No More Learning

His grandfather had refounded the ancient city
of Agra and given it the name of Akbarabad. After long search for
a site with amenities of landscape and climate, in 1639. he began to
lay the foundations of a great fortress to contain the royal palace
and of a city round it. The site chosen was on the bank of the Jumna,
north of the older cities of Delhi, close to a small fort of the Sur


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206
SHAH JAHAN
kings. For ten years work was concentrated on it, artificers and
labourers being collected from all parts of the empire. Transport of
stone from near Agra, 150 miles away, by impressing carts, dislocated
the ordinary trade of that neighbourhood so much that the English
factors at Agra could not move their goods to the coast. In nine years
the fort and palace had been completed at a cost of six million
rupees (£750,000), and to celebrate its occupation the peacock
throne which had been set in hand at Shah Jahan's accession and
had taken seven years to complete was brought from Agra, and great
rejoicings took place. The new city was called Shahjahanabad.
Early in 1651 the emperor set out on his last visit to Kashmir.
Skardo, the principal fort in Baltistan, had been taken by a rebel
and a short campaign was authorised in which it was easily recovered.
The court's stay in Kashmir was, however, cut short by floods and
storms which desolated the beautiful surroundings of the capital,
and Shah Jahan left for Lahore. He had now decided to renew his
attempt to win back Qandahar, and warned by the previous failure
began to make more complete preparations. Aurangzib marched
from Multan in the spring of 1652 with a large force, and Sa'd-ullah,
the chief minister who had accompanied the emperor to Kabul, pro-
ceeded to join him with other troops and ample stores of munitions.
Immediately after his arrival before the fortress Aurangzib began
the investment. . In spite of the fierce bombardment by the Mughul
artillery and the repulse of sorties the siege made little progress. The
Persian guns were better served and the besiegers wore out some of
their largest cannon. From the north the Uzbegs were already
threatening Ghazni, which lay on the route between Qandahar and
Kabul, and Aurangzib was recalled to Kabul after a siege of less
than three months.
Another prince now asked for permission to take the city. Dara
Shukoh was appointed governor of Multan and Kabul and spent the
winter at Lahore constructing large_cannon, providing munitions,
and arranging columns of supply. In February, 1653, he set out from
Multan, and instead of confining his efforts to direct assaults he also
attempted to occupy the surrounding country so as to prevent relief
coming from Persia. Bist and Girishk, which lay to the west, were
recaptured and the district round was laid waste. As usual
endeavours were made to win over the garrison, but they were no
more successful than the bombardment. The outlying posts were
abandoned to favour concentrated attack. New cannon brought up
destroyed a long stretch of the walls, but the attackers were unable
to force an entry. The approach of autumn favoured the besieged
and the exhaustion of munitions and supplies made it necessary to
withdraw the Mughul army if it was to escape destruction by the
rigours of winter in Afghanistan. Early in October Dara Shukoh
.
began his retreat to India.
9


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DISPUTES WITH GOLCONDA
207
His failure in these border affairs had perhaps made Shah Jahan
more watchful over dependent states within the empire. Shah Jahan,
while setting out for Ajmer, in 1654, sent Sa'd-ullah the chief minister
with a considerable force to destroy some new fortifications which
the Rana of Udaipur had constructed at Chitor in contravention of
the agreement made with Jahangir. The show of force was enough
and the Raną sought the intercession of Dara, who was in favour
with the emperor in spite of his failure to recover Qandahar. Sa'd-
ullah was able to demolish the new works and even to obliterate
what remained of the old, and the Rana's submission was marked by
sending his eldest son to carry his apologies to court. Dara was
received with costly presents and a high title and was allowed the
privilege of a chair in the royal presence.
A small force was also detached during the return march from
Ajmer against the Raja of Garhwal, whose country produced gold
and the musk deer. An earlier attempt in 1635 under the governor
of Kangra had ended in disaster. That force had passed through
Sirmur, occupying the Dun or valley between the Siwalik hills and
the Himalayas, and marched up the hills to within a few miles of
Srinagar, the capital of Garhwal. A nominal submission and promise
of tribute were obtained, but the force was then surrounded and cut
to pieces. This second expedition, conducted with more discretion,
also overran the Dun, hunting down the peasants who fled from their
homes and massacring them. Though it was joined by the Raja of
Kumaun, a jealous enemy of Garhwal, the commander after crossing
the Ganges and entering the enemy country was deterred by the
approach of the rainy season and withdrew after making provision
for the administration of the small tract he had occupied. A third
expedition early in 1656 caused the raja to send his son to court
to offer submission.
The king of Golconda, who remained submissive during the earlier
wars in the Deccan, was now the cause of fresh warfare. His minister
Mir Muhammad Sa'id, better known by the title of Mir Jumla, had
extended the authority of Golconda over a tract of country in the
Carnatic where diamonds were found. For these services he received
no reward owing to the jealous intrigues of other courtiers and he
offered himself to the Mughuls. Aurangzib, who had maintained
touch with affairs in Golconda, and had been reappointed governor
of the Deccan on his return from Qandahar, had had to press for
arrears of payment under the existing treaty. He recommended the !
acceptance of Mir Jumla's offer and when the king, towards the close
of 1655, imprisoned the minister and his son Aurangzib claimed his
release on the ground that he had been appointed to office under the
emperor. To enforce this demand, and also with a view to recovering
1 The amounts, had been fixed in huns, a currency of southern India, and
exchange controversies added to the dispute. Cf. note 2, p. 197.


## p. 208 (#242) ############################################

208
SHAH JAHAN
the arrears and securing the marriage of his own son Muhammad
with the king's daughter, Aurangzib assembled a force. For a time
the king remained obdurate, but when Aurangzib's army advanced
within his territory he made professions of obedience and released
Mir Jumla's son and mother. As he still retained their property.
the Mughuls marched on Hyderabad. In alarm the king removed his
treasures to the strong fortress of Golconda a few miles away and
attempted to bribe Muhammad while allowing his own troops to
oppose the Mughuls. Muhammad's forces quickly put the men of
Golconda to flight and pursued them up to the walls of the city,
while he executed the bearer of the bribe for his treachery. Hydera.
bad was taken and the king renewed his attempts to buy off the
invaders. Grudgingly he parted with some of Mir Jumla's property and
while making protestations of his loyalty continued to strengthen the
fortress of Golconda and to seek aid from the king of Bijapur.
By the middle of February, 1656, Aurangzib himself arrived in
front of Golconda. An attack by the king's troops was repulsed, and
he again sent presents and offered to despatch his own mother to
ask pardon for his offences. Two further attempts to drive off the
Mughuls failed, and reinforced by Shayista Khan and troops from
Malwa, Aurangzib was about to press the siege when he received
orders from Shah Jahan to pardon the king. These commands were
for the present kept secret, as though the king had promised to pay
arrears of tribute the negotiations about marriage were not complete.
The payments and restoration of Mir. Jumla's property continued
in instalments, and to hasten full compliance Aurangzib mounted
large guns. Finally, the king's mother was received and agreed to
pay ten million rupees. Mir Jumla now arrived in the camp and
was formally invested with a robe of honour, and a month later the
marriage was celebrated. Though the Qutb Shahi dynasty lingered
on for some years its independence was now thoroughly sapped and its
decline is marked by the issue of coin shortly after this time with
the touching legend “It has come to an end, well and auspiciously”. I
Mir Jumla received the title of Mu'azzam Khan and Shayista Khan
that of Khan Jahan. After the death of Sa'd-ullah, the learned and
capable minister of Shah Jahan, Mir Jumla was appointed to succeed
him and exercised great influence.
The kingdom of Bijapur, unlike that of Golconda, had emerged
from the contests of twenty years before with independence, and had
(not become a tributary of the empire. During this period it had been
well governed by Muhammad Adil Shah, who had maintained
friendly relations with Shah Jahan and in 1648 had been formally
recognised by the emperor as entitled to be known as “Shah"
instead of "Khan". While busying himself with improving the
internal administration of his government he had also extended his
1 J. A. S. B. 1909, p. 317.


## p. 209 (#243) ############################################

>
AURANGZIB ATTACKS BIJAPUR
209
authority right across India from sea to sea, coming into conflict with
the Portuguese in the west and with Golconda in the east. These
successes led him to assume a splendour of display which annoyed
Shah Jahan and led to reproofs that were meekly accepted.
With Mir Jumla in high favour at the court and entirely devoted
to his interests Aurangzib now began to plan aggressive measures
against Bijapur. These were already in train when the death of
Muhammad Adil Shah in November, 1656, provided a plausible
excuse for interference. A youth named 'Ali 'Adil Shah was placed
on the throne, and some people doubted his right to succeed though
the matter was uncertain. 'Ali 'Adil Shah was too young to control
the factions at his court and rebellion broke out in the newly con-
quered territory to the east. Aurangzib's intrigues won secret prc-
mises of allegiance from some of the nobles, and money was lavished
to attract deserters. Sanction was received from the emperor, who
gave clear definitions of the objectives, the complete subjection of
Bijapur if possible, and failing that the reconquest of those nortions
of the old Ahmadnagar kingdom which had been retained by Bijapur.
If this predatory campaign were successful the army was in the next
place to make an end of even the nominal power of Golconda. Troops
to aid these enterprises were sent from Malwa and Mir Jumla
himself, who knew the Deccan better than any other officer, was in
command. As soon as he arrived at Aurangzib's headquarters the
expedition started, but its progress was slow as ample provision had
been made of heavy guns which could not be moved rapidly. The
first serious operation was the siege of Bidar, a strongly fortified town
on a rocky plateau with an inner castle protected by moats deep
in the living rock. In spite of a fierce defence and daring sorties the
besiegers were able to fill the moats and damage the walls. A channe
rocket caused an explosion by which the commandant was mortally
wounded. An assault gave the city to Aurangzib, and the dying
commandant yielded up the citadel.
Aurangzib now sent forward troops to disperse the Bijapur army
which had advanced to meet him, and an indecisive engagement took
place. He was again stoutly opposed and his long lines of com-
.
munication were persistently harassed by large mobile forces of the
enemy. Feigning a retreat he attacked them and after handling them
severely seized their camp. The siege was renewed and for two
months the Mughuls were free to pursue it. When the Bijapur forces
again gathered they were attacked and dispersed before they could
approach the beleaguered city, which was assaulted and capitulated.
Further operations were, however, stopped by orders from the
emperor. His health was failing and he was more ready to listen to
the envious suggestions of Dara, who was approached bv emissaries
from Bijapur. The advance of the monsoon, during which military
operations are difficult, was made the pretext for instructions that
14


## p. 210 (#244) ############################################

210
SHAH JAHAN
peace must be arranged and the army should disperse. Negotiations
were quickly settled. An indemnity was fixed, and Bijapur agreed to
cede besides the two captured fortresses the fort of Parenda, which had
long eluded the Mughul grasp, forts in the Konkan, and Vangi. Even
these meagre promises were not fulfilled as the Bijapur officials, seeing
the Mughul forces dwindle, refused to surrender their strongholds.
For many years the Marathas had not been dangerous to the
Mughul administration, but while Aurangzib had been occupied with
Golconda and Bijapur Shivaji the son of Shahji had begun a career
which was before long to shake the Muslim power and finally exhaust
it. His father had been forced to enter the service of Bijapur, and he
himself offered to assist the Mughuls in their enterprise against that
kingdom in return for part of the territory to be wrested from it, but
he was put off with vague replies. When Aurangzib was fully occupied
with his invasion Shivaji surprised Junnar and organised raids through
Mughul territory west of Ahmadnagar. Memories of the difficulties
forced on the imperial arms by Shahji impelled Aurangzib to make
careful plans to ward off these dangers on his western flank. While he
was occupied in the siege of Kalyani one of his officers defeated
Shivaji and nearly captured him. The rainy season, however, made
campaigning more difficult in the Konkan than on the plateau and
operations had to cease, and when the treaty with Bijapur was made
Shivaji thought it wise to submit also.
Aurangzib's interests now pointed away from the Deccan to the
capital of the empire. By far the most capable of Shah Jahan's sons
and the most ambitious, he had found his enterprises thwarted by
the intrigues of his eldest brother, Dara Shukoh. Succession by
primogeniture is a dangerous rule in kingdoms beset by enemies and
full of elements only partly subdued. Shah Jahan, like his own father,
was prematurely aged, though his weakness was due to indulgence
in the pleasures of the harem rather than to wine, and as Jahangir
had resigned his authority to his wife, so did Shah Jahan place
excessive reliance in Dara Shukoh, and openly designated him as
heir. While Aurangzib was occupying the onerous post of viceroy of
the Deccan his conduct of affairs was subject to irritating direction.
His successes were not rewarded and his emoluments were in fact
reduced. He saw that Dara was allowed to govern rich tracts by
deputy and had rank and honour heaped upon him. Even the
bitterness of sectarian hatred was infused into the relations between
the brothers, for while Aurangzib was rigidly orthodox Dara was an
amateur of Hindu mysticism like many Muslims who adopted the creed
of the Sufis. Shah Jahan in the last few years had lost all his best
counsellors by death, and affection for his eldest son had blinded his
judgement, when he entrusted control. to one who was lacking in
experience of the affairs of either peace or war.
In September, 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill, and for nearly a week his


## p. 211 (#245) ############################################

THE STRUGGLE FOR SUCCESSION
211
life was despaired of. His absence from the daily public receptions
led to the belief that he was dying, or even dead. Believing his end
was near Shah Jahan had himself carried as soon as he was able to
move to Agra. News from their agents at court was carried to the
three sons in their distant posts and was followed by wild rumours.
Each of them was determined not to be supplanted by Dara, but
their actions were dictated by their varying characters and circum-
stances. Impetuous and daring, Murad Bakhsh, who was governor
of Gujarat, murdered his capable minister 'Ali Naqi and attacked
and plundered Surat. He then proclaimed himself emperor and
struck coin in his own name at Ahmadabad, Surat and Cambay.
Shah Shuja', a more capable person who had for many years ad-
ministered Bengal with skill in both civil and military affairs, took
the field and advanced with his forces to seize the crown. Both of
them were in correspondence with Aurangzib, whose object was to
use them to further his own advantage. He wrote frequently to
restrain Murad Bakhsh till his own plans were complete, devising
a cipher to avoid discovery if his letters were captured, and he
organised a relay of messengers through the wild country that lay
between the Deccan and Bengal. Nor did he omit to set on foot
intrigues with officers at the court. His own movements were
hampered by uncertainty about the position at court and the ex-
haustion of his resources. At the first rumours of Shah Jahan's
precarious state the Bijapur officers had completely suspended the
fulfilment of the treaty and Aurangzib was being pressed to enforce it.
Dara's plan was to crush Murad Bakhsh and Shah Shuja' first and
then to march against Aurangzib. Recognising the greater danger to
be feared from the last he had spared no pains to weaken him. While
Shah Jahan was still dangerously ill,“ Dara issued orders which
removed Mir Jumla from his post as chief minister but directed him
to secure the surrender of Parenda, while at the same time they
recalled the troops sent from headquarters to aid in the Bijapur
campaign. He tried to sow dissension by transferring Berar from
Aurangzib to Murad Bakhsh, an offer which was at once rejected.
Shah Jahan's recovery to some degree of health was marked by the
despatch of a force under Dara's son Sulaiman Shukoh with a capable
general Raja Jay Singh of Amber to meet Shah Shuja'. Two other
armies were sent west shortly afterwards to recover Gujarat from
Murad Bakhsh and to hold Aurangzib in check. It was difficult to
find commanders for these, so great was the respect in which Aurang-
zib's generalship was held. Mir Jumla was recalled to court, but
was formally arrested and detained by Aurangzib as a subterfuge,
which was at once unveiled when his plans had succeeded.
The first army met Shah Shuja' near Benares and an exchange
of messages took place. Dara's endeavours to stop news of affairs
at the capital from reaching his brothers had given them the excuse


## p. 212 (#246) ############################################

212
SHAH JAHAN
that they were anxious to save their father from danger at his hands.
In accordance with Shah Jahan's instructions Raja Jay Singh assured
Shah Shuja' that his father was alive and well and offered him for-
giveness and the grant of Bihar if he would return to his post. Shah
Shuja' feigned compliance, intending to attack Raja Jay Singh as
he withdrew, but the raja, penetrating his design, attacked and scat-
tered his forces, and pursued Shah Shuja' to the borders of Bengal.
Before this battle took place Aurangzib had matured his plans. To
secure his rear he changed his attitude towards the kings of Golconda
and Bijapur, no longer holding them to the fulfilment of their engage-
ments, but promising rewards when he should become emperor. He
asked Bijapur to employ Shivaji in the Carnatic while at the same
time he was offering Shivaji permanent grants in the Deccan. Troops
had been enlisted, European gunners employed and large stores of
ammunition prepared. By February, 1658, he was ready to leave
Aurangabad, and after a month's stay at Burhanpur set out on the
march which was to conduct him to the throne. Omitting no pre-
.
cautions he even imprisoned his own father-in-law, who showed
reluctance to join his rebellious enterprise. Near Dipalpur he was
joined by Murad Bakhsh and made a short march to Dharmat,
fourteen miles from Ujjain.
The two imperial armies sent against the brothers, hampered by
their instructions to fight only as a last resource, had wasted time
and suffered from divided counsels and lack of intelligence. An
attempt to stop Murad . Bakhsh failed, and the earliest news of
Aurangzib's movements was that he had already crossed the Narbada
and was rapidly approaching. Aurangzib sent messages to Raja
Jasvant Singh of Marwar, who commanded the Rajput army, asking
him to withdraw as Aurangzib was merely going on a peaceful visit
to his father. The raja's reply was to advance towards the prince's
position. Then only he learnt that Murad had joined his brother;
too late he offered his submission, and his honour prevented him from
accepting the terms which were offered. In the battle which ensued
the Rajputs attacked the rebel forces with great bravery, but the
disposition of the imperial troops was bad, and they were unskilfully
directed. Many of their chiefs lost their lives and Raja Jasvant
Singh, badly wounded, was forcibly led away as he advanced to sell
his life for his master. Only one of the senior Muslim officers was
killed and the following day four of them offered their services to
Aurangzib while the rest escaped. Shah Jahan, who had left Agra
for the greater comfort of his new palace at Delhi, returned on
hearing the news of this disastrous loss,
In the glow of his victory Aurangzib ordered the foundation of a
new town called Fathabad, and after a short rest marched to Gwalior,
arriving there at the end of June in the height of the Indian hot
1 "Fath" is Arabic for "Victory".


## p. 213 (#247) ############################################

BATTLE OF SAMOGARH
213
season. Here he received news that Dara had advanced from Agra
to meet him with a large army and was holding the fords of the
Chambal river which lay between them. To a letter from his sister
declaring that the emperor had quite recovered and that his revolt
was impious, he recounted how Dara had thwarted him and must
be removed. The old jealousy between rival chiefs of the Bundelas
led Champat Rai, who had suffered at the hands of Dara, 1 to lead
a division of Aurangzib's army to a little used ford far to the east
of the main road which had escaped observation, and the main force
also crossed by this, enduring great hardships from the roughness of
the track and the intense heat.
By this détour and rapid march Aurangzib forced Dara to abandon
his elaborately prepared position on the main road and, leaving
behind much of his heavy artillery, to retreat towards Agra. Near
Samogarh, about ten miles east of the city, the two armies met.
Dara's army, though superior in numbers and containing many
reliable Rajputs and Sayyids of Barha, included masses of untrained
men and foreign mercenaries whose loyalty could not be relied on.
Unskilled in the conduct of a battle, he had few able leaders and in
particular was unable to make the best use of his bravest men. His
first error was to fail to attack Aurangzib on his arrival at Samogarh
with troops exhausted by the heat, and to allow them to rest for
the night. Next morning when the battle began his guns opened
before the enemy were in range, and his first attack on the left was
launched on unscathed opponents who had reserved their fire and
repulsed it. Changing front to the centre this force was rapidly met
by Aurangzib's reserves and cut to pieces, its leader, Rustam Khan,”
being killed. On the right Khalil-ullah made a half-hearted attack
on Murad Bakhsh which was not pressed, but a reserve from the
centre, largely composed of Rajputs, followed it up and penetrated
the rebel forces, even attacking the elephant on which Murad Bakhsh
was seated. He himself received three arrow wounds in the face and
his driver was killed before him. In spite of his personal bravery
he was forced back and the Rajputs attacked the fresh forces which
Aurangzib led against them in person. Their bravery and devotion
to leaders won the admiration of Aurangzib, who tried to restrain
his bodyguard from striking down beaten foes.
Dara's conduct of the battle was as inept as his character and
training would suggest. At an early stage he left the centre and
moved to the support of Rustam Khan, thus masking his own artillery,
and losing control of other parts of the field. He was met by the fire
of Aurangzib's guns, which had been reserved till then. Attempting
a fresh attack to the right he found his heavily armoured troops
1 See p. 201.
2 The later title of the general Muqarrab Khan (see p. 189), who had served
Shah Jahan well in Rohilkhand and in the Balkh campaign.


## p. 214 (#248) ############################################

214
SHAH JAHAN
exhausted by the heat and met by fresh reserves, while the enemy's
guns were moving to encircle him. His officers pressed him to dis-
mount from his elephant on which he offered too conspicuous a mark.
The empty howdah, seen from a distance, made his troops believe
he was dead, and the shattered units broke and dispersed for safety.
Dara escaped on horseback, barely able to cover the short distance
to Agra without a halt, having lost 10,000 men in the battle, while
many others perished from heat or exhaustion. Ashamed to meet
his father after defeat when he had sallied forth boasting of the
victory he expected, he fled in a few hours towards Delhi, accom-
panied only by a handful of servants, and leaving the emperor in
despair.
The victor, after prayer, received his wounded brother, ascribing
the victory to Murad Bakhsh's bravery and declared that Murad's
reign should begin at once. Then moving slowly towards Agra he
camped outside the city and received offers of service from the nobles,
who easily abandoned the losing side. Shah Jahan invited him to
a meeting, to which he first agreed, but later withdrew his acceptance.
Crafty himself, he feared an ambush. The emperor, finding his over-
tures rejected, and seeing the city occupied by his son's rebellious
forces, was apprehensive for his own life, and closing the gates pre-
pared to defend the fort, which contained a strong garrison of slaves
and was almost impregnable by assault. Aurangzib opened fire with
his guns, but it was ineffective and time pressed. He therefore cut
off the supply of water from the Jumna, and as the wells in the fort
were brackish distress was quickly felt. After three days the emperor
again appealed to the filial duties of his son and was met by renewed
assertions that Aurangzib was faithful to him while Dara was the
traitor. The gates were opened and the fort was cleared of Shah
Jahan's adherents, under the supervision of a grandson. Aurangzib
was again pressed to visit his father, who sent his daughter Jahanara
Begam with a proposal that the empire should be divided between
the four brothers. Aurangzib even set out in a gorgeous procession
to enter the fort, but the dissuasions of his officers were reinforced
by the delivery to him of a letter despatched by Shah Jahan to Dara
assuring him that all would be well, and he passed by the gate.
After holding a darbar with great ceremony to receive his new
officials he started in pursuit of Dara, but his march was slow, as
his ever suspicious mind was occupied with the possibility of danger
from the ambition of Murad Bakhsh. Secluded owing to his wounds
Murad felt that his brother's power was increasing while he himself
was overshadowed, and he began to increase his own troops by
offering liberal pay and titles. When so many captains were stark
adventurers, more likely to gain profit by fighting than in a settled
peace, it was easy to gain recruits. His clumsy designs were easily
read by Aurangzib, who met them by craft and ruthlessness. Having


## p. 215 (#249) ############################################

AURANGZIB BECOMES EMPEROR
216
marched a short distance from Agra he sent money and horses to
Murad to aid his expenses in the pursuit of Dara and invited him
to a banquet. For some days the dissuasion of his more apprehensive
officers kept Murad from accepting the invitation, but a personal
attendant who had been corrupted by Aurangzib induced him to
enter his brother's camp after a heated day in the chase. The brothers
a
ate together and Murad was invited to rest after the hunt. A female
slave who was sent to his tent to shampoo his legs removed his
weapons as he slept and he was easily made a prisoner, and carried
off secretly and immediately to the fort at Delhi. Fickle troops at
once joined Aurangzib and their leaders accepted rich gifts.
Meanwhile Dara, who had seized Delhi in his first flight and had
begun to collect a fresh army, soon realised that he could not hope
to resist Aurangzib there. He therefore pressed on to Lahore, leaving
guards on the Sutlej and striving to increase his own forces and to
corrupt the generals of his brother. There was reason to hope that
the fatigue of Aurangzib's army would allow him time to organise a
successful resistance.
By the confinement of Murad Bakhsh Aurangzib was now relieved
of immediate anxiety, and he marched on to Delhi, where he rapidly
matured his plans. One force was sent at once after Dara, and another
was despatched east to capture Allahabad as a bulwark against
Sulaiman Shukoh and the possibility of action by Shah Shuja'. For
three weeks he halted, busy with the details of civil administration,
Here he finally achieved his original plan and assumed the imperial
title, though with scanty pomp, taking the additional name of
‘Alamgir (universe grasper). Thus ended the reign of Shah Jahan,
who spent the remaining years of his life a prisoner in the fort of
Agra. " Here he was confined in the gilded marble palace he had
built, from which he could gaze down the Jumna with its arid dusty
banks to the magnificent tomb he was building for his wife-and
himself.
By race Shah Jahan was three-quarters Indian, both his mother
and grandmother having been Rajput ladies of high birth, and the
failure of his sons and army in the enterprise against Balkh showed
that the Mughul line in India was no longer able to cope with the
hardy and turbulent tribesmen beyond the Hindu Kush. Each of
the Mughul emperors from Akbar to Aurangzib seemed to realise
and avoid the faults of his predecessor more diligently than to emulate
any good qualities that existed. As a youth Shah Jahan was accus-
tomed to see his father indulging to excess in drink, and Jahangir
himself records that he was unable to persuade his son even to taste
liquor till he was twenty-four. And throughout his life, while his
marriage to Mumtaz Mahall proved a pleasing example of conjugal
1 While at this period Roe states that both father and son were fond of red
wine it is clear that Shah Jahan never became a drunkard.


## p. 216 (#250) ############################################

216
SHAH JAHAN
happiness for nearly twenty years, and later he became addicted to
sensual pleasures, he never subordinated his own judgement to female
influences as Jahangir did.
Even during boyhood the restless uncertainty as to their hopes
of a crown that always obsessed the sons of an oriental ruler was
forced upon him. The dispute with his elder brother Khusrav over
the elephant fight which disturbed the last days of his grandfather
Akbar occurred when he was not fourteen, and shortly afterwards
he saw Khusrav try to wrest the throne from their father. During a
stay of over three years (1615-19) in India Sir Thomas Roe was at
the court for long periods and his business brought him into contact
with Shah Jahan, who was then governor of Gujarat and thus of
great importance to the British ambassador endeavouring to establish
trade. The grievances of the English traders naturally prejudiced
.
Roe against the man whom he believed to be responsible for not
righting them. Moreover, the prince disliked Roe, who insisted on
being treated with the dignity due to his office as ambassador and
could not be cajoled or brow-beaten. Roe's allowances from the com-
pany did not permit him to offer presents so costly as those of the
Portuguese who were his competitors for favour. Allowing for these
sources of bias Roe's judgement of the prince is confirmed by other.
sources. He found Shah Jahan at the age of twenty-four already
mature, and writes :
I never saw so settled a countenance, nor any man keepe so constant a
gravety, never smiling, nor in face showing any respect or difference of men;
but mingled with extreme pride and contempt of all. Yet I found some inward
trouble now and then assayle him, and a kind of brokennes and distraction in
his thoughts, unprovidedly and amasedly answering sutors, or not hearing. 1
Elsewhere he describes the prince as “proud naturally” and as
intolerant and more favourable to the Portuguese than to the English,
which was natural, as the English were newcomers of whom nothing
was known in India while the Portuguese had already established
some dominion there.
When he came to the throne Shah Jahan was nearly thirty-six,
and his character had mellowed. He had disposed of all possible
rivals of the blood royal and the people at large were prepared to
welcome a ruler who had shown ability as general and administrator
after the impotent government of his father. Nor were they dis-
appointed, as Shah Jahan, at last relieved from the long anxiety about
his position, showed that he had unexpected geniality and modera-
tion. His careful handling of the Afghan tribes round the Khyber
pass who commanded the line of communications with Kabul and
are even still a menace to civilised administration shows this. ? These
1 Shah Jahan was just about to leave for the Deccan, having superseded his
brother Parviz, of whom he was jealous.
2 C. E. Biddulph, Afghan Poetry (1890), p. xiv.


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SHAH JAHAN'S RELIGIOUS INTOLERANCE 217
qualities, however, did not permit toleration of abuses and negligence
of their duties by the officials of the empire, and there were notable
instances of local administrators being removed for such faults.
Though in matters of religion his plain straightforward creed per-
mitted no licence, he never degenerated into the bigot that his suc-
cessor became. With the latitude of Akbar's religious beliefs and
practices, and the looseness of Jahangir's court, he had no sympathy,
and his objects were primarily to restore the strict profession of Islam
rather than to persecute believers in other religions. Thus he soon
abolished the ceremonial prostration before the throne which had
been instituted by Akbar and maintained by Jahangir, and in its
place prescribed forms which savoured less of divine worship. The
ostentatious use of the divine era instituted by Akbar ceased so far
as the record of months on the coinage was concerned a few years
after Shah Jahan's accession, except in one or two outlying places,
though the practical value of a calendar of solar months led to their
continued use (but not invariably) for fiscal purposes.
In 1633 Shah Jahan ordered the demolition of Hindu temples
which had been begun in the previous reign, especially at Benares,
and many were demolished. These orders were followed by a pro-
hibition of the erection of new shrines or the repair of older buildings.
Intermarriage between Hindus and Muslims, which had been com-
mon in the Punjab and Kashmir, was forbidden in 1634. Hindus
were directed to keep to their own style of dress, and to discontinue
practices which were offensive to the tenets of Islam, such as crema-
tion or the burning of widows near a Muslim cemetery, or the sale
of intoxicating liquor. Mass conversions of Hindus to Islam were
also encouraged, and in some cases were forcibly effected. All these
acts, however, were dictated rather by the desire to maintain the
strict tenets of Islam than to pursue the course of iconoclasm which
was adopted by Aurangzib. Thus the demolition of new temples was
not followed by the erection of mosques on their sites. In his later
years Shah Jahan appears to have left Dara unchecked in his studies
of Hinduism, which led him to seek for common truths underlying
two faiths differing so much in their external practices. 2
For the expedition against the Portuguese at Hooghly there were
grounds other than those of religious intolerance. But the small band
of captives who eventually reached Agra alive were severely treated
in the hope of obtaining their conversion. Those who accepted Islam
1
1 A Hindu ordinarily fastens his upper garment on the left, and a Muslim
on the right.
2 "Les entretiens de Lahore" (entre le prince impérial Dara Shikuh et
l'ascète Hindou Baba La'l Das] by Cl. Huart and L. Massignon, Revue du
monde musulman, 1926, p. 285. Jahangir described the ascetic Chid Rup as
one who had thoroughly mastered the science of the Vedanta, which is the
science of Sufism ; Memoirs, I, 355. See also J. A. S. B. 1870, p. 273 and Sarkar,
History of Aurangzib, I, 296.


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218
SHAH JAHAN
a
were more kindly dealt with, and employment was found for them.
The buildings and land of the mission at Agra were taken over, but
two years later were restored. Although it was ordered that the
church should first be dismantled the materials were left with the
priests, who were permitted to build a house and to baptize children
of Christians, and perform marriages, to visit the sick, to hold services
for their congregations, and to use the cemetery which had been
granted by Jahangir and contains the oldest Christian tombs in
northern India. Churches in other parts of the Mughul dominions
were also demolished, but in 1641 Manrique was successful in
obtaining a grant for the restoration of the church in Sind, and also
secured the release of one of the priests who had been taken prisoner
at Hooghly.
The reign shows no new developments in administrative matters.
Under Jahangir both finance and general administration had de-
teriorated and Shah Jahan was largely occupied in restoring stability
and efficiency. His chief measure was a reduction in the gross
emoluments of the higher officials coupled with a clearer definition
of the number of troops they were required to maintain, and its
effect seems to have been to produce a real force instead of one merely
on paper, while it left the officials with a better margin of pay.
Shah Jahan's mind was orderly but not inventive. The court
historians and foreign travellers praise his diligence in affairs of state,
and the records of his military enterprises show the attention with
which he controlled them. State revenues increased, in spite of the
disastrous famine of 1630, owing to better supervision over officials
and greater security of life. In Bengal Shah Shuja' during his long
term as governor made progress in the detailed assessments of land,
which had been summary on the first conquest by Akbar. And in
the Deccan a Persian named Murshid Quli Khan, who had entered
Mughul service with 'Ali Mardan Khan, performed a similar task
after peace had been established. Trade, in spite of the edicts issued
by Akbar and Jahangir, was subject to constant restrictions dictated
by the theory that government should gain the highest possible
revenue from it, rather than that it should foster its improvement.
In 1633 Shah Jahan declared a royal monopoly in indigo, and ordered
that the sale of indigo throughout the Mughul dominions should be
effected only through a certain Hindu merchant, who was to receive
a loan from the treasury and share the profit. ? The monopoly
included the supplies in Gujarat as well as those round Agra, and
it failed, though it had the support of Mir Jumla, only because the
Dutch and Portuguese, who were large buyers, combined to keep
off the market. Commerce was much impeded by similar mono-
polies established by local governors, which were apparently un-
1 For the grant of these privileges see Journal, Punjab Historical Society, vta,
W. Foster, The English Factories in India (1630-33), p. xxxiv.
25


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FOREIGN POLICY
219
checked by the central government. "
In his relations with other powers Shah Jahan's diplomacy usually
consisted of attempts to dazzle by exaggerating his own prowess
against the small kingdoms of the Deccan, and it was marked by no
great statesmanship. Communications with Turkey were opened by
the despatch of a horse dealer who also took presents, and for some
years envoys were exchanged. A Turkish officer who arrived in 1653
brought a letter which mentioned the complaints made by Nazr
Muhammad, and Shah Jahan's reply, in which he taunted the Sultan
with his youth and the incapacity of his councillors, closed the
exchange of communication, which had been purely ceremonial. As
a good Muslim Shah Jahan frequently sent presents to the harif
of Mecca and gifts for the poor in the towns of Mecca and Medina.
With European nations the intercourse was less formal and em-
bassies were not contemplated. Portuguese influence, in spite of the
possession of territory, was waning, and that of the Dutch and English,
though it increased, was still directed to mercantile affairs and had
not achieved a political status. The Portuguese in 1630 attempted to
get the English and Dutch ousted from Surat and offered to settle
and trade there. They captured a Mughul ship to put pressure on
the Mughuls, but an English fleet came to the governor's assistance,
and later Shah Jahan was able to induce Bijapur to blockade Goa
and the Portuguese were glad to restore the ship and waive their
demands. In 1634 Methwold, the president at Surat, was able to
arrange a convention with the viceroy at Goa with beneficial results.
Rivalry between the Dutch and English continued, and Shah Jahan
offered concessions to the Dutch if they would expel the Portuguese
from Daman and Diu, but the proposal was not accepted by the
Dutch governor-general at Batavia. The persistence of the traders,
both English and Dutch, and the profits arising from their operations
gradually led to the grant of more privileges, though progress was
chequered and factors were sometimes subjected to imprisonment.
Shah Jahan had inherited some of the artistic taste of his father.
His practical, more business-like nature, however, diverted this from
the cultivation of painting and the accumulation of jewels and
curiosities to bolder and more striking developments of art. On his
accession he had taken from his treasury a large store of precious
stones and gold and ordered the construction of the peacock throne
with a canopy supported on twelve pillars adorned with enamel and
jewels. Seven years later, at the celebration of the vernal equinox,
he took his seat on it and the throne remained for a century one of
the glories of the Mughul dynasty till Nadir Shah after sacking Delhi
took it away. ”
1 W. H. Moreland, From Akbar to Aurangzeb, pp. 146 sqq.
2 For a picture of Shah Jahan seated on the throne with Asaf Khan present-
ing pearls see British Museum MS. , Add. 20,734, folios 689, 690.


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220
SHAH JAHAN
It was, however, in the field of architecture that the reign was
most distinguished. Indian art had still retained its faculty of learning
from foreign influence but making its own treatment and stamping
its productions with the marks of an indigenous culture. Shah Jahan
had a strong interest in the designs and plans of buildings and per-
sonally discussed and revised them. When he ordered the construc-
tion of the peacock throne he also began to rebuild most of the
existing palaces and apartments in the fort at Agra to make a setting
for it. Of the most conspicuous erections of which he was the
founder, the first to be begun (in 1632) was the Taj at Agra, to
contain the tomb of his wife. 2
While the Taj is conspicuous, not only for its grandeur of concep-
tion and delicate profusions of detail, the pearl mosque in the fort
at Delhi, constructed in 1646-53, delights the eye by its majestic
simplicity. Of the splendours of the fort at Delhi and the new city
founded there in 1639 much has been written. 3 The verse inscribed
round the cornice of the hall of private audience declaring that if
there is a heaven on earth it is here is less hyperbolical than the
boasts of many great builders. In size alone the palace exceeds
anything of the kind in Europe, covering an area more than double
that of the Escurial. The main street of the city is nearly a mile long
and very wide. The canals originally made for irrigation were
extended to supply the city and palace with water, and the chronicle
records that there was not a room in the palace nor a lane in the city
to which the supply did not reach.
Shah Jahan's activities in building were not confined to the centres
of government alone. In 1644 he ordered the construction of a
mosque at Tatta as a recognition of the welcome held out to him
by the inhabitants during his rebellion against Jahangir, while a
mosque near the tomb of Shaikh Salim Chisti and a pavilion on the
bank of the Ana Sagar at Ajmer also date from this reign.
In literature the cultivation of the vernacular, with which Shah
Jahan was familiar, was notable. Persian naturally maintained the
chief place and a court laureate named Abu-'l-Talib, who came from
Kashan in Persia and took the pen-name Kalim, versified the official
chronicle in a simpler style than the ornate poetry of the Indian
Muslims. Hajji Muhammad Jan also wrote a chronicle in poetry
and a description of the gardens of Kashmir and the buildings for
which Shah Jahan was responsible. A Brahman of the Punjab named
Chandra Bhan, who was employed by prince Dara Shukoh, also
wrote Persian poetry and prose. Among the writers in vernacular
1 "The Agra fort and its building", Arch. Survey India (1903-4), pp. 164 sqq.
2 The first part of her title “Mumtaz Mahall” has been corrupted into Taj.
For a description see chap. XVIII, pp. 561 sqq.
3 Fergusson, History of Indian and Oriental Architecture (1891), p. 591. For
specimens of the coloured inlay work see Preservation of National Monuments
in India (1896); plate 32, and of painting, plate 33. See also chap. XVII, p. 564.


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VERNACULAR LITERATURE
221
Sundar Das, a Brahman of Gwalior, was especially honoured, and
received the title of Maha Kavi Rai or great poet leader. Writing
in the Braj dialect of Hindi he produced a great work on composition,
besides a philosophical treatise and translations from the Sanskrit.
Chintamani of Cawnpore district, who composed a version of the
Ramayana and a treatise on prosody, was also patronised by the
emperor An even more distinguished writer in Hindu estimation
was Deb Dat, also a Brahman, from the present Mainpuri district,
who produced many works of religious poetry besides a treatise on
prosody and rhetoric and a play.
While these Brahmans under the influence of court patronage were
producing works of literary merit, men of other castes were com-
posing hymns which have done so much to deepen the spiritual life
of the masses and to inculcate faith and devotion in place of philo-
sophical abstraction. Pran Nath, a Chhattri of Panna in Bundel-
khand, wrote a number of poems which attempt to reconcile Hindu-
ism and Islam, their language itself being marked by a grammatical
basis of Hindi with a vocabulary Persian and Arabic words. A
cotton carder of Ahmadabad named Dadu, who lived most of his
life in Rajputana, was a prolific hymn writer and has many followers.
These authors were the founders of sects which still exist, known as
the Prannathis and Dadupanthis. Still greater · influence has been
exerted by Tukaram, a grain seller of low caste born near Poona,
whose hymns became so popular that he was persecuted by the
Brahmans as one who had no right to be a religious teacher.


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CHAPTER VIII
AURANGZIB (1658-1681)
AURANGZIB'S conduct during the war of succession was marked
by rapidity of movement, wise distribution and exact co-ordination
of forces, and quick-eyed generalship in the field. When to these
factors we add the previous war-experience of his troops and their
training in concerted action under his eyes, as well as his royal gift
of judging the character of men at sight and choosing worthy and
faithful agents, we can easily understand his unbroken success in
his war against three rivals of equal rank and resources, none of
whom was a coward or imbecile. He had opened the campaign on
30 March, 1658, when he set out for Delhi from Burhanpur. In less
than three months from that day, he had crossed two large rivers,
won two severely contested battles, captured the capital, and im-
prisoned the sovereign (18 June). The administration of the empir
now naturally passed into his strong and capable hands, and his
supreme position was freed from all rivalry after his treacherous
arrest of his discontented and jealous partner Murad Bakhsh (5 July).
The cloak of legality was thrown over his usurped authority when
he crowned himself emperor at Delhi on 31 July, 1658, with the title
of Abu-'l-Muzaffar Muhiy-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzib Bahadur
Alamgir Padishah Ghazi.
But he had two large enemy forces still to dispose of before his
throne could be considered secure. Dara Shukoh had escaped from
the ruin of his hopes at Samogarh (8 June), first to Delhi and then
to the Punjab, where he was raising an army, while Dara's eldest
son Sulaiman Shukoh, after defeating his uncle Shuja' (at Bahadur-
pur on 24 February) and dictating peace to him (at Monghyr about
17 May), was advancing towards Agra with his victorious troops.
An eastward march of Dara would have ensured the combination of
the father and the son and created a serious danger for Aurangzib.
But the luckless Dara had turned to the Punjab, as that province
was held for him by trusty deputies, its people were mostly attached
to him, and large numbers of recruits could be had at call among
its martial population. This move ruined Dara's cause. Aurangzib
inserted himself like a wedge between the father and the son and
rendered the junction of their forces impossible except by following
a wide loop to the north, of which he held the short chord in strength.
On hearing of this blocking of their westward route, Sulaiman
Shukoh's army rapidly melted away, his captains openly deserted


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PURSUIT OF DARA SHUKOH
223
him for their homes or for Aurangzib's standard, and within two
days of the arrival of the news of Samogarh and Dara's flight to the
north-west, Sulaiman's army shrank from 20,000 men to less than
6000. Aurangzib, holding the inner line, moved his divisions with
great ease and rapidity and blocked every ferry by which Sulaiman
tried to reach the Punjab by skirting the foot of the central Himalayas,
so that the young prince became in effect a hunted fugitive.
Thus, freed for the time being from all danger on the east,
Aurangzib turned his undivided attention to the pursuit of Dara.
That luckless aspirant to the throne was neither a general himself,
nor had he the wisdom of being guided by veteran generals whose
devotion to him was manifest. His sole strategy was to flee before
Aurangzib's forces, however small, without hazarding any action.
His timid and contradictory orders took the heart out of such of his
subordinates as were prepared to hold up the advancing vanguard
of the pursuers at the rivers of the Punjab, which are so admirably
situated to favour a defence by delaying tactics. The result was that
Dara, in spite of his getting possession of the imperial treasuries at
Delhi and Lahore (the latter estimated to contain ten million
rupees), besides the money and jewels that Shah Jahan had sent to
him from Agra, could not get time enough to give cohesion and
training to the 20,000 soldiers that he had gathered together at
Lahore. He merely fled from town to town down the Punjab river
at the first news of the arrival of Aurangzib's troops behind him.
The only difficulties of the pursuers came from the heat of the season,
the rapidity of the marches they had to make (which led to large
numbers of soldiers lagging behind), the exhaustion and death of
their horses and camels, and their inability to overtake the enemy
and bring him to a decisive action. Dara had left Delhi on 22 June,
1658, and reached Lahore on 13 July. His rear-guard, holding the
Sutlej at Talwandi and Rupar, had its left turned by Bahadur Khan's
crossing the river at Rupar on 15 August and fell back on the Beas
at Govindwal and finally on Lahore. Once more Dara's genius
quailed before that of Aurangzib; he despaired of success, and his
despair infected his troops.
Leaving Lahore on 28 August, at the head of 14,000 men, the fugi-
tive prince reached Multan on 15 September with his army reduced
to one-half by desertion. Eight days afterwards he vacated this city
and fled down the Indus towards the sea, finding rest nowhere and
daily losing men. Finally, he left the province of Sind at Badin (4
December) and entered the Rann of Cutch, at the news of which his
pursuers turned back from Tatta on 15 December.
Meanwhile, Aurangzib himself had given up the chase from Multan
(10 October) and hastened to Delhi by rapid marches, because a
new storm-cloud was reported to be gathering in the east. Shuja'
was making preparations for a second advance on Agra. The deposi-


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