No More Learning

' Added to this the entrance
gateways, one in the middle of each side of the perimeter wall, were
structures of fairly generous proportions, so disposed and designed
as to serve as a prelude to the monument within, the arched shape
of the main portal being of such dimensions as to frame in a most
striking manner the distant tomb. The principal entrance to the
enclosure of Humayun's tomb is on the western side, and the doorway
is recessed, instead of being embowed as was usual in all subsequent
doorways, but this was done in order to repeat, like a refrain, a
similar recessed effect in the façade of the main building. This main
building stands on a high and wide-spread terrace, the sides of which
are arcaded, each arcade leading to a small room within for the
accommodation of visitors to the tomb. On the broad platform
formed by the upper surface of this terrace the mausoleum stands,
occupying a square of 156 feet side. This square plan is recessed in
the middle of each side, and its corners are chamfered, thus producing
in the elevation of the building a variety of contrasting planes and
shade effects. All four façades, save for a slight deviation on the
north side, are similar, their main characteristic being a large rect-
angular fronton set back in the centre, and containing a deeply
recessed archway, with smaller corresponding archways in the pro-
jecting wings on each side. Much of the attractive appearance of the
building is due to the size and excellent spacing of these recesses
in relation to the remainder of the façade, the apportionment of
solid to void being most skilfully regulated. Above the façade rises
the great dome mounted on a high drum, with a combination of
kiosks roofed by small cupolas and slender turrets breaking the sky-
line at its base. The arrangements in the interior comprise a spacious
central hall, rising to a vaulted roof, and around this main hall are
grouped several subsidiary chambers on a regular plan, and con-
nected one with another by galleries and corridors. Light is obtained
through clerestory windows of perforated screens fitted within the
recessed archways of the façade.
Apart from the simple comprehensiveness of the total conception,
proclaiming it a building of exceptional merit, the principal architec-
tural feature which distinguishes it from anything previously attemp-
ted is the design and construction of the dome. In shape the dome,
with its finial rising straight from the apex without any intervening


## p. 534 (#574) ############################################

534
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
amalaka, was clearly derived from a type not uncommon at Bukhara
and Saniarqand in the fifteenth century, of which the tombs of Timur
and Bibi Khanum are examples. It is not, however, a copy of either
a
of these, but there is a fairly strong family likeness. The slightly
constricted neck with its decorated cavetto is from the same source,
but the Timurid domes usually finish at the base in a stalactite
moulding, which the Indian mason converted into a course of small
brackets. Further, the white marble casing, with which the whole
of the latter is covered, is in marked contrast to the brilliantly
coloured tiles which invariably supplied the finish to the Persian
type. But it is in the constructive principle adopted in the dome of
Humayun's tomb that the main concession is made to the ingenuity
of the Timurid builders and their predecessors. Here we see for the
first time in India the use of the double dome, a method of building
these structures which had been practised in western Asia over a
considerable period. One or two of the low-pitched domes of the
previous style, notably that of the tomb of Sikandar Lodi, show
attempts at this system of construction, but their flattened shape did
not encourage its use, and it apparently found no favour. In Huma-
yun's tomb the principle was correctly applied, the dome being
composed of two separate shells, on outer and an inner, with a vacant
compartment between; the outer shell supports the white marble
exterior casing, while the inner forms the vaulted ceiling of the
mortuary chamber below. In addition to the character and technical
details of the dome, other features of the building show a similar
influence. Among these is the large recessed archway with its sur-
rounding rectangular fronton, the central element on most Mughul
façades, and one which in an immature form had appeared during
the previous period. In Humayun's tomb this effective conception
was fully developed, showing, together with other motifs, its designer's
further obligations to the architectural traditions of Persia. While
adapting, however, the Timurid type of building to suit the materials
and methods of the Indian workman, one factor was overlooked.
In the Persian style almost all mouldings were purposely omitted,
in order that the surface of the buildings should be kept clear for
the application of coloured tiles, to the brilliancy of which they owed
their principal effect. The bare, almost frigid, appearance of Huma-
yun's tomb, in its decorative aspect, may be traced to its designer's
inability to replace successfully this colour scheme by a suitable one
in stone and marble. That the effort was made is shown by the
borders and panels of white marble inlay applied with such good
results, but in outlining the archways with the same material the
severity of the façade is emphasised. As to the disposal of the rooms
in the interior, this appears to be an elaboration of the plan generally
adopted in Muslim tombs in India, but the diagonal connecting
passages may have been suggested by a similar arrangement in


## p. 535 (#575) ############################################

BRIDGE AT JAUNPUR
635
Persia, as seen in the tomb of Safi-ud-Din at Ardabil. The fact that
the design of Humayun's tomb did not immediately commend itself
to the Mughuls and thus revolutionise the building art of India seems
to indicate that it was in advance of its time. A small tomb, however,
near by, enshrining the remains of Atga Khan, is of somewhat the
same type in miniature, and was produced at this time probably by
those employed on the royal mausoleum. But although the superior
style of the latter could not fail to influence the later work of Akbar's
reign, it was not until more than sixty years had elapsed before the
Mughul builders were suſficiently inspired to attempt another tomb
of the same type.
That even in the production of works to serve a utilitarian purpose
the Mughuls at this time were inclined to employ labour drawn
from sources not far removed from Persia is shown in a famous
bridge built at Jaunpur. Begun as early as 1564 to conduct the road
across the Gumti, it was devised and carried out by workmen im-
ported from Hazara in Afghanistan, noted for their engineering skill.
Into the design of this bridge the builders introduced appropriate
decorative elements which have made it a handsome structure of
good architectural appearance (Fig. 14). It consists of ten spans of
(
pointed arches with substantial piers carried up into pillared pavilions
partly projected over the water on brackets. The whole composition
provides an excellent illustration of the aesthetic spirit that then
prevailed, and of the manner in which an object primarily intended
for use, can with correctly applied taste become also a work of art.
Meanwhile in the somewhat distant and hitherto Hindu environ-
ment of Gwalior the tomb of Muhammad Ghaus was being con-
structed, the unusual character of its design lending this building
a certain interest. Erected over the remains of a Muslim saint who
flourished under the early Mughuls, it combines characteristics of
the “Lodi” style, together with others associated more with the kind
of building that found favour in western India. This admixture was
no doubt due to the actual workmanship being entrusted to the local
masons more accustomed to the requirements of Malwa patrons than
to the demands of their new Muslim overlords. The building shows
a lack of co-ordination, the two phases, the Mughul and Malwa,
having not yet coalesced, a condition to be attained later under the
tolerant policy of the emperor Akbar. None the less it contains some
choice details, especially in its perforated screens, but the attachment
of the hexagonal corner-turrets by their angles causes the general
effect of the elevation as a whole to appear disconnected (Fig.
15).
After Humayun's tomb, however, the most important building
projects of this time were the two palace-fortresses begun by Akbar
at Agra and Lahore. These were the first notable efforts made by
this emperor, and were executed "under the superintendence of


## p. 536 (#576) ############################################

536
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
Qasim Khan, the overseer of buildings and ships". 1 Of the fort at
Agra it was said that no such walls had ever been raised before,
"from top to bottom the fire-red hewn stones are joined so closely
that even a hair cannot find its way into their joints. ” They were
composed of a massive interior core of rubble and concrete faced
with carefully worked blocks of sandstone "linked together by iron
rings”. These blocks of stone were laid in alternate courses, a wide
course separated by narrow bond-stones, a method of construction
which is found in nearly all the buildings of Akbar's time. The walls
of Agra fort, just under 70 feet high, consist of a continuous stretch
cf almost unbroken masonry nearly one and a half miles in circuit,
the first conception of dressed stone on such a large scale. The some-
what irregular plan of the fort is probably due to the walls having
followed the lines of the original Lodi defences of which it took the
piace, and its position in relation to the river Jumna had also to be
considered. From a distance across the river it resembles the stranded
hull of a rusty red battleship, its sombre mass relieved by the group
of white domes and kiosks of the Moti Masjid rising like armoured
turrets above. It is entered by two gateways, the main entrance
on the western side, known as the Delhi Gate, being undeniably
one of the most impressive portals in all India (Fig. 18). It is the
ceremonial entrance to the fortress (the other and smaller gateway
of Amar Singh being for private use), and originally its main archway
was flanked by two statues of elephants; hence it was often referred
to as the Hathi Pol or "Elephant Gate”. As it was finished in 1566
it is one of the earliest of Akbar's productions, and shows that that
emperor's builders had already realised the high standard that was
required of them. It is devised on the usual plan of an archway
flanked by two bastions, but it is the masterly manner in which this
simple scheme was handled that gives it such an imposing and at
the same time artistic appearance. Taking the octagon as his theme,
the designer has made the bastions, the vaulted chamber between,
and the domed kiosks crowning the battlements all eight-sided in
plan. Height was obtained by the whole being in two storeys, with
the bastions divided transversely by a balcony on brackets, a projec-
tion which gives a most useful line of interruption to the façade.
Openings below would only weaken the appearance of a builidng
obviously required for strength, so that except for the main archway
the lower storey has no voids, but above the balcony are arched recesses
producing the necessary effect of depth and substance, Considerable
interest attaches to the manner in which the entire surface of the
arcades and panels, while coloured tiles of winged dragons, elephants
and foliated birds add vitality to a composition which in itself is
remarkable for animation and strength,
1 Akbar Nama, II, 246-7.


## p. 537 (#577) ############################################

PALACES IN AGRA FORT
537
Within the Agra fort enclosure, the "Ain" states that Akbar built
"upwards of five hundred edifices of red stone in the fine styles of
Bengal and Gujarat”. Many of these structures were demolished
later to make room for Shah Jahan's white marble pavilions, but
enough remain to show the general character of these early Mughu!
palaces. They now consist of a group of buildings in the south-east
corner of the fort, but originally they extended along the greater
portion of the east wall overlooking the river. Apparently built and
added at different periods during the long course of Akbar's reign,
that known as the Akbari Mahall, with the Bangali bastion, is the
earliest, as it is contemporary with the fort-wall of which it forms
the upper part. At a later date, probably towards the end of the
sixteenth century, considerable alterations appear to have taken
place, and a section of the outer wall was dismantled in order to
accommodate another palace, that of the Jahangiri Mahall, intended
as a residence for the heir apparent and his family. Both palaces,
however, are designed on the usual plan of a central square court-
yard, with ranges of double-storeyed rooms on each of the four sides.
They are almost entirely of red sandstone, with insertions of white
marble on the exterior, and the principle of construction is the “beam
and bracket", the arch being sparingly used and then only in its
ornamental capacity. There is little difference in the character of
these two palaces, the older one being perhaps a little coarser and
bolder in its treatment compared with the finer and more ornate
handiwork on the Jahangiri Mahall. In the latter one is struck by
the elaborate character of the carved stone brackets which support
the stone beams, wide eaves and flat ceilings in all parts of the
building. In no other structure, except in a range of similar pavilions
in the fort at Lahore being built about the same time, has such
ingenuity been shown in the design of these supporting brackets, or
have they been applied in such profusion. Apart from this feature,
which, as a constructional motif, is itself of wooden origin, several of
the details in this palace suggest a derivation from a phase of wooden
architecture which may have preceded it. This is particularly
.
noticeable in the treatment of the portico of the eastern façade, and
also in the use of struts in the northern hall. In the former the two
slender pillars with their expanding caps and bases and the arrange-
ment of brackets above would be much more appropriate in wood
than in stone (Fig. 22); as regards the latter the struts supporting
the ceiling are obviously copies of wooden beams; in fact the whole
design of this hall resembles the wooden interior of some of the large
houses in the city of Lahore of a slightly earlier date (Fig. 23). That
those who worked under Akbar borrowed readily and from a variety
of sources is obvious. In the general character of the fort at Agra
there is a resemblance to the fortress at Gwalior, with its palaces of
Man Singh built early in the century, which cannot be accidental.


## p. 538 (#578) ############################################

533
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
The elephant gateway, the cupolas of Amar Singh's gateway, the
palaces rising out of the fort-walls, the planning of these palaces, and
also some of the carved details, all indicate that the Rajput citadel,
which had moved Babur to admiration some forty years before,
was used freely as a model by his more fortunately placed grandson.
Although Lahore was regarded as only the secondary capital of
the empire, the fort that Akbar constructed there almost at the same
time as that at Agra was conceived and carried out on practically
the same grand scale. It may be remarked, however, that its lay-out
generally indicates an advance on that of the more southerly capital,
as it is rectangular in plan and the interior arrangements are more
regularly aligned. It was, however, altered even to a greater extent
by Shah Jahan, and subsequent rulers, including the Sikhs, have also
changed its appearance. What is left of the palace buildings, dated
from the time of Akbar, and possibly Jahangir, show that the style
of these was similar in most respects to the Jahangiri Mahall at Agra,
except that the carved decoration was, if anything, more vigorous
and unrestrained. Elephants and lions figure in the brackets and
peacocks on the friezes, from which it may be inferred that Hindu
craftsmen predominated, and that the supervision of the Mughul
cverseers was of a very tolerant order. One other fort of the first
rank was built by Akbar some twenty years later at Allahabad, which
still shows remains of considerable architectural merit, but its outer
walls have been partly dismantled, and its interior structures have
been very roughly treated, so that little is left of its original appear-
ance. It is of the same irregular plan as the fort at Agra, but this
again may have been partly due to its position at the junction of
the Jumna and Ganges. One noble pavilion, however, still remains
intact, the Zanana Palace, from which the character of the whole
may be surmised. The pillars enclosing the verandah of this structure
are in pairs, with two groups of four at each corner, a columniation
of an unusually rich kind. Above, the pillars branch out into
bracket-capitals forming elaborate clusters of forms which break up
the deep shadow of the eaves that they support. For its effect
depends very largely on the number and distribution of its pillars
with their superstructures, and records of other buildings in this fort
indicate that a peristylar arrangement was much favoured by its
architect.
It is characteristic of Akbar's almost insatiable passion for building,
that even before the forts of Agra and Lahore were completed, he
began to contemplate a scheme which eventually matured into the
greatest of all his architectural projects. This was the construction
of an entirely new capital city on an elevated site at Fathpur Sikri,
some twenty-six miles distant from Agra. No sooner was the idea
formed than plans were prepared, artizans summoned from all parts
of his dominions, and the work pushed on with such lightning rapidity


## p. 539 (#579) ############################################

2
FATHPUR SIKRI
539
that not only its splendour but the almost magical speed with which
it was completed was a matter of contemporary comment. Jahangir
writes that "in the course of fourteen or fifteen years that hill, full
of wild beasts, became a city containing all kinds of gardens and
buildings, and lofty elegant edifices and pleasant places attractive
to the heart";' while Father Monserrate, after giving details of the
extraordinary expedition with which certain buildings were finished,
remarks that “all the material, prepared according to specification,
was brought complete and ready to the place where it was to be used”,
reminding him of the scriptural precedent "and the house, when it
was in building, was built of stone made ready before it was brought
thither : so that there was neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of
iron heard in the house, while it was in building” (1 Kings vi. 7).
Such, however, was the common practice of masons in the east.
India, although at certain times and in some localities the carving
was apparently done on the walls, as a rule the stones were separately
prepared, carved into pattern and then conveyed as a finished pro-
duct to the building to be placed in position. The latter was evidently
the system in vogue in Mughul times. At Akbar's new capital the
method would present no difficulties, as there was an unlimited supply
of good building material to be quarried on the site itself. In the
words of the "Ain": "Red sandstone. . . . is obtainable in the hills
of Fathpur Sikri, His Majesty's residence, and may be broken from
the rock at any length or breadth. Clever workmen chisel it so
skilfully as no turner could do with wood. ” Most of the labour was
done in a kind of open-air workshop on a level space towards the
western limits of the ridge. Here the masons erected for their own
worship a mosque called the "Stone-cutters' Masjid”, which is
probably one of the earliest buildings on the site.
The ridge at Fathpur Sikri is a rocky eminence running north-east
and south-west. Along and astride it was marked out a rough
rectangle approximately two miles long and one mile broad, three
sides of which were walled, while the remaining side was protected
by a large artificial lake. The encircling walls were not very sub-
stantially built, being merely a symbol of demarcation and of little
military value. In an emergency Akbar and his court could readily
fall back on the strong fortress of Agra, to which it was connected
by a broad thoroughfare, the conditions being somewhat similar to
those of Windsor Palace and its relation to the Tower of London.
Nine gates were constructed, but only four of these were of importance,
while there was the usual "Elephant Gate" or Hathi Pol, but this
was a ceremonial gateway to the palace precincts and not in the
city walls. The principal entrance was by the Agra gate which faced
1 Memoirs, 1, 2.
2 First Jesuit Mission to Akbar by Father Monserrate. Memoirs of Asiatic
Society of Bengal, 1, 560, 642.


## p. 540 (#580) ############################################

540
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
that city, and from this the main road bifurcated, one branch leading
up to the palaces, the other continuing lower down the hill to the
suburb of Fathpur.
The chief buildings of the capital occupy a comparatively small
portion of the centre of the walled area, the crest of the ridge having
been levelled into an irregular flat space about half a mile long and
an eighth of a mile broad. On this plateau the palaces and other
civil edifices form one compact group, with the Jami' Masjid standing
slightly detached; a separate road leads to each. Around and a
lower levels were various supplementary structures such as sarais,
baths, wells, offices, the treasury and the mint. All the principal
buildings on the ridge are not aligned parallel but diagonally to the
rectangle of the encircling walls, facing accordingly east and west.
This plan was necessary in order to ensure regularity, and to be in
accordance with the fixed orientation of the Jami' Masjid, the largest
and most important building on the site. The main road from the
Agra gate led directly into the large courtyard of the Diwan-i-Am,
as this was a semi-public enclosure to which most visitors to the
capital would have the right of admittance. But the far wall of the
Diwan-i-Am, with its extension, marks the dividing line between
the public and private portions of the palace precincts. Behind this
are the royal palaces, residences, retiring rooms and offices of state,
each within its own courtyard or enclosure, regularly disposed but
apparently on no particular plan except that from Akbar's own
apartments access could readily be obtained to all parts.
Although all the buildings at Fathpur Sikri conform to the general
style of architecture which was developed during Akbar's reign, the
Jami' Masjid, on account of the special purposes for which it was
intended, and the traditional character which it was required to
maintain, was treated in a somewhat different manner from the
other edifices. The latter, comprising the secular or civil buildings,
such as palaces, residences, state compartments and offices, are as a
whole similar to those already referred to in the forts of Agra and
Lahore. They are mainly trabeated in their construction and the
indigenous methods and motives prevailed. But a few of them are
even more "Hindu" than those already described, and it is quite
clear that some of their decorative features are copies of those seen
in the temples of the Jains and Hindus. Akbar's tolerance, and his
sympathies with Indian culture as a whole, partly accounted for these
unorthodox intrusions, but there is another explanation. The magni-
tude of the undertaking, and the haste with which it was accom-
plished, necessitated an immense staff of workmen drawn from all
possible sources. Numbers were drafted from distant provinces, and
it is clear that in their personnel the Hindu element predominated.
Each group brought with it the characteristics of its own particular
school, and more than one of these can be distinguished by certain


## p. 541 (#581) ############################################

JODH BAI'S PALACE
541
unmistakable motifs and methods. As in the production of the secular
buildings racial and religious considerations were of little consequence
they were employed on these, as their style plainly shows. On the
cther hand the local craftsmen, having for generations been more
closely concerned with Islamic usage, were concentrated on the pro-
duction of the great mosque.
Most important of the residential buildings is that known as Jodh
Bai's palace, one of the first structures to be erected, and one in
which the Hindu influence is mainly in evidence. Like many large
dwellings in the east, particularly those in contact with Islam, it is
planned with the object of ensuring privacy and protection. Its
double-storeyed rooms face inward on to a quadrangle, their con-
tinuous rear walls acting as a high screen all round. The lower storey
of its exterior walls is almost forbiddingly plain, but, above, balcony
windows project near the angles, and there is a handsome gateway
on the east side also decorated with balconies, while kiosks rise over
its parapet. Over the high walls appear the gabled roofs of the
interior apartments, bright with coloured tiles, and at each corner
is a low-pitched dome. The regularity of its exterior is broken on one
side by an annex for baths and service purposes, and on the opposite
side a double-storeyed pavilion is attached called the Hawa Khana or
"House of Air". The design of the entrance is characteristic. Witn
a porter's lodge at one side, the shallow arched porch leads into a
vestibule for the accommodation of an inner guard. The doorway
on the opposite side, giving admission to the interior courtyard, is not
in line but to one side, thus entirely preventing any one outside from
seeing within. Around the paved courtyard of the interior of the
palace is carried a one-storeyed corridor, but imposed in the middle
of each side is a substantial building two storeys in height consisting
of a pillared portico in front and an arrangement of rooms in the rear.
In each corner is also a double-storeyed structure surmounted by the
low dome mentioned above. From the courtyard the appearance
of the whole building is remarkable for its two rows of wide eaves
which cast immense shadows over every frontage, and also for the
shape and variety of the angular roofs, which with the parapets,
still retain traces of a considerable amount of colour.
The two-storeyed buildings in the centre of each side are com-
modious apartments, each more or less a self-contained suite, but
connected with the corner rooms and also with one another by the
continuous corridor below. They are sufficiently large to serve a
variety of purposes, some of them being evidently reception rooms,
while others are dining rooms or retiring rooms and for promenades.
More than one of the chambers of the upper storey is covered by a
waggon-vaulted roof of stone. But it is when some of the carved
features inside these rooms are examined that special interest is
aroused. There are pillars, balconies, grilles, niches, and such details


## p. 542 (#582) ############################################

542
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
as volutes and the "chain and bell", all copied exactly from these
well-known elements in the temple architecture of western India,
notably Gujarat. So marked is this influence that there are good
reasons for assuming that the task of constructing Jodh Bai's palace
was entrusted to the descendants of the craftsmen who built the
temples at Mount Abu, Somnath, Modhera, and other famouse shrines
of those parts.
There are two other residences at Fathpur Sikri, besides the palace
of Jodh Bai, presumed to have been built for the accommodation of
Akbar's queens. Neither of these, however, equals in size and im-
portance that of the Rajput princess, as they are little more than
pavilions, but they are structures which in style and decorative treat-
ment have considerable individuality. It has been shown that Jodh
Bai's palace was apparently the handiwork of one group of artizans,
and there seems little doubt that the construction of each of the other
queen's houses was assigned to similar groups of craftsmen to produce
these after their own particular fashion. The one known as Miriam's
house is almost too slight to have any distinctive architectural
character, as it consists merely of a suite of rooms, a portico, and a
kiosk on its roof. But on the other hand the interior was ornamented
with pictures, scenes painted on the walls of various subjects drawn
with great vigour. Only traces of these have survived, but it is clear
that several of the leading exponents of Akbar's school of miniature
painting were engaged on this mural decoration. The other house,
that of the “Turkish Sultana”, is also structurally of no special
significance, except that it is a pleasing little retiring room surrounded
by a piazza, but the manner in which this is embellished and the
nature of its carving calls for remark. Every portion of its surface
inside and out is chiselled in a variety of designs and patterns, some
of the usual conventional order common to Islamic art in India, while
others are based on natural foliage, such as the vine and the pome-
granate. A series of panels forming the dado of the interior depicts
with remarkable spirit and grace "jungle" scenes of trees and animals
in a very specialised plastic style (Fig. 34). All the designs are notable
for the refinement of their treatment, and are executed in a delicate
method of low relief, the only fault of which is that it is almost timid
in its handling. The whole of this structure seems to have been
produced by a group of craftsmen of marked artistic and creative
ability, but the constrained manipulation of their material shows
that stone had not always been their métier, and the probability
is that they were originally wood-workers from Lahore.
In addition to these apartments of the queens there are two other
secular buildings of outstanding character. One of these is Birbal's
house, and the other the Diwan-i-Khass. Although each was designed
for a very different purpose, the exteriors of both are of the style
which defines the majority of the buildings of Fathpur Sikri. Birbal's


## p. 543 (#583) ############################################

THE DIWAN-I-KHASS
543
house attracts the eye on account of the exuberance of its carved
decoration, both inside and out, every surface displaying sculptured
patterns, while the brackets of its exterior are amazingly ornate.
Its roof is surmounted by two domes, in the construction of which a
hollow space has been left between the inner and outer shells, showing
that the principle of the double dome, even in its low-pitched form,
was already being put into practice. The other structure, the Diwan-
i-Khass, a hall provided for audiences of a special nature, has a com-
paratively plain exterior, but the arrangements inside are unique.
Externally the building appears to be in two storeys, but the interior
is really one lofty room. This is divided at about half its height by a
gallery on brackets continued around its four sides, with other narrow
hanging galleries thrown diagonally from corner to corner. Where
the diagonal galleries meet in the centre of the room, a circular
platform has been inserted, the entire construction being supported
on an immense cluster of brackets forming the capital of a column
which rests on the ground. The intention of this complicated con-
trivance was to enable the emperor to sit on a throne in the central
platform and hear disputants from all sides, the whole arrangement
symbolising his "dominion over the four quarters". This freakish
notion the designer has worked out to the best of his ability, and the
main feature, the central pillar with its huge circular array of
brackets, in spite of its top-heavy appearance, has considerable
dignity of effect (Fig. 36). Akbar's ideas were usually sound, and
his good taste almost instinctive, but occasionally, as in this instance,
his desire for the bizarre prevailed. A similar weakness is observable
A
in two other structures near the Diwan-i-Khass; one, a square canopy
standing on a platform, and known as the "Astrologer's Seat", has
excessively large voluted struts peculiar to the Jain temples of western
India. The other is a tall pyramidal structure in five storeys known
as the Panch Mahall, a somewhat fantastic erection with the many
pillars comprising one of its stages elaborately carved each in a
wholly different design.
But undoubtedly the most imposing building at Akbar's capital
and the one on which the highest architectural skill was concentrated
is the Jami' Masjid. Additional interest attaches to this structure
because it was the first of those grand congregational mosques which
adorn the chief cities of the Mughuls and for which it furnished the
original model. The main façade forming the exterior of the sanctuary
hall may not be equal to that of the Jami' Masjid at Delhi, the largest
and finest of its type, but the planning and arrangements of its
interior aisles are far superior. The difference in the architectural
.
treatment of the mosque at Fathpur Sikri compared with that of
the civil buildings just described is notable. The two principal
divergences are that whereas the construction of the latter is trabeated,
on the other hand the mosque is mainly arcuate, and secondly in


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514
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
place of carving inlaid marble and plaster relief in colour were freely
used. When completed in 1571 it displayed a perfectly regular plar,
symmetrical in all its parts with the courtyard entered by gateways,
one in the middle of three of the sides. Shortly afterwards, however,
three additions were made, which although they have increased its
interest, have tended to disturb the balance of the composition as a
whole. The first of these was the tomb of Salim Chishti, the saint
whose long residence on the site is commemorated by a very chaste
marble structure placed on the north side of the quadrangle. A little
later the south gateway was replaced by the magnificent portal
known as the Buland Darwaza, a triumphal archway to commemorate
Akbar's conquest of Gujarat. In 1612 a further encroachment was
made on the north side of the courtyard by the inclusion of Islam
Khan's large tomb, causing the entrance-gateway to the mosque
on that side to be dismantled and closed.
Admirable though these
additions are in themselves, they are not part of the scheme as at
first planned. The two tombs, although that of Salim Chishti is a
gem of craftsmanship, as will be described later, obstruct the fine
spatial effect of the great quadrangle, while the Buland Darwaza.
which, as will be shown, is equalled by no other gateway in India,
dominates not only the entire mosque but even much of the city
itself by the immensity of its mass.
The mosque is contained within a high wall crowned by a crenel-
lated parapet and enclosing a rectangle of 438 feet by 515 feet.
Against the inside of this retaining wall is a continuous range of
arcaded cloisters ornamented above by a series of small kiosks. The
only original doorway to the courtyard now remaining is the Bad-
shahi, or "King's Gate", on the east side, the private entrance of
the emperor, a structure according so perfectly with its surroundings
that its excellent proportions and carefully adjusted parts may quite
readily pass unnoticed. But the most important feature of the whole
conception is the sanctuary hall on the opposite side of the quandrangle.
Hitherto the Indian builders had generally considered it sufficient
merely to enlarge and amplify the western aspect of the mosque
enclosure in order to make a hall suitable for its purpose. At Fathpur
Sikri the plan was adopted of designing the sanctuary in the form
of a spacious self-contained place of worship, a separate structure
provided with a nave, aisles and chapels so combined as to produce
a unity in itself. The facade of this fine prayer hall resolves itself into
two parts consisting of a large arched portico in the centre, with
arcaded wings extending on each side (Fig. 38). Above this façade
rise three domes, of the flattened "Lodi" type, but considerably
stilted in order to add to their height; the central one roofs the
principal prayer chamber, corresponding to the nave, while the
others are over the side chapels. As usual there is the unavoidable
masking of the main dome owing to the height of the parapet over


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a
JAMI' MASJID; BULAND DARWAZA
645
the portico, but this is a failing in nearly all Indian mosque elevations,
the heritage of the maqsura or arched screen prescribed by ancient
tradition. The qualities of simplicity and largeness which distinguish
the exterior of this sanctuary are maintained in the treatment of the
interior. This resolves itself into several major compartments, the most
important of which is the central hall or nave, divided off from the
wings by solid walls but communicating with them by side arches.
This central hall, approached by archways from the portico, is the
principal prayer chamber, and consists of a square room with a high
domed roof. On each side of this central compartment are the other
main divisions of the interior comprising the wings. These wings are
not enclosed by walls as is the central hall, but open on to the
quadrangle by means of an arcaded piazza, behind which are the
pillared aisles. Within these aisles are the two side chapels, the posi-
tion of each being indicated exteriorly by the smaller domes. Occupying
an upper storey at the extreme ends of the wings are chapels for the
zanana. Much of the effective appearance of the interior is obtained
by the long receding vistas of the aisles, the contrast of the pillars
and their brackets with the graceful pointed archways, the inlaid
geometrical patterns which decorate the piers, and the brilliantly
painted ornament on the mihrab walls. The mihrabs themselves,
twenty-one in number, are inferior in design to those of the Qil'a-i-
Kuhna Masjid, produced nearly twenty-five years before, but they
endeavour to vie with these in the diversity and richness of their
painted surfaces. An unorthodox motive is introduced into one of
these prayer niches in the form of a border containing a grape
vine.
In spite of the fine symmetrical effect of the sanctuary façade the
eye of the spectator as he enters the enclosure naturally turns to the
southern entrance of the mosque formed by the Buland Darwaza,
the immense bulk of which throws its shadow all day long across the
courtyard. This is a superb structure, and thoroughly characteristic
of the period. Each art culture has usually one form of utterance in
which it finds the readiest means of expression, and with the Mughuls
this was the entrance gateway. To the gardens of their tombs, the
quadrangles of their mosques, the walls of their forts, the courtyards
of their palaces, the entrance gateway was always a prominent
feature, excellently proportioned in itself and at the same time in
complete harmony with its surroundings. These gateways were
essentially an Islamic heritage derived from the earlier days of the
Faith when life was mainly spent in fortresses of which the most vital
parts were the entrances. Experience in designing these in time of
war bore fruit in times of peace. Under the Mughuls its culmination
is seen in this magnificent triumphal archway and entrance-gateway
combined. Seen from any point of view, but specially from a distance,
its great size and commanding height present a most imposing
35


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546
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
1
1
appearance. Its measurements are significant. From the platform
in front of the doorway to the finial at the top is 134 feet, but including
the flight of steps leading up to it, its total height is 176 feet. Across
the main front it measures 130 feet, while its greatest depth from
front to back is 123 feet. Such an unpremeditated addition to the
mosque presented certain constructional difficulties on this side of
the courtyard, as the ridge slopes away sharply, thus necessitating
an unusually long and steep flight of steps at its foot. Its approach
and outlook also emphasise the fact that the whole project was an
afterthought, as it overlooks the hammam, beyond which are the
quarters of the servants. And further, its boldly projecting façade,
towering height and almost aggressive strength would be more
appropriate to a citadel than the peaceful and sacred precincts of
a mosque. Yet it fulfils its double purpose as a triumphal arch and
a mosque gateway combined in a remarkably effective manner. The
method by which this monumental edifice is gradually diminished
in its parts until it is finally reduced to an ordinary-sized doorway,
as was its secondary intention, has been well described by Fergusson,
who correctly attributes the result to long experience in working on
right principles.
Few buildings could furnish a more marked contrast to the one
referred to above than the tomb of Salim Chishti, situated only a
short distance away on the opposite side of the courtyard. Each
structure makes a separate appeal, the gateway in view of its size
and majestic proportions, the tomb by its casket-like appearance and
the richness and delicacy of its detail. The date of the latter is 1571,
but as it is constructed wholly of white marble it appears to belong
to a later period. What, however, has happened is that the original
tomb was built of sandstone, as were all the buildings of this time,
but subsequent devotees, feeling that the shrine of their saint should
be made of something more precious than common stone, converted
it into its present state by substituting marble for certain parts, and
covering others over with thin slabs of the same material like a veneer.
It may therefore be described as an architectural palimpsest. But
although the material has been changed its design cannot be far
different from what it was when first erected. In the course of con-
version the dome may have lost its original contour through being
covered with slabs of marble, while in the process of copying the
pillars and perforated screens some extra play of fancy may have
been indulged in. The plan and general arrangements of the tomb
building call for no special remark; there is the square-domed
cenotaph chamber surrounded by a verandah and with a projecting
pillared portico. Painted patterns cover the walls of the interior,
semi-precious stones of artistic colours decorate the floors, and the
pierced screens of the verandah are of exceptionally fine workman-
1 Indian and Eastern Architecture (1910), 11, 297.


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TEMPLES AT BRINDABAN
547
ship. A wooden canopy over the sarcophagus is inlaid with arabesques
in ebony and mother-of-pearl of exquisite design, probably executed
by artizans of the northern Punjab noted for their skilled inlay. What,
however, distinguishes this building from all others is the character
of its pillars and pilasters, and, more particularly, the style of the
large and elaborate struts which support the wide-spreading eaves.
The shape of the pillars themselves is unusual; a zigzag pattern
covers their shafts, and their capitals recall those of the stalactite
crder. But the convoluted struts with perforated ornament between
the scrolls springing from half-way down their shafts and carried
right up to a bracket under the eaves are unique. Based on somewhat
similar supports in the temples of Gujarat, the Mughul craftsmen
elaborated this idea to the extent here seen. Much of the marble
work is, however, attributed to the early years of Jahangir's reign,
when the style was losing its quality of direct simplicity, an appear-
ance which in the West would be regarded as a form of the
baroque.
The methods perfected by the builders of Akbar's time had one
comparatively small but interesting repercussion. It has been shown
that the early Mughul buildings owed not a little of their character
to the indigenous temple architecture, elements from which were
freely borrowed. To find therefore at the sacred Hindu retreat of
Brindaban near Muttra several temples assimilating in their turn
much of the contemporary style of the Mughuls is some measure of
its vigorous nature. Of these temples that of Govind Deo erected
in 1590 is the most notable, and testifies not only to its adaptability
to other purposes but is also a tribute to the versatility of the Indian
masons who built it (Fig. 45). There is a wide difference between
the needs of a Mughul palace or mosque and those of a Hindu temple,
but any difficulties this interchange presented were readily overcome.
The temple was never quite finished, but the plan and intention of
its designers can be understood from what now appears. As far as
the exterior is concerned this suggests certain aspects of the architec-
ture of western India, the exuberance common to that style, however,
having been restrained by its contact with the more sober style of
the Mughuls; it shows a sense of refinement and an appreciation
of the value of plain surfaces not often seen in temple design. The
contrast between the horizontal lines of its richly moulded buttresses
and the perpendicular effect of the pillared openings between has
been well maintained. A still more advanced treatment is observable
in the interior as its cruciform plan, “Tudor” arched transepts, and
groined and vaulted hall would not be out of place in a Gothic
church. Here the builders seem to have gone farther afield for
inspiration, as the principle of the intersecting arches supporting the
domed roof is allied to that employed in the provincial style of
Bijapur, while the roofing of the aisles was apparently borrowed from


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548
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
the transepts of the Jami' Masjid ' at Jaunpur, where the application
of the waggon vault and groin had been already mastered. But the
pillared cloisters in two stories with their lintels and carved brackets
are reminiscent of the palaces of Fathpur Sikri. There is much that
is original in the temples of Brindaban, but in few other Hindu
buildings is the influence of the prevailing style of the Muslims more
obvious than in the temple of Govind Deo.
Yet the secular architecture also of the Hindus did not remain
unaffected by the building activities of Akbar and his succesors, as
is shown by several palaces and other important structures erected
in Rajputana and Malwa about this time. Chief among these are the
royal residences and other state buildings in the romantic city of
Amber which were begun about 1600, and the palace of Bikaner, also
begun towards the end of the sixteenth century. These were followed
by the palace-fortresses of Jodhpur and Orchha, with the stately palace
of Datia, all dating from the early part of the seventeenth century,
and finally by the palace at Dig commenced about 1725. All these
palatial retreats of the Rajput princes show by their style an associa-
tion with the building art as evolved by the Mughuls, but with
elaborations of their own. Apart from the richness of their decoration,
they display a fancifulness expressive of the imaginative Hindu mind,
together with evidences of a survival of the ancient craft traditions
of the country. This Mughul foundation breaking out into Hindu
exuberance is well illustrated in its most florid aspect by the Durbar
buildings of Amber (Fig. 47), and perhaps with slightly more restraint
by the fluted pavilions of the citadel at Jodhpur. It is not difficult
to see in such buildings how the stone structures of the early Mughuls
by the addition of engrailed arches, glass mosaics, painted plaster,
gilded gesso and sgraffito were adapted to the more colourful require-
nients of the Hindu princes.
After the death of Akbar in 1605 there was a pause in the building
operations of the Mughuls. The strenuous and unceasing activity of
this great building monarch was followed by a period of partial
inertia. His successor's chief interests lay in fields other than that of
architecture. Under Jahangir the art of miniature painting fourished
exceedingly, and owing to his patronage it reached great heights.
But perhaps this emperor's principal delight was in the laying out
of large formal gardens, the romantic beauty of which has contri-
buted not a little to the aesthetic reputation of the Mughul dynasty.
Babur had already introduced this type of garden in India by
devising the Ram Bagh at Agra, and Akbar had a similar large
enclosure planted at Sikandra, where afterwards he planned his
tomb. Through Jahangir's love of nature, inherited from his pro-
genitor Babur, the Mughul garden was brought to perfection, and
at all places where this emperor sojourned for any length of time one
1 See vol, di, p. 628.
I


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MUGHUL GARDENS
849
of these pleasaunces was generally prepared. Some of his courtiers
also built retreats of this kind, as for instance Asaf Khan's Nishat
Bagh in Kashmir, and, later, the emperor Shah Jahan had a very
large one constructed at Shalamar near Lahore. The Mughul garden
is û conventional arrangement of squares, usually in the form of
terraces placed on a slope for the easy distribution of the water which
is an essential part of the scheme. Each terrace is divided into four
lesser squares in order to conform to the traditional plan of what is
known as the char bagh or fourfold plot, the whole being a combina-
tion of rectangles and straight lines, no curved paths or even circular
parterres being found. Artificial pools with numerous fountains play
an important part in the composition, while in an inconspicuous spot
a bath or hammam is sometimes introduced. Pavilions occupy central
positions, and the flagged causeways are shaded by avenues of
trees. One of the loveliest of these gardens is the Shalamar Bagh
in Kashmir constructed by Jahangir, which, however, owes not a
little of its charm to the wonderful situation with a background
of mountains and a view over the crystal waters of the Dal lake.
Immense chanar trees grace its walks and green swards, water ripples
and cascades down its sloping channels, lotus-bud fountains dance
in the sunshine and beds of flowers give colour and fragrance to the
whole.
It was in the production of scenes of this kind that the emperor
Jahangir excelled, but nevertheless his predecessor had given such
an impetus to the art of significant building that in spite of any
indifference he may have shown towards the subject, it was carried
along by its own momentum. The incentive was in a manner
supplied by a solemn obligation laid upon Jahangir, namely the
construction of his august father's mausoleum. Whether Akbar or his
son was responsible for the design of this structure is not clear, but
that practically the whole of the actual building was carried out in
Jahangir's reign is now fairly well established. The site, which was
on a garden prepared by Akbar at Sikandra near Agra, and also
very probably some idea of the design of the tomb, were settled
before his death. In all his building schemes, although some of these
may have been fanciful, Akbar made no serious mistakes, and it is
singular that the least successful monument associated with his name
is his mausoleum. The inference is that had this “Great Moghul"
taken the precaution of erecting his tomb in his own lifetime the result
might have been different. Under Jahangir's spasmodic supervision,
which on occasion looked like undue interference, and with his
dilettante temperament, the final state of the structure is perhaps
largely due. Jahangir had a trained eye for a picture, but not a
mind that could understand the largeness and breadth required for
architectural effect. When on one of his hasty visits to Sikandra he
relates that he was not satisfied with the work, and ordered the


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650
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
mason “once more to knock down some parts”, some of the reasons
for its defects may be apparent.
Spatial effect is the key-note of Akbar's tomb, and the great square
garden with which it is surrounded emphasises this quality. This
garden, itself an important accessory to the composition as a whole,
is a formal arrangement of squares, but much of its original intention
is now lost. It was divided into four quarters by broad paved cause-
ways raised 8 feet above the surrounding parterres. The sweep of
each of these wide approaches is interrupted in the middle by being
expanded into a terrace containing an ornamental tank and fountain.
Aqueducts traverse these causeways, and in convenient places flights
of steps lead down to flower beds at a lower level. A fine gateway
is introduced into the centre of each side of the high embattled wall
enclosing the whole garden area, that on the south side and the
largest of all forming the main entrance, the others being false door-
ways added to ensure symmetry. Each of these portals is a minor
monument in itself, as they are charmingly proportioned and the
variety of their carved, painted and inlaid decoration makes each
one a work of art. Specially does this apply to the main entrance,
which, apart from its elegant appearance and the boldness of the
arabesques decorating its surfaces, is distinguished by the addition
of a tall white marble minaret rising from each of its four corners.
The presence of these minarets marks a notable step in the develop-
ment of Islamic architecture in Hindustan, as in no other instance
does this characteristic feature appear in upper India since the
erection of the Qutb Minar four centuries previously. And here it
emerges, not as an experiment, but fully developed with all its parts
in perfect harmony and in exact and final form.
The mausoleum building itself is a huge structure occupying a
square of 340 feet side, and consists of five terraces diminishing as
they ascend, thus approximating a low truncated pyramid. Muslim
tombs in India are invariably designed on the plan of a crypt in
which the body is buried, and a building above containing the tomb-
chamber with its cenotaph. As might be expected in view of Akbar's
unconventional nature his tomb is a departure from this orthodox
arrangement. Instead of the subterranean vault there is a high
domed hall, almost on ground level, which takes the place of crypt
and tomb-chamber combined. Around this domed hall was built
the lowest terrace, a stupendous mass of masonry 30 feet high, and
almost solid except for a range of cloisters continued all round its
outer sides. Externally, as part of the facade, these outer sides of
the terrace are arcaded, and in the centre of each is inserted a large
portico with a deeply recessed archway. The portico on the south
side forms the entrance to the domed mortuary chamber, which is
reached by a long and slightly descending corridor, light being
admitted through clerestory windows by means of shafts from above.


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TOMBS OF AKBAR AND JAHANGIR
551
The roof of this terrace provides a wide platform, in the centre of
which rises the superstructure comprising the four remaining storeys.
Three of these storeys consist of superimposed tiers of pillared arcades
and kiosks built mainly of red sandstone. The arcades lead to ranges
of rooms in the interior, but they also act as a façade to the masonry
which encloses the dome of the mortuary chamber below. Supported
on these rows of sandstone arcades is the topmost storey of white
marble, its perforated lattices forming the cloisters of an open court
with a cenotaph in the centre; each corner of this storey is surmounted
by a slender marble kiosk.
Although there is much that calls for admiration in this vast
structure, particularly in the treatment of its final storey, which for
delicacy and finish is unsurpassed in any other Mughul monument,
as a whole it is disappointing. It is unimpressive because it lacks
the quality of mass which is one of the principles of beauty, and
of coherence which is the basis of style. The lowest terrace is a noble
conception, substantial yet not heavy, a suitable foundation inviting
an imposing superstructure to be erected on its broad platform. But
the opportunity was not taken. Instead of a solid and dignified
building above, consistent with this ponderous base, there arises a
light and almost frivolous array of arcades and kiosks, more appro-
priate in a summer palace than forming the principal part of a royal
mausoleum. Here it may have been that Jahangir interposed,
ordered what had previously been approved to be demolished and
"reconstructed at a cost of fifteen lakhs of rupees". It was at this
critical stage that those concerned in the production of the building
seem to have become confused and lost their aesthetic propriety in a
maze of little arches, balconies and pillared pavilions. They recap-
tured it in the chaste and elegantly designed marble storey above,
but by that time it was too late to present this ambitious monument
as a complete and balanced unity.
Much the same criticism applies to Jahangir's own mausoleum
built at Shahdara near Lahore some twenty years later, which is
conceived on somewhat similar lines. But it lacks even the lofty
effect of the earlier example, as there is no superstructure, the body
of the building consisting of a single story in the form of a square
terrace 22 feet high. It is true some appearance of height is obtaincd
by a handsome minaret rising from each corner, and there was
originally a marble pavilion placed in the middle of the platform
above, which, when in situ, would have offered a central point of
interest. Now shorn of this feature, which was removed during the
Sikh supremacy, the whole composition is singularly ineffective.
Efforts were made to improve its appearance by the lavish applica-
tion of inlaid marbles, glazed tiles, and painted patterns, some of
which are remarkably good examples of mural decoration, but no
amount of embellishment of this nature can redeem its obvious


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552
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
architectural defects. As a contrast to the somewhat affected
grandeur of both these royal mausoleums, and also as a proof that
probably under less exacting conditions the craftsmen of the time
were capable of first-rate workmanship, are two tombs erected
towards the end of Jahangir's reign, one at Delhi and the other at
Agra. Apart from the high character of their design both of these
structures mark a definite stage in the evolution of the style, and
forecast plainly its subsequent attainments. The tomb of Khan
Khanan at Delhi, a nobleman who died in 1627, shows a return to
the Persian mode initiated in the mausoleum of Humayun some sixty
years before. Unfortunately in the eighteenth century it was stripped
of much of its marble covering, so that now it is little more than a
shell, but even in a mutilated state it is possible to see that in many
of its particulars it is a copy to a smaller scale of the emperor's tomb
near by. In one notable respect it differs, however, from its proto-
type, in that the wings of the façade have been simplified so that the
plan, instead of being octagonal, is a plain square; in all other direc-
lions both designs are almost identical. Each stands on a terrace
with seventeen arched recesses on each side. The mausoleum building
which rises above the platform formed by the terrace has much the
same distribution of parts in both examples; there is the large central
arched recess, the arrangement of kiosks above, and the double
Timurid dome over all. The tomb of Khan Khanan therefore indi-
cates that the Persian attribution even after this considerable passage
of time was still definitely alive (Fig. 58).
The other tomb of this date, that enshrining the remains of
I'timad-ud-daula at Agra, is a very different conception. It was
built by this high official's daughter Nur Mahall, the brilliant con-
sort of Jahangir, who, it should be added, was also responsible for
the construction of that emperor's mausoleum at Shahdara. No two
buildings could be more dissimilar, and the wide divergence of style
seems to show that while on the one hand the royal tomb of Shahdara
was no doubt originally planned by Jahangir himself, the tomb at
Agra bears in every part of it the imprint of the refined feminism
of this remarkable queen. There is no other building like it in the
entire range of Mughul architecture, the delicacy of treatment and
the chaste quality of its decoration placing it in a class by itself.
It is a comparatively small structure, the tomb building measures
only 69 feet wide, and as it is constructed in the purest white marble
with much of its ornamentation of inlaid semi-precious stones it
conveys the impression of a rich article of jewellery magnified into
architecture. Situated in the middle of a square enclosure, recalling
in some respects the pleasant repose of a cloister garth, this brilliant
little edifice stands out in strong contrast to its surroundings of dark
cypress trees and red sandstone gateways. The latter in themselves
are charmingly designed entrances, notably that on the western side
>


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BUILDINGS IN WHITE MARBLE
553
by which the mausoleum is approached from the river (Fig. 55).
All these essential appendages are in the best of taste and skilfully
subordinated to the marble edifice enthroned in the centre amidst
parterres, tanks and fountains. The mausoleum consists of a square
lower storey with a gracefully proportioned turret like a dwarf
minaret thrown out from each corner, while above a smaller second
storey rises in the form of a traceried pavilion; the interior is a simple
arrangement of a central chamber containing the cenotaphs, sur-
rounded by connected rooms corresponding to an enclosed verandah.
Light everywhere is obtained through perforated screens, a “gossamer
of fretted grilles" which give an exquisite texture to all the openings.
And over the whole, delicately modifying the dazzling effect of the
white marble, is laid with deft fingers a diaphanous veil of coloured
inlay in patterns of bewildering diversity. Whether regarded as an
architectural composition of matchless refinement, as an example of
applied art displaying rare craftsmanship, or as an artistic symbol
of passionate filial devotion, the tomb of I'timad-ud-daula expresses
in every part of it the high aesthetic ideals that prevailed among
the Mughuls at the time. But this building in addition to its intrinsic
beauty has another interest. It is the first structure of the Mughuls
to be composed entirely of white marble, and also the first in which
that form of inlaid decoration known as pietra dura makes its ap-
pearance. In its technical aspect therefore it denotes a turning-point
in the evolution of the building art, marking the change from the
sandstone construction and opus sectile ornamentation which satisfied
the simpler taste of Akbar and Jahangir to the sumptuous white
marble pavilions and pietra dura of Shah Jahan.
Augustus's boast that he found Rome of brick and left it of marble
has its counterpart in the building productions of Shah Jahan, who
found the Mughul cities of sandstone and left them of marble. In the
forts of Agra and Lahore, and at other places besides, this emperor
swept away many of the sandstone structures of his predecessors and
in their places erected marble palaces. The quarries of Makrana in
Rajputana provided unlimited supplies of this finely textured building
material, so that pavilions, courts and columned halls were all con-
structed in pure white marble; when for various reasons this was not
made use of the stone which took its place was faced with stucco,
the plastered surfaces being polished to an egg-shell whiteness in
keeping with the marble masonry. Such a definite change of material
naturally implied a corresponding change in architectural treatment.
The building art acquired a new sensibility. Instead of the rectangular
character of the previous period there arose the curved line and
flowing rhythm of the style of Shah Jahan, while the chisel of the
stone carver was replaced by the finer instruments of the marble
cutter and polisher. No longer was effect dependent on bold string-
courses and intricate carving; the chaste texture of the marble itseif


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534
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
--
-
was sufficient to give quality to any building, and any relief decora-
tion required to be of the most refined order and sparingly applied.
Variety of surface was obtained by panels in correct proportions
outlined by mouldings fine and rare in their contours. Most of the
ornamentation was, however, of a much more subtle nature, colour
and gilding being introduced, while patterns inlaid in semi-precious
stones—the pietra dura already mentioned—were a special feature.
But perhaps the most striking innovation was the change in the shape
of the arch, which in almost all buildings of Shah Jahan's reign is
foliated or cusped in its outlines, so that white marble arcades of
engrailed arches became the distinguishing characteristic of the
period. During the governance of this emperor, Mughul architec-
ture undoubtedly found its golden age. Of a highly artistic nature
he satisfied his desires by the building of sumptuous edifices of all
kinds, not waiting to complete one piece of self-expression before
committing himself to another. All other forms of culture not
dependent on the mason's art, such as literature, the school of
miniature painting encouraged by Akbar and Jahangir, and similar
intellectual pursuits, were disregarded, his entire patronage being
concentrated on building. And it was building of the most sensuous,
even voluptuous order. The productions of his predecessors were
looked upon as almost barbaric, the court chronicler comparing
certain of their "abominations" with the masterpieces of “this august
reign, when. . . lovely things reached the zenith of perfection". 1
At
Agra and Lahore the palaces within the forts were largely recon-
structed, and all the cities of the Mughuls display examples of Shah
Jahan's building predilections. In the fort at Agra the greatest
changes are recorded, the whole of the structures north of the
Jahangiri Mahall being dismantled and their places taken by marble
edifices such as the Diwan-i-Am, Diwan-i-Khass, the Khass Mahall,
the Shish Mahall, the Musamman Burj, the Anguri Bagh, the Machhi
Bhawan and the Moti Masjid. Details of all these alterations and
additions are to be found in contemporary accounts written in the
flowery language of the time. But even the most ardent flatterer,
trained in poetical analogies, could barely do justice to the surpassing
beauty of some of these structures, which in spite of vicissitudes still
hold their own as the most elegant of their kind. What could be
more graceful than the hall of the Diwan-i-Khass with its series
of double columns, or the Musamman Burj hanging like a fairy
bower over the grim ramparts? Even these, however, are excelled
by the peerless refinement of the Moti Masjid or "Pearl Mosque".
one of Shah Jahan's latest additions, as it was erected in 1654 when
the art had attained its ripest state. Few religious edifices convey
to the beholder a finer sense of purity than this chapel royal,
which both on account of the flawless quality of its material, and
1 Badshah Nama, I, 221.


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DELHI FORT
555
the skilfully modulated disposition of its elements, represents the
Mughul style at its zenith. The subordination and contrast of the
entrar. ce archways to the arcading of the sanctuary, the proportions
and arrangement of the kiosks surmounting the cornices, and,
notably, the subtle raising of the drum of the central dome in relation
to those on each side, are a few only of the aspects of this structure
which show in the most emphatic manner that the principles of
balance and rhythm were by this time thoroughly appreciated by
the Mughul builders.
Similar alterations were effected by Shah Jahan in the interior
arrangements of the fort at Lahore, where this ruler's additions
mainly in marble may be readily distinguished from the sandstone
structures of his predecessors.