Persian monarch, bu
was defeated and taken prisoner. Odenatus no soon
er heard that the Roman emperor was a captive in
the bands of Sapor, than he attempted to release him
by force of arms. The forces of Persia were cut tc
? ? pieces, the wives and treasures of the monarch fel
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? SAPPHO.
SAPPHO.
I nved, were sent away from Leucadia. (Concern-
ing the connexion if this custom with the worship of
Apollo, see Miller's Dorians, b. 1, ch. 11, $ 10. )
This custom was applied in various ways by the poets
? f the time to the description of lovers. Stesichorus,
in his poetical novel named Calyce, spoke of the love
of a virtuous maiden for a youth who despised her
passion; and, in despair, she threw herself from the
Leucadian rock. The effect of the leap in the story
of Sappho (namely, the curing her of her intolerable
passion) must, therefore, have been unknown to Ste-
aichorus. Some years later, Anacrawn says in an ode,
"Again casting myself from the Leucadian rock, I
plunged into the gray sea. drunk with lnvn" (ap. He-
phast. , p. 130). The poet can scarcely, by these
words, be supposed to say that he cures himself of a
vehement passion, but rather means to describe the
delicious intoxication of violent love. The story of
Sappho's leap probably originated in some poetical im-
ages and relations of this kind; a similar story is told
of Venus in regard to her lament for Adonis. (PtoL,
Hephasl. , ap. Phot. , cod. , \9l:--ed. Bekk. , vol. 1, p.
153. ) Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the leap
from the Leucadian rock may really have been made,
in ancient times, by desperate and frantic persons.
Another proof of the fictifious character of the story is,
that it leaves the principal point in uncertainty, name-
ly, whether Sappho survived the leap or perished in it.
(Miller, Hist. Gr. hit. , p. 175. )--It appears that
Sappho became united in marriage to an individual
named Cercolas, and the fruit of this union was a
daughter, named Cleia (YLXtic), who is mentioned by
the poetess in one of her fragments. Having lost her
husband, Sappho turned her attention to literary pur-
suits, and inspired many of the Lesbian females with
a taste for similar occupations. She composed lyric
pieces, of which she left nine books, elegies, h'yrnns,
Ac. The admiration which these productions excited
was universal; her contemporaries carried it to the
highest pitch ef enthusiasm, and saw in her a superior
being: the Lesbians placed her image on their coins,
as that of a divinity. --Sappho had assembled around
her a number of young females, natives of Lesbos,
whom she instructed in music and poetry. They re-
vered her as their benefactress, and her attachment to
them was of the most affectionate description. This
intimacy was made a pretext by the licentious spirit of
later ages for the most dishonourable calumnies. An
expression in Horace (" maseula Sappho," Ep. , 1, 19,
28) has been thought to countenance this charge, but
its meaning has been grossly misunderstood; and,
what is still more to the purpose, it would appear that
the illustrious poetess has been ignorantly confounded
with a dissolute female of the same name, a native of
Lesbos, though not of Mytilene. (Vid. Sappho II. )
Indeed, as the Abbe Barthelemy has remarked, the ac-
counts that have reached us respecting the licentious
character of Sappho, have come only from writers long
subsequent to the age in which she lived. Sappho,
the favoured of the Muses, was, as we have just en-
deavoured to show, never enamoured of Phaon, nor
lid she ever make the leap of Leucadia. Indeed, the
severity with which Sappho censured her brother Cha-
raxus for his love for the courtesan Rhndopis, enables
us to form some judgment of the principles by which
? he guided her own conduct. For although, at the
time when she wrote this ode to him, the fire of youth-
? ? ful passion had been quenched within her breast, yet
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? S AR
SAR
being thus p. oved by the testimony of three authors,
it remains. to examine which of the two was the one
that loved Phaon, and leaped in despair from the
promontory of Leucate. Herodotus, the oldest au-
thor that makes mention of Sappho, only knew the
native of Mytilene. He is silent respecting her love
for Phaon, and, considering the discursive nature of
his history, he no doubt would have mentioned it
had the circumstance been true. Hermesianax, a
pieco of whose on the loves of poets is quoted by
Athena'iis {13, p. 598, seqq), speaks of Sappho's
attachment for Anacreon, but is ailent respecting
Phaon, when, in fact, her fatal passion for the latter,
and particularly its sad catastrophe, suited so well
the spirit, of his piece, that he could not have avoid-
ed mentioning them had they been true. In ait epi-
gram by Antipater of Sidon (Ep. , 70. --Jacobs's An-
thologia Gt. , vol. 2, p. 25), relative to the death of
Sappho, that poet is not only silent respecting her
tragical end at Leucate, but, according to him, she
fell in the course of nature, and her tomb was in her
Dative island. In the Bibliotheca of Photius, to which
we have already referred (vol. 1, p. 163, ed. Bekker),
an extract is given from a work of Ptolemy, son of
Hephaestion, in which is detailed a kind of history of
the leaps from Leucate. It is remarkable that no
mention is made in this account of the fate of Sappho,
although many instances are cited of those who had
made the hazardous experiment. All these negative
authorities would seem to more than counterbalance
the testimony of Ovid, who, in one of his Hero'ides,
confounds the female who was enamoured of Phaon
with the lyric poetess.
? SAM
SAM
? "eibolt, and placed in the infernal regions near his
brother Sisyphus. --Consult, in explanation of this le-
gend, the article Elicius, p. 467, col. 1, near the end.
[Horn. , Od. , 11, 235-- ApoUod , 1, 9. --Hygin. ,fal. ,
60 -- Virg. , JEn. , 6, 5, 86. )
Salmydessos (ZafyvdnooSf), or, as the later Greek
and the Latin writers give the name, Halmydessus ('A A-
Kvdyvcoc), a city of Thrace, on the coast of the Eux-
ir. e, below the promontory of Thynias. The name
properly belonged to the entire range of coast from
the Thynian promontory tr '. he mouth of tho Bospo-
rus. And it was this port. on of the coast in particu-
lar that obtained for the Euxine its earlier name of
Azr. nos, or " inhospitable. " The shore was rendered
dangerous by shallows and marshes; and when any
vessels, either through want of skill or the violence
of the wind, became entangled among these, the Thra-
cian inhabitants poured down upon them, plundered
the cargoes, and made the inhabitants slaves. In
their eagerness to obtain the booty, quarrels often
arose among the petty tribes in this quarter, and hence
came eventually the singular custom of marking out
the shore with stones, as so many limits within which
each were to plunder. (Xen. , Anab. , 7, 6. ) Strain)
names the Astoe as the inhabitants of this region,
whose territory reached to the north as far as Apollo-
nia. The Thyni, no doubt, are included under this
name. The republic of Byzantium put an end to this
system of plunder. --The modern Midjeh answers to
the ancient city of Salmydessus. (Mela, 2, 2. --
Plin. , 4, 11. --Diod. Sic. , 14, 38. --Mannert, Geogr. ,
rol. 7, p. 149 )
Salon, now Salona, the principal harbour of Dal-
matia, and always considered as an important post by
the Romans after their conquest of that country. Pliny
styles it a colony (3, 22), which is confirmed by vari-
ous inscriptions. (Gruter. , TAes. ,32, 12. ) The name
is sometimes written Sslona and Salonae. (Cat. , B.
<? . , 3, 9. --Hirt. , B. Alex. , 43. ) It was not the na-
tive place of the Emperor Dioclesian, as is commonly
supposed. That monarch was born at Diodes, in its
vicinity; and to this quarter he retired after be had
abdicated the imperial power. Here he built a splen-
did palace, the ruins of which arc still to be seen at
Spalalro, about three miles from Salona. (Wesscl-
mg, ad. Itin. Anton. , p. 270. --Adam's Antiquities of
Spalalro. --Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 36. )
SkLvilNus, a native of Colonia Agrippina {Co-
logne), one of the early fathers of the Christian Church.
He led a religious life at Massilia during the greater
part of the 5th century, and died in that city. Salvian
was the author of several works on devotional sub-
jects, of which there are yet extant a treatise "on
the Providence of God" (De gubernatione Dei, dec),
in eight books; another in four books, written
"Against avarice, especially in priests and clerical
persons'," and nine pastoral letters. His works, as
far as they remain, were collected and printed to-
gether, in two volumes 8vo, by Haluzius, Paris, 1663.
Sautes, a people of Gaul, extending from the
Rhone, along the southern bank of the Druentia or
Durance, almost to the Alps. They were powerful
opponents to the Greeks of Massilia. (Lit. , 5, 34. )
Samara, a river of Gaul, now called the Somme.
The name of this stream in intermediate geography
was Sttmina or Sumcna, corrupted into Somona;
whence the modern appellation. (Vid. Samarobriva. )
? ? Samaria, a city and country of Palestine, famous
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? SAMNITES.
SAM
imbitious and rising nation, rendered confident by their
successes over the Tuscans and the Oscans of Cam-
pania; and formidable not only from their own re-
sources, but also from the ties of consanguinity which
connected them with the Frentani, Vestini, Peligui, and
other hardy tribes of Central Italy. The rich and fer-
tile territory of Campania was then the nominal object
of the contest which ensued, but in reality they fought
for the dominion of Italy, and consequently that of the
world; which was at stake so long as the issue of the
war was doubtful. Livy seems to have formed a just
vlea of the importance of that struggle, and the fierce
obstinacy with which it was carried on, when he pauses
in the midst of his narrative, in order to point out the
unwearied constancy with which the Samnites, though
to often defeated, renewed their efforts, if not for em-
pire, at least for freedom and independence (10, 32).
But when that historian recounts an endless succession
of reverses sustained by, this nation, attended with
losses which must have quickly drained a far greater
population, it is impossible to avoid suspecting him of
considerable exaggeration and repetition; especially
as several campaigns are mentioned without a single
distinct fact or topographical mark to give reality and
an appearance of truth to the narrative. Nor is Livy
always careful to point out the danger which not un-
'jequently threatened Rome on the part of these for-
nidable adversaries. It is true that he relates with
great beauty and force of description the disaster
which befell the Roman arms at the defiles of Caudi-
fiin; but has he been equally explicit in laying before
his readers the consequences of that event, which not
only opened to the victorious Samnites the gates of
several Volscian cities, but exposed a great portion of
Latium to be ravaged by their troops, and brought
them nearly to the gates of RomeT (Lin. , 9, 12. --
Compare Strabo, 232, 249. ) In fact, though often at-
tacked in their own territory, we as often find the
Samnite legions opposed to their inveterate foes in
Apulia, iu the territories of the Volsci and Hernici,
ind even in those of the Umbrians and Etruscans.
(Lit? . , 10. ) Admirably trained and disciplined, they
executed the orders of their commanders with the
greatest alacrity and promptitude; and such was the
warlike spirit of the whole population, that they not
unfrequently brought into the field 80,000 foot and
8000 horse. (Strabo, 259. ) A victory over such a
foe might well deserve the honours of a triumph; and
when the Romans had at length, by repeated successes,
established their superiority, they could then justly lay
claim to the title of the first troops in the world. But
though the Samnites were often overmatched and
finally crushed by the superior conduct and power
of the Romans, it is evident that the spirit of inde-
pendence still breathed strong in their hearts, and
waited but for an opportunity to display itself. Thus,
when Pyrrhus raised his standard in the plains of
Apulia, the Samnite bands swelled his ranks, and
seemed rather to strengthen the forces of that prince
than to derive assistance from hi>>army. Nor did they
neglect the occasion which presented itself, on the ap-
pearance of Hannibal in their country, for shaking off
the Roman yoke, but voluntarily offered to join him in
the field against the common enemy. (Lin. , 23, 42. )
Rome had already triumphed over Carthage, Macedon,
and Antiochus, and was regarded as mistress of the
world, when a greater danger than any she had before
? ? encountered threatened her dominion in Italy, and
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? SAMOS
SAM
o. ycrates ) Atler the death of this luler, the govern-
ment was held for some time by Mceandrius, his sec-
retary; but he was expelled by the troops of Darius,
who placed on the throne Syloson, the brother of Po-
lycrates, on account of some service he had rendered
him in Egypt, when as yet he was but a private per-
son, (litrod , 3, 140. ) Strabo reports, that the yoke
at' this it i tyrant pressed more heavily on the Salm-
ans thai, that of Polycrates, and that, in consequence,
the island became nearly deserted, whence arose the
proverb, "E/ci/rt ~Zv\oauvroc evovx^pi-v- (Strab. , 638.
--Compare Heraclid. , Pom. , p. 211. ) From Herodo-
tus, however, we learn, that the Samians took an ac-
'tive part in the Ionian revolt, and furnished sixty ships
to the fleet assembled at Lade; but, by the intrigues
of . Liens, son of Syloson, who had been deposed by
Aristagoras, and consequently favoured the Persian
arms, the greater part ? f their squadron deserted the
confederacy in the battle that ensued, and thus con-
tributed greatly to the defeat of the allies. (Herod. ,
6, 8, seqq. ) On learning the result of the battle, many
of the Samians determined to quit the island rather
than submit to the Persian yoke, or that of a tyrant
imposed by them. They accordingly embarked on
board their ships, and sailed for Sicily, where they
first occupied Calacte, and soon after, with the assist-
ance of Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhcgium, the important
town and harbour of Zancle. . lEaces was replaced on
the throne of Samos, and, out of consideration for his
services, the town and its temples wcro spared. After
the battle of Salamis, the Samians secretly sent a dep-
utation to the Greek fleet stationed at Dolos, to urge
them to liberate Ionia, they being at that time gov-
erned by a tyrant named Theomestor, appointed by
the Persian king. (Herod. , 9, 90. ) In consequence
of this invitation, Leotychidaa, the Spartan command-
er, advanced with his fleet to the coast of Ionia, and
gained the important victory of Mycale. The Sami-
ans having regained their independence, joined, to-
gether with the other Ionian states, the Grecian con-
federacy, and with them passed under the protection,
or, rather, the dominion of Athens. The latter power,
however, having attempted to change the constitution
of the island to a democracy, had nearly been expelled
by the oligarchical party, aided by Pissuthnes, satrap
of Sardis. . Being overpowered, however, finally by
the overwhelming force brought against them by the
Athenians under Pericles, the Samians were com-
pelled to destroy their fortifications, give up their ships,
deliver hostages, and pay the expense of the war by
instalments. This occurred a few years before the
breaking out of the Peloponnesian war. (Tkueyd. , I,
115, seqq) After this we hear little of Samos till
the end of the Sicilian expedition, when the maritime
war was transferred to the Ionian coast and islands.
At this time Samos became the great point d'appui of
the Athenian fleet, which was stationed there for the
defence of the colonics and subject states; and there
is little doubt that the power of Athens was alone pre-
served- at this time by means of that island. We
learn from Polybius (5, 35, 11), that, after the death
of Alexander, Samos became for a time subject to the
kings of Egypt. Subsequently it fell into the hands
of Antiochus, and, on his defeat, into those of the Ro-
mans. It lost the last shadow of republican freedom
under the Emperor Vesnasian, A. C. 70. --The tem-
ple and worship of Juno contributed not a little to the
? ? fame and affluence of Samos. Pausanias asserts that
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? BAN
S AN
lid which, by some writers, was from that circum-
stance named Dardania. (Callim. , ap. Plin. , 4, 12. )
Samothrace was also famous for the worship of the
Cabiri, with which these mysteries were intimately
connected. (Vid. Cabiri. )--Various are the names
which this island is said to have borne at different pe-
riods. It was called Dardania, as we have already
seen ; also Electris, Melite, Leucosis (Sirabo, 472. --
Schol. in Apoll. Rhod. , 1, 917), and was said to have
been named Samothrace (Thracian Samos) by a col-
ony from the Ionian Samos, though Strabo conceives
this assertion to have been an invention of the Simi-
ans. He deduces the name either from the word
l<junr, which implies an elevated spot, or from the
Saii, a Thracian people, who at an early period were
in possession of the island. {Sirabo, 457. ) Homer,
in his frequent allusion to it, sometimes calls it sim-
ply Samos (//. , 24, 78. --//. , 24, 753); at other times
the Thracian Samos. {II. , 13, 12. )--The Samothra-
cians joined the Persian fleet in the expedition of
Xerxes; and one of their vessels distinguished itself
in the battle of Salamis. (Herod. , 8, 90. ) Perseus,
after the battle of Pydna, took refuge in Samothrace,
and was there seized by the Romans when preparing
to escape from Demetrium, a small harbour near one
of the promontories of the island. On this occasion,
Livy asserts that the chief magistrate of Samothrace
was dignified with the title of king (45,6). Stephanus
Byzantinus informs us there was a town of the same
name with the island. This island was reduced, in
the reign of Vespasian, along with the other isles of
the . -Egcan, to the form of a province. It is now Sam-
otbuHi. [Cramer's Anc. Greece, vol. 1, p. 335. )
Sani, a low:i of Macedonia, on the Sinus Singiti-
eus, and situated on a neck of land connecting Athos
with the continent. On the opposite side was Acan-
thus, and between the two places was cut the canal
of Xerxes. ( Vid. Acanthus.
)
Sanchoniathon, a Phoenician author, who, if the
fragments of bis works that have reached us be genu-
ne, and if such a person ever existed, must be re-
garded as the most ancient writer of whom we have
>ny knowledge after Moses. His father's name was
Fhabion, and he himself was chief hierophant of the
Phoenicians. According to some, he was a native of
Berytus, but Athenseus (3, 37) and Suidas make him
i Tyrian. As to the period when he flourished, all is
mccrtain. Some accounts carry him back to the era
of Semiramis, others assign him to the period of the
Trojan war. St. Martin, however, endeavours to prove
that he was a contemporary of Gideon, the judge of
Israel, and flourished during the fourteenth century
hefore the Christian era. (Biographic Univ. , vol. 40,
p. 305, seqq. ) The titles of the three principal works
of this writer are as follows: 1. llrpl rye 'Ep/iov <pv-
mofoyiar (" Of the Physical System of Hermes"). --
2. ? KlyvirTianii QtoXoyia (" Egyptian Theology"). --3.
4>o<<v<<d (" Phoenician History"), cited also under
other titles, one of which is i<otvinuv QeoXoyia (" The-
ology of the Phoenicians"). --All these works were
written in Phoenician, and the preceding are their ti-
tles in Greek. The history was translated into the
Greek language by Herennius Philo, a native of Byb-
ius, who lived in the second century of our era. It is
from this translation that we obtain all the fragments
jf Sanchoniathon that have reached our times. Philo
lad divided his translation into nine books, of which
? ? Porphyry made use in his diatribe against the Chris-
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? SAP
SAP
KrueO i > v him into an omen of future success. Hav-
Big collected, 'herelore, a band of robbers, and having
roused the people of India to a change of affairs, he
finally attained to sovereign power, and made himself
master of a part of the country which had been previ-
'Dsly in the hands of Seleucus. It is said, that,
while waging wat, and before coming to the throne, a
Tild elephant of very large size approached him on
one occasion, and with the greatest docility suffered
him to mount on its back, and used after this to bear
him into the fight. (Justin, 15, 4. ) The Sandrocot-
:us of the Greeks is thought to be the same with
the Chandragoupta of the Hindu writers. And Chan-
d/agoupta (i. e. , "saved the moon") is regarded by
many as a mere epithet or surname of the Hindu
monarch Vischarada. (De Maries, Hist, de I'Inde,
vol. 3, p. 255. ---Id. ib. , vol. 1, p. 420. )
SANOAKIUS, a river of Asia Minor, rising near a
place called Sangia (Sayyi'a), in Mount Adoreus, a
branch of Mount Dindymus, in Galatia, and falling into
the Euxine on the coast of Bithynia. Its source was
150 stadia from Pessinus. According to Strabo (543),
it formed the true eastern boundary of Bithynia, and
bis account coincides in this with that of the earlier
writers. (Scylax, p. 34. --Apoll. Rhad. . ,1, 724. ) The
Bithynian kings, however, gradually extended their
dominions farther to the east, and the Romans gave
the country a still farther enlargement on this side.
This river is called Sangaris by Constantino Porphy-
rogenitus (1, 5), and Sagaris by Ovid (ep. e Pont. , 4,
10). The modern name is the Sakaria. . (Manncrl't
Gcogr, vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 607. )
SANNYKION, an Athenian comic poet, contemporary
with Aristophanes. Little is known of him. One of
bis p'ays, entitled Aaxcj? (/),<v. -i. '). in which he bur-
lesqued a verse of the Orestes of Euripides (Sckol. ad
Aristoph. , Ran, p. 142. -- Schol. ad Eurip. , Orett. ,
279), appears to have been acted about 407 B. C.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 81. ) Another comedy of
ii<<, entitled Fc'Xur ("Laughter"), is also mentioned.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 91. -- Bentley's Pkalarii,
rul. 1, p. 261, . erf. Dyce. )
SANTONKS, a people of Gallia Aquitanica. north ol
the mouth of the Garumna, on the coast. Their cap-
ital was Mediolanum Santonum, now Saintcs. (Plin. ,
4, 19. --Cos. , B. G , 1. 10. --Id. ibid. , 3, 111 )
SiFig, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in Umbria,
and falling into the Hadriatic below Ravenna. It is
now the Sana or Alps. It was also called Isapis
(Plin. , 3, 15. --Sil. Ital. , 8, 449. --Lucan , 2, 405. )
SAPOR, I. a king of Persia, who succeeded his fa-
tner, Artazerxes, about the 238th year of the Christian
era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, Sapor wished to
increase his paternal dominions by conquest; and, as
the indolence of the emperors of Rome seemed favour-
able to his views, he laid waste the provinces of Meso-
potamia, Syria, and Cilicia; and ho might have be-
come master of all Asia if Odenatus had not stoppoc
bis progress. If Gordian attempted to repel him, his
efforts were weak, and Philip, who succeeded him on
tho imperial throne, bought the peace of Sapor will
money. Valerian, who was afterward invested will
the purple, marched against the Persian monarch, bu
was defeated and taken prisoner. Odenatus no soon
er heard that the Roman emperor was a captive in
the bands of Sapor, than he attempted to release him
by force of arms. The forces of Persia were cut tc
? ? pieces, the wives and treasures of the monarch fel
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? SAPPHO.
SAPPHO.
I nved, were sent away from Leucadia. (Concern-
ing the connexion if this custom with the worship of
Apollo, see Miller's Dorians, b. 1, ch. 11, $ 10. )
This custom was applied in various ways by the poets
? f the time to the description of lovers. Stesichorus,
in his poetical novel named Calyce, spoke of the love
of a virtuous maiden for a youth who despised her
passion; and, in despair, she threw herself from the
Leucadian rock. The effect of the leap in the story
of Sappho (namely, the curing her of her intolerable
passion) must, therefore, have been unknown to Ste-
aichorus. Some years later, Anacrawn says in an ode,
"Again casting myself from the Leucadian rock, I
plunged into the gray sea. drunk with lnvn" (ap. He-
phast. , p. 130). The poet can scarcely, by these
words, be supposed to say that he cures himself of a
vehement passion, but rather means to describe the
delicious intoxication of violent love. The story of
Sappho's leap probably originated in some poetical im-
ages and relations of this kind; a similar story is told
of Venus in regard to her lament for Adonis. (PtoL,
Hephasl. , ap. Phot. , cod. , \9l:--ed. Bekk. , vol. 1, p.
153. ) Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the leap
from the Leucadian rock may really have been made,
in ancient times, by desperate and frantic persons.
Another proof of the fictifious character of the story is,
that it leaves the principal point in uncertainty, name-
ly, whether Sappho survived the leap or perished in it.
(Miller, Hist. Gr. hit. , p. 175. )--It appears that
Sappho became united in marriage to an individual
named Cercolas, and the fruit of this union was a
daughter, named Cleia (YLXtic), who is mentioned by
the poetess in one of her fragments. Having lost her
husband, Sappho turned her attention to literary pur-
suits, and inspired many of the Lesbian females with
a taste for similar occupations. She composed lyric
pieces, of which she left nine books, elegies, h'yrnns,
Ac. The admiration which these productions excited
was universal; her contemporaries carried it to the
highest pitch ef enthusiasm, and saw in her a superior
being: the Lesbians placed her image on their coins,
as that of a divinity. --Sappho had assembled around
her a number of young females, natives of Lesbos,
whom she instructed in music and poetry. They re-
vered her as their benefactress, and her attachment to
them was of the most affectionate description. This
intimacy was made a pretext by the licentious spirit of
later ages for the most dishonourable calumnies. An
expression in Horace (" maseula Sappho," Ep. , 1, 19,
28) has been thought to countenance this charge, but
its meaning has been grossly misunderstood; and,
what is still more to the purpose, it would appear that
the illustrious poetess has been ignorantly confounded
with a dissolute female of the same name, a native of
Lesbos, though not of Mytilene. (Vid. Sappho II. )
Indeed, as the Abbe Barthelemy has remarked, the ac-
counts that have reached us respecting the licentious
character of Sappho, have come only from writers long
subsequent to the age in which she lived. Sappho,
the favoured of the Muses, was, as we have just en-
deavoured to show, never enamoured of Phaon, nor
lid she ever make the leap of Leucadia. Indeed, the
severity with which Sappho censured her brother Cha-
raxus for his love for the courtesan Rhndopis, enables
us to form some judgment of the principles by which
? he guided her own conduct. For although, at the
time when she wrote this ode to him, the fire of youth-
? ? ful passion had been quenched within her breast, yet
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? S AR
SAR
being thus p. oved by the testimony of three authors,
it remains. to examine which of the two was the one
that loved Phaon, and leaped in despair from the
promontory of Leucate. Herodotus, the oldest au-
thor that makes mention of Sappho, only knew the
native of Mytilene. He is silent respecting her love
for Phaon, and, considering the discursive nature of
his history, he no doubt would have mentioned it
had the circumstance been true. Hermesianax, a
pieco of whose on the loves of poets is quoted by
Athena'iis {13, p. 598, seqq), speaks of Sappho's
attachment for Anacreon, but is ailent respecting
Phaon, when, in fact, her fatal passion for the latter,
and particularly its sad catastrophe, suited so well
the spirit, of his piece, that he could not have avoid-
ed mentioning them had they been true. In ait epi-
gram by Antipater of Sidon (Ep. , 70. --Jacobs's An-
thologia Gt. , vol. 2, p. 25), relative to the death of
Sappho, that poet is not only silent respecting her
tragical end at Leucate, but, according to him, she
fell in the course of nature, and her tomb was in her
Dative island. In the Bibliotheca of Photius, to which
we have already referred (vol. 1, p. 163, ed. Bekker),
an extract is given from a work of Ptolemy, son of
Hephaestion, in which is detailed a kind of history of
the leaps from Leucate. It is remarkable that no
mention is made in this account of the fate of Sappho,
although many instances are cited of those who had
made the hazardous experiment. All these negative
authorities would seem to more than counterbalance
the testimony of Ovid, who, in one of his Hero'ides,
confounds the female who was enamoured of Phaon
with the lyric poetess.
