Now they are left with very small forces, and it is our task to try at any cost to
exterminate
them, as a duty imposed upon us by God.
Arab-Historians-of-the-Crusades
All the Frankish positions were heavily defended, and they had begun to dig a ditch that prevented the Muslims from closing with them.
The Muslims persistently offered battle, but the Franks refused either to fight or to abandon their position.
So the Muslims turned back.
A band of Arabs had news that the Franks were getting through at a point on the other side to cut wood and perform other tasks; they laid an ambush at the point where the river curves, and when the Franks came out as usual they attacked and killed them all, seized their possessions and took their heads to Saladin, who gave them rewards and robes of honour.
THE PITCHED BATTLE BEFORE ACRE
After this encounter the Muslims spent the days until 20 sha'ba? n/ 3 October going down every morning and evening to offer battle to the Franks, who however refused even to leave their camp. The Franks called a council and said: 'The Egyptian army has not yet arrived and we are already menaced by Saladin; what will happen when the Egyptians come? Our best course is to confront the Muslims tomorrow in the hope of defeating them before fresh troops and reinforcements reach them. 'At that time a good part of Saladin's army was else-
Part Two: Saladin and the Third Crusade 111
where: some before Antioch, some preventing Prince Bohemond's marauding bands from raiding the province of Aleppo and some in the district of Hims, before Tripoli, also on patrol. Another party was at Tyre; a part of the Egyptian army was defending the Damietta region, Alexandria and so on, and the rest had not yet arrived, for they had taken the longer route and were delayed. All this persuaded the Franks to come out and fight the Muslims.
The following morning the Muslims were employed as usual, some in coming down to offer battle, others in their tents, others about their various activities such as visiting a friend or procuring provisions for their companions or their horses when suddenly the Franks were seen leaving their tents like a great swarm of locusts skimming over the surface of the land that they filled far and wide. They attacked the Muslim right wing, which was under the command of Saladin's nephew Taqi ad-Din. When he saw that they were heading in his direction he put himself on the defensive, advanced a little toward them and then stopped quite still. When Saladin saw this he sent a reinforcement from his own troops, for the men from Diya? r Bakr and other eastern contingents were drawn up to one side of the central block of troops. When the Franks saw that the centre was only weakly guarded and that many of its men had gone to reinforce the right wing they turned toward the centre, gallop- ing as one man. The Muslim army fled before them. Only a few stood firm, of whom many were killed for the Faith, like the ami? r Mujalli ibn Marwa? n, and Zahi? r ad-Din brother of the faqi? h Isa, governor of Jerusalem, who combined military virtues with religious learning, and the chamberlain Khali? l al-Hakkari and other brave men, who stood firm in the fight. So there was no one left in the centre to confront the Franks, who made for the hill where Saladin's tent was, killing and plundering as they went. They killed several men close to the tent itself, among them our Shaikh Abu 'Ali ibn Rawaha al-Ha? mawi, a learned man and a good poet; he was the heir to martyrdom, for his ancestor' Abdallah ibn Rawaha, a Companion of the Prophet, was killed by the Greeks at the battle of Mu'ta,1 and this (his grandson) was slain by the Franks at the battle of Acre. So the Franks killed him and others and came down the opposite slope of the hill, slaughtering whomever they encountered. It was only by God's grace that they did not cut down Saladin's tent, for if they had the whole Muslim army would have realized how far they had got and that the centre of their own army had fled before the enemy, and this would have led to a general flight.
At this point the Franks looked behind them and saw that their reinforcements were unable to follow them, so they turned back for fear of being cut off from their companions. What held the reinforcements up was the fact that our right wing was still resisting, thus obliging a detachment of Franks to confront them, while the Muslim left wing had charged the Franks. The reinforcements, occupied with their own battle, had been unable to join the main body of troops and so had retreated to their trenches. Then our left wing charged the Franks who had reached the Sultan's tent as they were retreating, and pages from the camp attacked them impetuously. Saladin had gone back to his men when the centre had col- lapsed, persuading and commanding them to reorganize themselves and launch a counter- attack. When he had collected a good number of them around him he attacked the Franks from behind while they were engaged with our left wing. The swords of the faithful faced them on every side, and none of them escaped. Most were killed, the rest taken prisoner,
In Transjordan in 629, when an expedition sent by Muhammad to the boundaries of his territory
1
was surprised by the Byzantines.
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among them the Grand Master of the Temple,1 who had been captured and released once already by Saladin. Captured a second time, he was put to death. The number of dead, not counting those at sea, was 10,000, and these at Saladin's command were thrown into the river from which the Franks drew their water. Most of the dead were Frankish knights, for the infantry had not caught up with them. Among the prisoners were three Frankish women who had fought from horseback and were recognized as women only when captured and stripped of their armour. Of the Muslims who fled some returned by way of Tiberias, others crossed the Jordan and returned to their homes, others reached Damascus. If these troops had not dispersed after their flight they could have exterminated the Franks at their leisure. The rest, for their part, performed prodigies in their attack on the Franks, and all tried to reach the Franks in their camp, hoping that they would have lost heart. Suddenly they heard a cry that their goods had been pillaged. This is how it happened: at the sight of the rout our army had loaded its baggage on to pack-horses, but the rabble and the pages fell on them and looted the contents. Saladin would have liked to pursue and engage the enemy, but he saw that his men were concentrating on running here and there to collect up and reassemble their lost possessions. He issued a proclamation saying that everything that had been taken was to be brought to him, and the amount brought covered the earth: carpets and loaded bags, clothes, arms and the rest, all of which was returned to its real owners. So Saladin failed to achieve his aim on this occasion and the Franks, recovered from their fear, suc- ceeded in re-forming battle lines from their survivors.
SALADIN WITHDRAWS FROM THE FRANKS, WHO ARE ABLE TO RENEW THE SIEGE OF ACRE
After all those Franks had been killed the air was heavy with the smell of them and they caused infections that began to affect the health of the army. Saladin himself was ill, tor- mented by the colic from which he suffered from time to time. The ami? rs had an audience of him and advised him to leave the area and lift his pressure on the Franks. They presented their advice in the best possible light: 'We have surrounded the Franks so closely that even if they wanted to retreat they could not. Now it would be advisable to retire and give them. a chance of withdrawing and going away. If they go, we shall be rid of each other, and if they stay we can return and fight them from our old position. You are not well and are in great pain; if word got about (that you are ill) it would be the end of all of us. So our best course is to move off. ' As the doctors too gave the same advice Saladin finally yielded, divining, that is, what God had decided should happen: '. . . and when God wishes evil for a people no power can avert it and no one else can protect them. '1 So they left for Kharruba on 4 ramada? n/16 October. The Sultan ordered the Muslims in Acre to defend themselves, with the gates shut and a guard posted, and he explained the reason for his departure.
Once he and his troops had gone the Franks felt safe and at ease there and continued to blockade Acre. They surrounded it by land from coast to coast, and used their ships to blockade it by sea as well. They began to build a trench and a revetment with earth from
Gerard of Ridfort, captured at Hitti? n and ransomed.
Qur'a? n III, 12; another of Ibn al-Athi? r's criticisms of Saladin's conduct of the war.
1 1
Part Two: Saladin and the Third Crusade 113
the trench, and took other unexpected measures. Every day Muslim outposts came up to their lines, but they neither gave battle nor moved their position, intent only on digging the trench and building the wall to protect themselves from Saladin when he came back to attack them. Now it was clear how well-advised Saladin had been to retire. . . . Every day the spies informed Saladin of what the Franks were doing, and revealed to him the full gravity of the situation, while he, sunk in his illness, was in no state to move in to attack. Someone advised him to send his whole army to Acre to prevent the Franks from digging the trench and building the wall and to attack them, while he stayed behind, but he said: 'If I am not there with them they will achieve absolutely nothing, and it might cause much more harm than good. ' So things dragged on until he was better, and the Franks were able to take their time and do what they wanted. They consolidated and reinforced their position by all avail- able means, while the citizens of Acre made daily sorties, attacking them and killing them outside the city walls.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE EGYPTIAN ARMY AND OF THE FLEET BY SEA
Half-way through shawwa? l/at the end of November the Egyptian army arrived under the command of al-Malik al-'Adil Saif ad-Din Abu Bakr ibn Ayyu? b. Hearts lifted at his arrival with his companions, bringing quantities of siege weapons, shields and wooden spears and arrows and bows, and a large body of infantry. Saladin too mustered infantry in great numbers from the Syrian provinces and decided to march them all against the enemy. After al-'Adil the Egyptian fleet arrived, commanded by the ami? r Lu'lu', a brave and energetic man, a naval and military expert full of useful initiative. He appeared unexpectedly, seized a Frankish ship and plundered it, capturing a lot of goods and provisions, and sent it to Acre, whose inhabitants felt reassured and heartened by the fleet's arrival.
(BAHA? ' AD-DIN, 140-7)
On Wednesday 24 sha'ba? n/4 October 1189 the Frankish forces began an unexpected manoeuvre, using cavalry and infantry, great and small. They were drawn up outside their tents in a central block with left and right wings. In the centre was the King, before whom the Testament was carried under a baldacchino of satin borne by four men, who advanced with it. The Frankish right wing appeared all of a sudden in front of the Muslim left wing and all of the enemy's left wing in front of our right. They occupied the tops of the hills, their furthest right at the river, their extreme left at the sea. In the Muslim army the Sultan commanded the heralds to cry out amid the troops: 'For Isla? m, forward the monotheist army! ' They all mounted, having sold their lives in exchange for Paradise, and posted themselves before their tents. Like theirs, our army extended from the river to the sea. The Sultan had previously had the tents pitched in the order of the battle line, so that there would be no need to take up new positions when the alarm was given. Saladin was in the centre; to the right of him was his son al-Malik al-Afdal, his other son, al-Afdal's brother al-Malik az-Zahir, the Mosul regiments under Zahi? r ad-Din ibn al-Bulunkari, the Diya? r Bakr regiments under Qutb ad-Din ibn Nur ad-Din of Hisn Kaifa? , then Husa? m ad-Din ibn Laji? n of Nablus, then the eunuch Qaima? z an-Najmi with his close-packed ranks linking the centre with the extreme right wing. Here, with the sea on his right, was al-Malik al-
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Muzaffar Taqi ad-Din with his troops. Immediately to the left of centre was Saif ad-Din 'Ali al-Mashtu? b, the great Kurdish prince and general, the ami? r Mujalli with his Mihranite and Hakkarite troops,1 Mujahid ad-Din Baranqash commanding the Sinja? r regiments and a band of mamlu? ks, then Muzaffar ad-Din ibn Zain ad-Din and his men, and on the extreme left wing the great Asadite mamlu? ks1 like Saif ad-Din Yazkug and Arsla? n Bugha? and the other Asadites whose valour is legendary. The centre was commanded by the faqi? h Isa. The Sultan himself moved about among the battalions inciting them to battle and strengthening their faith in God and victory.
The Muslims and the enemy advanced when the sun was high, at about the fourth hour. This was when the enemy attacked the Muslim right, and al-Malik al-Muzaffar sent out the archers of the advance guard, who met with varied fortunes. As the enemy was pressing al-Malik al-Muzaffar fiercely in his position on the extreme right by the sea he retreated a little before them to inveigle them away from their companions and then to fall on them. When Saladin saw this he attributed it to weakness and sent a large number of battalions from the centre to his aid. So the enemy left wing retreated, and reassembled on a hill overlooking the sea, while those facing the centre saw it weakened by the loss of the troops sent to the right wing, took heart and attacked at that point, infantry and cavalry charging like one man. I myself saw the infantry advancing at the same pace as the cavalry, who did not move ahead of them--indeed, at times the infantry was in front. The brunt of the attack fell on the Diya? r Bakr contingents, who being inexperienced fighters yielded before it and fled headlong in a state of panic that communicated itself to most of our right wing. The enemy pursued them as far as al-'Ayadiyya and encircled the hill; some of the enemy got up as far as Saladin's tent and killed one of his cup-bearers whom they found there. On that day Isma'i? l al-Mukabbis and Ibn Rawaha fell as martyrs for the Faith, God have mercy on them. Meanwhile our left wing stood firm and unshaken by the enemy charge. The Sultan moved among the battalions exhorting them with fine promises, urging them to fight for the Faith and raising the cry: 'For Isla? m! ' With only five men beside him he moved among the battalions and through the lines. From there he returned to the bottom of the hill on which his tent was pitched. The rout of the Muslims had reached Uqhuwana on the far side of the bridge of Tiberias, and some of the men even got as far as well-guarded Damascus. The enemy cavalry followed them as far as al-'Ayadiyya, but when they saw that they had gained the hill they turned back toward their own lines. They fell upon a band of servants, mule-tenders and palfreymen who were fleeing on some of the pack-mules, and killed many of them. When they reached the top of the market-place they killed others, and some of their own men were killed in their turn, for there was a crowd of armed men there. As for those who reached Saladin's tent, they found absolutely nothing there except for the men they murdered, as we mentioned, three in all. When they saw that the Muslim left wing was standing firm they realized that it was not a total rout, and so descended the hill in the hope of regaining their own battalions.
The Sultan with a small band of men was at the bottom of the hill, rallying his men for a counter-offensive. They saw the Franks riding down the hill and wanted to attack them,
Kurdish tribes.
I. e. bearing the name of Saladin's uncle, the general Asad ad-Din Skirku? h.
1 1
Part Two: Saladin and the Third Crusade 115
but he ordered them to wait until the Franks had ridden past them on their way to find their regiments. Then the Sultan gave the signal at the top of his voice, and they rode after them and sent several of them flying. As the idea of pursuing them spread, the crowd grew until the Franks reached their regiments with a rabble snapping at their heels. When the others saw their side in flight and hordes of Muslims at their backs they assumed that all the com- manders had been killed and that only this few had survived to flee. So they all took to their heels, and our left wing moved in against them. Al-Malik al-Muzaffar in his turn led his right wing to victory, and our side stood firm and cried out in its turn, flowing back to the fight from all sides. God put the devil to flight and gave victory to the Faith. Our army stayed to slaughter and kill, to strike and wound, until the escaping fugitives reached their army. Here the Muslims fell upon them even in the midst of their own tents, but some bat- talions, kept in reserve for fear of such a development, emerged and drove the Muslims off. Our army was now tired and sweating, so after the afternoon prayer they turned back through a sea of blood and corpses, happy and contented to their own tents. The Sultan too went back to his tent where he took counsel with his ami? rs, adding up the number of losses. The number of unknown mamlu? ks dead was a hundred and fifty; among the famous who fell was Zahi? r ad-Din, brother of the faqi? h Isa; I saw the latter sitting and smiling while people offered their condolences and turning them aside with the words: 'This is a day of rejoicing, not of condolence! ' he himself had fallen from his horse and been set back in the saddle by those near him, and several of his close friends had been killed defending him. On the same day the ami? r Mujalli was killed. These were the Muslim losses. The enemy, God damn them! lost 7,000 men. I saw them being carried to the river to be thrown in, and the estimate was 7,000.
When the Muslims suffered that initial defeat and their servants saw their tents stand- ing empty of anyone to resist them--the army was either in flight or fighting, and there was no one left behind in the tents--they believed that it was a general rout and that the enemy would loot the tents, so they began the job themselves and stripped the tents of their contents. They seized quantities of Muslim money, goods and arms, more than even defeat would have cost. When Saladin returned to his tent and saw the double damage, the loot- ing and the flight of part of the army, he hurriedly sent written messages and messengers to bring back the fugitives and round up the disbanded soldiers. The messengers took their messages as far as the hill of Fiq, where they caught up with the fugitives and cried: 'To the counter-attack! To the Muslim recovery! ' They turned back, and the Sultan gave orders that everything should be taken from the servants and assembled before his tent, even to the horses' saddle-cloths and nose-bags. There he sat, with his men about him, and com- manded that if a man recognized something as his, and gave his word on it, he was to have it. He faced all these events with steadfastness and serenity, with open eyes and wisdom that did not wander blindly; he was intent on gaining merit before God and determined to bring victory to the Faith. The enemy, for their part, retired to their tents, having seen their valiant men lost and their champions destroyed.
The Sultan sent for wagons from Acre to carry the enemy dead to the river and tip them in. One of the men working on the wagons told me that there were about 4,100 Franks dead on the left wing, but he had not been able to count those from the centre and the right wing as someone else was dealing with them. After this encounter those of the enemy who were left to defend themselves shut themselves into their camp, unaffected by Muslim
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attacks. Of the Muslim forces, many disappeared in the flight: the only ones to return were well-known men who had much to fear (from the consequences of desertion); all the rest escaped to wherever the road led.
The Sultan collected the stolen property and restored it to its rightful owners. I hap- pened to be there on the day when the objects were distributed to their owners, and I saw the best court of law the world has ever seen. It was Friday 23 sha'ba? n/ 6 October. After this episode, when everything was calm again, the Sultan ordered the baggage to be taken to a place called Kharruba, for fear that the stench of the corpses would make his soldiers ill. This was a place near the battlefield but further off than where they had been encamped so far. A tent was pitched for him by the baggage, and he told the outposts to stay at the site of the earlier camp. This happened on the 29th of the month. He called together the ami? rs and counsellors at the end of the month, (I was among them,) and invited them to hear what he was about to say.
'In God's name,' he said, 'Praise to God and blessing to the Prophet; know that this enemy of God and of ourselves has invaded our country and seized the territory of Isla? m. Signs are already appearing of the victory that we shall win over them, God willing.
Now they are left with very small forces, and it is our task to try at any cost to exterminate them, as a duty imposed upon us by God. You know that these are our entire forces, and that we shall have no reinforcements except for al-Malik al-'Adil who is on his way. If the enemy stay where they are and hold on until communications by sea can be reopened, they will get large reinforcements. My feeling, therefore, is that we should not hesitate to attack them. Each of you will now give his opinion about this. '
The date was 13 tishri? n according to the solar calendar (13 October). Various opinions were voiced and discussed, and they reached the conclusion that the best plan would be to withdraw with the army to Kharruba and allow the men to rest for a few days from carrying arms and the fatigue that it entailed, to gain strength and graze their horses. The men had been in the front line for fifty days, and the horses were exhausted with the fighting and the strain imposed on them. After a short rest they would recover their breath. 'Al-Malik al-'Adil will arrive and give us his advice as well as his support. We shall round up the deserters and muster the infantry so that they will be ready to face the enemy. '
The Sultan was very ill with various troubles exacerbated by the weight of the arms he bore and the constant wearing of a helmet, so he decided to follow their advice. The army was moved up to join the baggage on 3 ramada? n. The Sultan moved on the same night, and his health began to improve. The troops were mustered, and waited for his brother al-Malik al-'Adil, who arrived on 10 ramada? n/22 October. 1
THE SIEGE-TOWERS ARE BURNT DOWN (IBN AL-ATHI? R, XII, 28-30)
During the siege of Acre the Franks built three lofty wooden towers, each one sixty cubits tall. They had five floors, each crowded with soldiers. The wood for them had been brought
The date is more than a month earlier than that given by Ibn al-Athi? r and his source 'Ima? d ad-Din
1
(half-way through shawwa? l).
Part Two: Saladin and the Third Crusade 117
from abroad, as a very special kind was needed for these towers. They were covered with skins, vinegar, mud and fire-resisting substances. The Franks cleared a path for their advance and brought all three up under the walls of Acre. The assault began on 20 rabi? ' I (587/27 April 1190). They towered over the walls, and the men inside them fought the defenders on the walls, and pushed them back, while the Franks began to fill up the moat. Thus the city was on the point of being taken by assault. The people of Acre sent a man to escape by swimming and tell Saladin what was happening, and that capture seemed immi- nent. The Sultan ordered his army to mount and advanced on the enemy, engaging them on all sides in fierce and unceasing combat, and endeavoured by this means to distract them from their attack on the city. The Franks divided their forces, one part to attack Saladin and the other the city, and so the pressure on Acre was relieved.
The fighting lasted for eight days on end, until the 28th of the month/5th May, when the exhaustion of both sides after eight days of continuous day and night fighting brought it to an end. The Muslims were now convinced that the Franks would take the city, seeing that the defenders could not fend off attacks from their siege-towers. They had exhausted every stratagem to no avail, and followed this by showering the towers with Greek fire, but made no impression on them. They were convinced therefore that they were doomed, when God aided them and enabled the towers to be burnt.
It happened like this: there was a man from Damascus who was a passionate collec- tor of pyrotechnic devices and ingredients for reinforcing the effect of fire. His friends reproached and rebuked him for his passion, but he replied that it was an occupation that did no harm to anyone and which interested him as a hobby. By a strange coincidence this man was in Acre, and when he saw the towers being built for use against the city he began to collect together the ingredients that he knew would increase the effectiveness of fire and make it inextinguishable by earth, vinegar or any other substance. When he had everything ready he presented it to the ami? r Qaraqu? sh, commander and governor of Acre, and told him to order the artillery to aim one of their catapults at a tower and fire off what he had given him, and it would set the tower alight. Qaraqu? sh was out of his mind with fear that the city would fall, with a frenzy that almost killed him. The man's words drove him to even greater fury and he raged at him: 'These men have used all their skill to hit the towers with Greek fire and everything else, without success! ' But some of those present said: 'Who knows that God has not put our salvation in this man's hands? There is no harm in doing what he proposes. ' So Qaraqu? sh consented and told the artillery to obey the man's orders. They shot a certain number of containers full of naphtha and other things without starting a fire, and the Franks, seeing that when the containers fell they did not burn anything, called out and danced about and made jokes from the top of the tower. When the inventor saw that the containers shot from the catapult really hit the tower he sent over one that was filled with his invention, and at once the tower went up in flames. He shot a second and a third time; the fire spread through the tower, preventing the men on the five platforms from escaping to safety. Thus it was burnt with everyone in it, as well as a store of cuirasses and arms. The Franks, seeing that the first containers were ineffective, had been inclined to stay calm and make no effort to save themselves, until God gave them a foretaste of Hell-fire. When the first tower was burnt the Muslims turned to the second, whose soldiers fled in fear, and the third, and burnt them both, making this a day to stand out in the memory. The Muslims looked on and rejoiced, their faces lit up with joy again after sorrow, for the victory and
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preservation from death of their co-religionists, for every one of them had a friend or rela- tion in the city. The inventor was brought before Saladin who offered him great wealth and honour, but he refused to take anything. 'I did it for love of God,' he said, 'and I want no other reward than Him. ' The joyful news travelled through the provinces, and the Sultan sent for reinforcements from the East. First to arrive was 'Ima? d ad-Din Zangi ibn Maudu? d ibn Zangi, ruler of Sinja? r and the Jazira, then 'Ala? ' ad-Din son of 'Izz ad-Din ibn Maudu? d ibn Zangi, ruler of Mosul, sent by his father to command the Mosul army, then Zain ad-Din Yusuf of Arbela. As soon as each arrived he attacked the Franks with his troops and fought with the rest of the army, and after that pitched his tents.
Various Incidents during the Siege
(BAHA? ' AD-DIN, 178-9, 201-3, 211)
A SHIP FROM BEIRU? T REACHES ACRE BY MEANS OF A RUSE
The Franks, God damn them! had posted their ships all round Acre to blockade the harbour against Muslim shipping. The besieged were in dire need of food and provisions. A group of Muslims embarked at Beiru? t with a cargo of four hundred sacks of grain, cheese, onions, mutton and other provisions. They dressed in Frankish clothes, shaved their beards, put some pigs on the upper deck where they could be seen from a distance,1 set up crosses, weighed anchor and made for the city from the open sea. When they came into contact with enemy ships the Franks accosted them in small boats and galleys saying: 'We see that you are making for the city,' thinking that they too were Franks. The Muslims replied: 'But haven't you taken it yet? ' 'Not yet. ' 'Then we will make for the Frankish army. But there was another ship travelling with us on the same wind; warn it not to enter the city. ' There was in fact a Frankish ship behind them on the same route, making for the army. The patrol- boat saw it and made off to warn it. Thus the Muslim ship was free to follow its own course, and entered port on a favourable wind, safe and sound by God's grace. They brought great joy, for the inhabitants were now suffering severe hardships. This happened in the last ten days of rajab (586/August- September 1190).
THE STORY OF THE SWIMMER ISA
One of the most strange and amazing incidents of the siege was this: a Muslim swimmer called Isa used to come into the city by night with messages and money carried in his belt, eluding enemy surveillance. He would dive down, and come up on the other side of the boom. One night, carrying three purses containing a thousand dinar and messages for the army in his belt he set out on his swim, but met with an accident from which he died. It was some time before we learnt of his death. It was his custom, on entering the city, to send up a messenger-pigeon to tell of his arrival. When the bird did not appear we realized that he must be dead. One day some time later a group of people was on the beach by the city when the sea cast up a body on the shore. Examination revealed that it was Isa the swimmer. In
1
Unclean animals that a Muslim would never eat.
Part Two: Saladin and the Third Crusade 119
his belt they found the gold and the wax-paper containing the letters; the gold was used as payment for the troops. This is the only man who has faithfully carried out his duties even after death. This too happened in the last ten days of rajab.
AN AMBUSH
On 22 shawwa? l (586/22 November 1190) the Sultan decided to stage an ambush for the enemy. He selected a group of warriors and gallant knights chosen from a great number, and told them to leave camp by night and wait at the foot of a hill to the north of Acre, not far from the enemy camp, where al-Malik al-'Adil had been stationed in the battle that was called after him. A few of them were to allow the enemy to see them, and by going up to the tents to provoke them, and then, when the Franks came out to get them, to escape in the direction of the Muslims. The detachment obeyed and marched off to arrive at the hill by night and take up their positions. Saturday 23rd dawned and a small band, mounted on swift horses, emerged and made for the enemy tents, firing arrows at them. Provoked by this persistent attack about two hundred Frankish knights in full armour, with fine horses and weapons, appeared and attacked without infantry. The smallness of the Muslim band had beguiled them into giving battle. The Muslims fled before them, fighting and retreating at the same time, until they reached the ambush. At their arrival the hidden warriors burst out and with one shout fell on the Franks like lions on their prey. The Franks resisted and fought nobly, but they were put to flight. The Muslims overcame them, killed many and unseated and captured a good number and took their horses and arms.
The good news reached the Muslim camp, and voices were raised in praise and jubila- tion to God. The Sultan rode out to meet the heroes (I was on duty at his side) as far as Tall Kaisa? n, where he met the leaders of the band. There he stopped to inspect the prison- ers, while the people praised and thanked him for his gesture. The Sultan examined the prisoners and ascertained who they were. Among them was the commander of the King of France's army, whom the latter had sent to help before his own arrival. In the same way the King's treasurer was taken prisoner. The Sultan returned to his tent happy and contented, sent for the prisoners, and had the herald summon all who had captured one to bring him into his presence. They all appeared with their prisoners; I was present on the occasion. Saladin treated the most important and distinguished prisoners with respect and gave them robes of honour. He gave the captain of the King's guard a special fur robe, and to each of the others one from Jarkh, for it was very cold and they were suffering from it. He sent for food for them, which they ate, and had a tent pitched for them near his own. He continued to show honour to them and sometimes invited the commander to his table. Then he had them sent to Damascus, whither they were conducted with honour. He gave them permis- sion to write to their companions and send for clothes and other necessities from the camp. This they did, and then left for Damascus.
SALADIN'S HUMANITY
Forty-five Franks taken at Beiru? t were brought before Saladin on their arrival there that day. 1 On this occasion I was able to observe his unparalleled generosity with my own eyes. Among the prisoners was a very old man, without a tooth in his head or the strength to do
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more than get himself about. The Sultan told the interpreter to ask him: 'What brought you here at such an advanced age, and how far is this place from your own land? ' He replied: 'My own land is many months' voyage away from here, and my journey here was a pil- grimage to the Holy Sepulchre. ' The Sultan was moved by this to thank him and do him the honour of giving him his liberty and sending him back to the enemy camp on horseback. His small sons asked his permission to kill one of the prisoners, but he refused. They asked me to ask him why, and he said: 'One does not accustom children to shedding blood thus lightly, when they are still incapable of distinguishing a Muslim from an infidel. ' Observe the clemency, conscientiousness and scrupulousness of this King! 1
FRANKISH WOMEN OF PEACE AND WAR2 ('IMA? D AD-DIN, 228-30)
There arrived by ship three hundred lovely Frankish women, full of youth and beauty, assembled from beyond the sea and offering themselves for sin. They were expatriates come to help expatriates, ready to cheer the fallen and sustained in turn to give support and assistance, and they glowed with ardour for carnal intercourse. They were all licentious har- lots, proud and scornful, who took and gave, foul-fleshed and sinful, singers and coquettes, appearing proudly in public, ardent and inflamed, tinted and painted, desirable and appe- tizing, exquisite and graceful, who ripped open and patched up, lacerated and mended, erred and ogled, urged and seduced, consoled and solicited, seductive and languid, desired and desiring, amused and amusing, versatile and cunning, like tipsy adolescents, making love and selling themselves for gold, bold and ardent, loving and passionate, pink-faced and unblushing, black-eyed and bullying, callipygian and graceful, with nasal voices and fleshy thighs, blue-eyed and grey-eyed, broken-down little fools. Each one trailed the train of her robe behind her and bewitched the beholder with her effulgence. She swayed like a sapling, revealed herself like a strong castle, quivered like a small branch, walked proudly with a cross on her breast, sold her graces for gratitude, and longed to lose her robe and her honour. They arrived after consecrating their persons as if to works of piety, and offered and prostituted the most chaste and precious among them. They said that they set out with the intention of consecrating their charms, that they did not intend to refuse themselves to bachelors, and they maintained that they could make themselves acceptable to God by no better sacrifice than this. So they set themselves up each in a pavilion or tent erected for her use, together with other lovely young girls of their age, and opened the gates of pleasure. They dedicated as a holy offering what they kept between their thighs; they were openly licentious and devoted themselves to relaxation; they removed every obstacle to making of themselves free offerings. They plied a brisk trade in dissoluteness, adorned the patched-up fissures, poured themselves into the springs of libertinage, shut themselves up in private under the amorous transports of men, offered their wares for enjoyment, invited
At Tall al-'Ayadiyya, near Acre, on 9 rabi? ' I 587/6 April 1191.
This is one anecdote in which the Saladin of history and of legend meet.
There follows a page of baroque pornography that may be of interest to connoisseurs of literary teratology.
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the shameless into their embrace, mounted breasts on backs, bestowed their wares on the poor, brought their silver anklets up to touch their golden ear-rings, and were willingly spread out on the carpet of amorous sport. They made themselves targets for men's darts, they were permitted territory for forbidden acts, they offered themselves to the lances' blows and humiliated themselves to their lovers. They put up the tent and loosed the girdle after agreement had been reached. They were the places where tent-pegs are driven in, they invited swords to enter their sheaths, they razed their terrain for planting, they made jav- elins rise toward shields, excited the plough to plough, gave the birds a place to peck with their beaks, allowed heads to enter their ante-chambers and raced under whoever bestrode them at the spur's blow. They took the parched man's sinews to the well, fitted arrows to the bow's handle, cut off sword-belts, engraved coins, welcomed birds into the nest of their thighs, caught in their nets the horns of butting rams, removed the interdict from what is protected, withdrew the veil from what is hidden. They interwove leg with leg, slaked their lovers' thirsts, caught lizard after lizard in their holes, disregarded the wickedness of their intimacies, guided pens to inkwells, torrents to the valley bottom, streams to pools, swords to scabbards, gold ingots to crucibles, infidel girdles to women's zones, firewood to the stove, guilty men to low dungeons, money-changers to dinar, necks to bellies, motes to eyes. They contested for tree-trunks, wandered far and wide to collect fruit, and maintained that this was an act of piety without equal, especially to those who were far from home and wives. They mixed wine, and with the eye of sin they begged for its hire. 1 The men of our army heard tell of them, and were at a loss to know how such women could perform acts of piety by abandoning all decency and shame. However, a few foolish mamlu? ks and ignorant wretches slipped away, under the fierce goad of lust, and followed the people of error. And there were those who allowed themselves to buy pleasure with degradation, and those who repented of their sin and found devious ways of retracing their steps, for the hand of any man who shrinks from (absolute) apostasy dares not stretch out, and it is the nature of him who arrives there to steal away from them, suspecting that what is serious, is serious, and the door of pleasure closes in his face. Now among the Franks a woman who gives herself to a celibate man commits no sin, and her justification is even greater in the case of a priest, if chaste men in dire need find relief in enjoying her.
Another person to arrive by sea was a noblewoman who was very wealthy. She was a queen in her own land, and arrived accompanied by five hundred knights with their horses and money, pages and valets, she paying all their expenses and treating them generously out of her wealth. They rode out when she rode out, charged when she charged, flung them- selves into the fray at her side, their ranks unwavering as long as she stood firm.
Among the Franks there were indeed women who rode into battle with cuirasses and helmets, dressed in men's clothes; who rode out into the thick of the fray and acted like brave men although they were but tender women, maintaining that all this was an act of piety, thinking to gain heavenly rewards by it, and making it their way of life. Praise be to him who led them into such error and out of the paths of wisdom! On the day of battle more than one woman rode out with them like a knight and showed (masculine) endurance in
This is a hint of the true nature of these camp-followers, represented in the rest of the passage as fanatical hierodules of the Christian faith; but even this metaphor from the market, the request with the eye (or the coin) of sin, could be understood in other than a literally venial sense.
1
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spite of the weakness (of her sex); clothed only in a coat of mail they were not recognized as women until they had been stripped of their arms. 1 Some of them were discovered and sold as slaves; and everywhere was full of old women. These were sometimes a support and sometimes a source of weakness. They exhorted and incited men to summon their pride, saying that the Cross imposed on them the obligation to resist to the bitter end, and that the combatants would win eternal life only by sacrificing their lives, and that their God's sepulchre was in enemy hands. Observe how men and women led them into error; the latter in their religious zeal tired of feminine delicacy, and to save themselves from the terror of dismay (on the day of Judgment) became the close companions of perplexity, and having succumbed to the lust for vengeance, became hardened, and stupid and foolish because of the harm they had suffered.
1
Ibn al-Athi? r has the same story. Clearly there was more than one Clorinda in the Christian camp; but from a passage in Usama we learn that Muslim women too were capable of taking up arms if necessary.
CHAPTER FIVE
The expedition of Frederick Barbarossa, which ended in the waters of the Calycadnus and the epidemics of northern Syria, was followed with greater success by those of the kings of France and England. Despite all Saladin's efforts to mobilize all the forces of Isla? m in a counter-crusade (we owe to Abu Shama the text of one of his impassioned appeals on the subject), in 1191, her food and her army gone, Acre submitted. Baha? ' ad-Din paints for us a vivid picture of the last hours and the tragedy of the surrender with its bloody epilogue, a disgrace to the name of Coeur de Lion, when the Muslim prisoners were massacred in cold blood.
CONRAD OF MONTFERRAT AND THE THIRD CRUSADE (BAHA? ' AD-DI? N, 181)
. . . the Marquis, the ruler of Tyre, was one of the most cunning and experienced of the Franks, and his was the chief responsibility for luring the crowds of Crusaders from over- seas. He had a picture of Jerusalem painted showing the Church of the Resurrection, the object of pilgrimage and deepest veneration to them; according to them the Messiah's tomb is there, in which he was buried after his crucifixion. 1 This sepulchre was the object of their pilgrimage, and they believed that every year fire came down upon it from heaven at one of their feasts. 2 Above the tomb the Marquis had a horse painted, and mounted on it a Muslim knight who was trampling the tomb, over which his horse was urinating. This picture was sent abroad to the markets and meeting-places; priests carried it about, clothed in their hab- its, their heads covered, groaning: 'O the shame! ' In this way they raised a huge army, God alone knows how many, among them the King of Germany with his troops.
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA'S CRUSADE AND HIS DEATH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, XII, 30-2)
In 586/1190 the King of Germany left his country, which was inhabited by one of the most numerous and vigorous of the Frankish tribes. Troubled by the fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims, he marshalled his army, equipped them fully and left his land for Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor sent word of his coming to Saladin and promised that he would not let him pass through his lands. When the King of Germany reached Constantinople the Emperor was in no position to prevent his passage because of the size of his army, but he
We have already remarked on the Docetist theories of Muslim Christology.
The fire ceremony on Holy Saturday, celebrated at the Holy Sepulchre until the last century.
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denied him any provisions and forbade his subjects to supply the army with what it needed, so that they found themselves short of food and provisions.
A band of Arabs had news that the Franks were getting through at a point on the other side to cut wood and perform other tasks; they laid an ambush at the point where the river curves, and when the Franks came out as usual they attacked and killed them all, seized their possessions and took their heads to Saladin, who gave them rewards and robes of honour.
THE PITCHED BATTLE BEFORE ACRE
After this encounter the Muslims spent the days until 20 sha'ba? n/ 3 October going down every morning and evening to offer battle to the Franks, who however refused even to leave their camp. The Franks called a council and said: 'The Egyptian army has not yet arrived and we are already menaced by Saladin; what will happen when the Egyptians come? Our best course is to confront the Muslims tomorrow in the hope of defeating them before fresh troops and reinforcements reach them. 'At that time a good part of Saladin's army was else-
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where: some before Antioch, some preventing Prince Bohemond's marauding bands from raiding the province of Aleppo and some in the district of Hims, before Tripoli, also on patrol. Another party was at Tyre; a part of the Egyptian army was defending the Damietta region, Alexandria and so on, and the rest had not yet arrived, for they had taken the longer route and were delayed. All this persuaded the Franks to come out and fight the Muslims.
The following morning the Muslims were employed as usual, some in coming down to offer battle, others in their tents, others about their various activities such as visiting a friend or procuring provisions for their companions or their horses when suddenly the Franks were seen leaving their tents like a great swarm of locusts skimming over the surface of the land that they filled far and wide. They attacked the Muslim right wing, which was under the command of Saladin's nephew Taqi ad-Din. When he saw that they were heading in his direction he put himself on the defensive, advanced a little toward them and then stopped quite still. When Saladin saw this he sent a reinforcement from his own troops, for the men from Diya? r Bakr and other eastern contingents were drawn up to one side of the central block of troops. When the Franks saw that the centre was only weakly guarded and that many of its men had gone to reinforce the right wing they turned toward the centre, gallop- ing as one man. The Muslim army fled before them. Only a few stood firm, of whom many were killed for the Faith, like the ami? r Mujalli ibn Marwa? n, and Zahi? r ad-Din brother of the faqi? h Isa, governor of Jerusalem, who combined military virtues with religious learning, and the chamberlain Khali? l al-Hakkari and other brave men, who stood firm in the fight. So there was no one left in the centre to confront the Franks, who made for the hill where Saladin's tent was, killing and plundering as they went. They killed several men close to the tent itself, among them our Shaikh Abu 'Ali ibn Rawaha al-Ha? mawi, a learned man and a good poet; he was the heir to martyrdom, for his ancestor' Abdallah ibn Rawaha, a Companion of the Prophet, was killed by the Greeks at the battle of Mu'ta,1 and this (his grandson) was slain by the Franks at the battle of Acre. So the Franks killed him and others and came down the opposite slope of the hill, slaughtering whomever they encountered. It was only by God's grace that they did not cut down Saladin's tent, for if they had the whole Muslim army would have realized how far they had got and that the centre of their own army had fled before the enemy, and this would have led to a general flight.
At this point the Franks looked behind them and saw that their reinforcements were unable to follow them, so they turned back for fear of being cut off from their companions. What held the reinforcements up was the fact that our right wing was still resisting, thus obliging a detachment of Franks to confront them, while the Muslim left wing had charged the Franks. The reinforcements, occupied with their own battle, had been unable to join the main body of troops and so had retreated to their trenches. Then our left wing charged the Franks who had reached the Sultan's tent as they were retreating, and pages from the camp attacked them impetuously. Saladin had gone back to his men when the centre had col- lapsed, persuading and commanding them to reorganize themselves and launch a counter- attack. When he had collected a good number of them around him he attacked the Franks from behind while they were engaged with our left wing. The swords of the faithful faced them on every side, and none of them escaped. Most were killed, the rest taken prisoner,
In Transjordan in 629, when an expedition sent by Muhammad to the boundaries of his territory
1
was surprised by the Byzantines.
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among them the Grand Master of the Temple,1 who had been captured and released once already by Saladin. Captured a second time, he was put to death. The number of dead, not counting those at sea, was 10,000, and these at Saladin's command were thrown into the river from which the Franks drew their water. Most of the dead were Frankish knights, for the infantry had not caught up with them. Among the prisoners were three Frankish women who had fought from horseback and were recognized as women only when captured and stripped of their armour. Of the Muslims who fled some returned by way of Tiberias, others crossed the Jordan and returned to their homes, others reached Damascus. If these troops had not dispersed after their flight they could have exterminated the Franks at their leisure. The rest, for their part, performed prodigies in their attack on the Franks, and all tried to reach the Franks in their camp, hoping that they would have lost heart. Suddenly they heard a cry that their goods had been pillaged. This is how it happened: at the sight of the rout our army had loaded its baggage on to pack-horses, but the rabble and the pages fell on them and looted the contents. Saladin would have liked to pursue and engage the enemy, but he saw that his men were concentrating on running here and there to collect up and reassemble their lost possessions. He issued a proclamation saying that everything that had been taken was to be brought to him, and the amount brought covered the earth: carpets and loaded bags, clothes, arms and the rest, all of which was returned to its real owners. So Saladin failed to achieve his aim on this occasion and the Franks, recovered from their fear, suc- ceeded in re-forming battle lines from their survivors.
SALADIN WITHDRAWS FROM THE FRANKS, WHO ARE ABLE TO RENEW THE SIEGE OF ACRE
After all those Franks had been killed the air was heavy with the smell of them and they caused infections that began to affect the health of the army. Saladin himself was ill, tor- mented by the colic from which he suffered from time to time. The ami? rs had an audience of him and advised him to leave the area and lift his pressure on the Franks. They presented their advice in the best possible light: 'We have surrounded the Franks so closely that even if they wanted to retreat they could not. Now it would be advisable to retire and give them. a chance of withdrawing and going away. If they go, we shall be rid of each other, and if they stay we can return and fight them from our old position. You are not well and are in great pain; if word got about (that you are ill) it would be the end of all of us. So our best course is to move off. ' As the doctors too gave the same advice Saladin finally yielded, divining, that is, what God had decided should happen: '. . . and when God wishes evil for a people no power can avert it and no one else can protect them. '1 So they left for Kharruba on 4 ramada? n/16 October. The Sultan ordered the Muslims in Acre to defend themselves, with the gates shut and a guard posted, and he explained the reason for his departure.
Once he and his troops had gone the Franks felt safe and at ease there and continued to blockade Acre. They surrounded it by land from coast to coast, and used their ships to blockade it by sea as well. They began to build a trench and a revetment with earth from
Gerard of Ridfort, captured at Hitti? n and ransomed.
Qur'a? n III, 12; another of Ibn al-Athi? r's criticisms of Saladin's conduct of the war.
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the trench, and took other unexpected measures. Every day Muslim outposts came up to their lines, but they neither gave battle nor moved their position, intent only on digging the trench and building the wall to protect themselves from Saladin when he came back to attack them. Now it was clear how well-advised Saladin had been to retire. . . . Every day the spies informed Saladin of what the Franks were doing, and revealed to him the full gravity of the situation, while he, sunk in his illness, was in no state to move in to attack. Someone advised him to send his whole army to Acre to prevent the Franks from digging the trench and building the wall and to attack them, while he stayed behind, but he said: 'If I am not there with them they will achieve absolutely nothing, and it might cause much more harm than good. ' So things dragged on until he was better, and the Franks were able to take their time and do what they wanted. They consolidated and reinforced their position by all avail- able means, while the citizens of Acre made daily sorties, attacking them and killing them outside the city walls.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE EGYPTIAN ARMY AND OF THE FLEET BY SEA
Half-way through shawwa? l/at the end of November the Egyptian army arrived under the command of al-Malik al-'Adil Saif ad-Din Abu Bakr ibn Ayyu? b. Hearts lifted at his arrival with his companions, bringing quantities of siege weapons, shields and wooden spears and arrows and bows, and a large body of infantry. Saladin too mustered infantry in great numbers from the Syrian provinces and decided to march them all against the enemy. After al-'Adil the Egyptian fleet arrived, commanded by the ami? r Lu'lu', a brave and energetic man, a naval and military expert full of useful initiative. He appeared unexpectedly, seized a Frankish ship and plundered it, capturing a lot of goods and provisions, and sent it to Acre, whose inhabitants felt reassured and heartened by the fleet's arrival.
(BAHA? ' AD-DIN, 140-7)
On Wednesday 24 sha'ba? n/4 October 1189 the Frankish forces began an unexpected manoeuvre, using cavalry and infantry, great and small. They were drawn up outside their tents in a central block with left and right wings. In the centre was the King, before whom the Testament was carried under a baldacchino of satin borne by four men, who advanced with it. The Frankish right wing appeared all of a sudden in front of the Muslim left wing and all of the enemy's left wing in front of our right. They occupied the tops of the hills, their furthest right at the river, their extreme left at the sea. In the Muslim army the Sultan commanded the heralds to cry out amid the troops: 'For Isla? m, forward the monotheist army! ' They all mounted, having sold their lives in exchange for Paradise, and posted themselves before their tents. Like theirs, our army extended from the river to the sea. The Sultan had previously had the tents pitched in the order of the battle line, so that there would be no need to take up new positions when the alarm was given. Saladin was in the centre; to the right of him was his son al-Malik al-Afdal, his other son, al-Afdal's brother al-Malik az-Zahir, the Mosul regiments under Zahi? r ad-Din ibn al-Bulunkari, the Diya? r Bakr regiments under Qutb ad-Din ibn Nur ad-Din of Hisn Kaifa? , then Husa? m ad-Din ibn Laji? n of Nablus, then the eunuch Qaima? z an-Najmi with his close-packed ranks linking the centre with the extreme right wing. Here, with the sea on his right, was al-Malik al-
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Muzaffar Taqi ad-Din with his troops. Immediately to the left of centre was Saif ad-Din 'Ali al-Mashtu? b, the great Kurdish prince and general, the ami? r Mujalli with his Mihranite and Hakkarite troops,1 Mujahid ad-Din Baranqash commanding the Sinja? r regiments and a band of mamlu? ks, then Muzaffar ad-Din ibn Zain ad-Din and his men, and on the extreme left wing the great Asadite mamlu? ks1 like Saif ad-Din Yazkug and Arsla? n Bugha? and the other Asadites whose valour is legendary. The centre was commanded by the faqi? h Isa. The Sultan himself moved about among the battalions inciting them to battle and strengthening their faith in God and victory.
The Muslims and the enemy advanced when the sun was high, at about the fourth hour. This was when the enemy attacked the Muslim right, and al-Malik al-Muzaffar sent out the archers of the advance guard, who met with varied fortunes. As the enemy was pressing al-Malik al-Muzaffar fiercely in his position on the extreme right by the sea he retreated a little before them to inveigle them away from their companions and then to fall on them. When Saladin saw this he attributed it to weakness and sent a large number of battalions from the centre to his aid. So the enemy left wing retreated, and reassembled on a hill overlooking the sea, while those facing the centre saw it weakened by the loss of the troops sent to the right wing, took heart and attacked at that point, infantry and cavalry charging like one man. I myself saw the infantry advancing at the same pace as the cavalry, who did not move ahead of them--indeed, at times the infantry was in front. The brunt of the attack fell on the Diya? r Bakr contingents, who being inexperienced fighters yielded before it and fled headlong in a state of panic that communicated itself to most of our right wing. The enemy pursued them as far as al-'Ayadiyya and encircled the hill; some of the enemy got up as far as Saladin's tent and killed one of his cup-bearers whom they found there. On that day Isma'i? l al-Mukabbis and Ibn Rawaha fell as martyrs for the Faith, God have mercy on them. Meanwhile our left wing stood firm and unshaken by the enemy charge. The Sultan moved among the battalions exhorting them with fine promises, urging them to fight for the Faith and raising the cry: 'For Isla? m! ' With only five men beside him he moved among the battalions and through the lines. From there he returned to the bottom of the hill on which his tent was pitched. The rout of the Muslims had reached Uqhuwana on the far side of the bridge of Tiberias, and some of the men even got as far as well-guarded Damascus. The enemy cavalry followed them as far as al-'Ayadiyya, but when they saw that they had gained the hill they turned back toward their own lines. They fell upon a band of servants, mule-tenders and palfreymen who were fleeing on some of the pack-mules, and killed many of them. When they reached the top of the market-place they killed others, and some of their own men were killed in their turn, for there was a crowd of armed men there. As for those who reached Saladin's tent, they found absolutely nothing there except for the men they murdered, as we mentioned, three in all. When they saw that the Muslim left wing was standing firm they realized that it was not a total rout, and so descended the hill in the hope of regaining their own battalions.
The Sultan with a small band of men was at the bottom of the hill, rallying his men for a counter-offensive. They saw the Franks riding down the hill and wanted to attack them,
Kurdish tribes.
I. e. bearing the name of Saladin's uncle, the general Asad ad-Din Skirku? h.
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but he ordered them to wait until the Franks had ridden past them on their way to find their regiments. Then the Sultan gave the signal at the top of his voice, and they rode after them and sent several of them flying. As the idea of pursuing them spread, the crowd grew until the Franks reached their regiments with a rabble snapping at their heels. When the others saw their side in flight and hordes of Muslims at their backs they assumed that all the com- manders had been killed and that only this few had survived to flee. So they all took to their heels, and our left wing moved in against them. Al-Malik al-Muzaffar in his turn led his right wing to victory, and our side stood firm and cried out in its turn, flowing back to the fight from all sides. God put the devil to flight and gave victory to the Faith. Our army stayed to slaughter and kill, to strike and wound, until the escaping fugitives reached their army. Here the Muslims fell upon them even in the midst of their own tents, but some bat- talions, kept in reserve for fear of such a development, emerged and drove the Muslims off. Our army was now tired and sweating, so after the afternoon prayer they turned back through a sea of blood and corpses, happy and contented to their own tents. The Sultan too went back to his tent where he took counsel with his ami? rs, adding up the number of losses. The number of unknown mamlu? ks dead was a hundred and fifty; among the famous who fell was Zahi? r ad-Din, brother of the faqi? h Isa; I saw the latter sitting and smiling while people offered their condolences and turning them aside with the words: 'This is a day of rejoicing, not of condolence! ' he himself had fallen from his horse and been set back in the saddle by those near him, and several of his close friends had been killed defending him. On the same day the ami? r Mujalli was killed. These were the Muslim losses. The enemy, God damn them! lost 7,000 men. I saw them being carried to the river to be thrown in, and the estimate was 7,000.
When the Muslims suffered that initial defeat and their servants saw their tents stand- ing empty of anyone to resist them--the army was either in flight or fighting, and there was no one left behind in the tents--they believed that it was a general rout and that the enemy would loot the tents, so they began the job themselves and stripped the tents of their contents. They seized quantities of Muslim money, goods and arms, more than even defeat would have cost. When Saladin returned to his tent and saw the double damage, the loot- ing and the flight of part of the army, he hurriedly sent written messages and messengers to bring back the fugitives and round up the disbanded soldiers. The messengers took their messages as far as the hill of Fiq, where they caught up with the fugitives and cried: 'To the counter-attack! To the Muslim recovery! ' They turned back, and the Sultan gave orders that everything should be taken from the servants and assembled before his tent, even to the horses' saddle-cloths and nose-bags. There he sat, with his men about him, and com- manded that if a man recognized something as his, and gave his word on it, he was to have it. He faced all these events with steadfastness and serenity, with open eyes and wisdom that did not wander blindly; he was intent on gaining merit before God and determined to bring victory to the Faith. The enemy, for their part, retired to their tents, having seen their valiant men lost and their champions destroyed.
The Sultan sent for wagons from Acre to carry the enemy dead to the river and tip them in. One of the men working on the wagons told me that there were about 4,100 Franks dead on the left wing, but he had not been able to count those from the centre and the right wing as someone else was dealing with them. After this encounter those of the enemy who were left to defend themselves shut themselves into their camp, unaffected by Muslim
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attacks. Of the Muslim forces, many disappeared in the flight: the only ones to return were well-known men who had much to fear (from the consequences of desertion); all the rest escaped to wherever the road led.
The Sultan collected the stolen property and restored it to its rightful owners. I hap- pened to be there on the day when the objects were distributed to their owners, and I saw the best court of law the world has ever seen. It was Friday 23 sha'ba? n/ 6 October. After this episode, when everything was calm again, the Sultan ordered the baggage to be taken to a place called Kharruba, for fear that the stench of the corpses would make his soldiers ill. This was a place near the battlefield but further off than where they had been encamped so far. A tent was pitched for him by the baggage, and he told the outposts to stay at the site of the earlier camp. This happened on the 29th of the month. He called together the ami? rs and counsellors at the end of the month, (I was among them,) and invited them to hear what he was about to say.
'In God's name,' he said, 'Praise to God and blessing to the Prophet; know that this enemy of God and of ourselves has invaded our country and seized the territory of Isla? m. Signs are already appearing of the victory that we shall win over them, God willing.
Now they are left with very small forces, and it is our task to try at any cost to exterminate them, as a duty imposed upon us by God. You know that these are our entire forces, and that we shall have no reinforcements except for al-Malik al-'Adil who is on his way. If the enemy stay where they are and hold on until communications by sea can be reopened, they will get large reinforcements. My feeling, therefore, is that we should not hesitate to attack them. Each of you will now give his opinion about this. '
The date was 13 tishri? n according to the solar calendar (13 October). Various opinions were voiced and discussed, and they reached the conclusion that the best plan would be to withdraw with the army to Kharruba and allow the men to rest for a few days from carrying arms and the fatigue that it entailed, to gain strength and graze their horses. The men had been in the front line for fifty days, and the horses were exhausted with the fighting and the strain imposed on them. After a short rest they would recover their breath. 'Al-Malik al-'Adil will arrive and give us his advice as well as his support. We shall round up the deserters and muster the infantry so that they will be ready to face the enemy. '
The Sultan was very ill with various troubles exacerbated by the weight of the arms he bore and the constant wearing of a helmet, so he decided to follow their advice. The army was moved up to join the baggage on 3 ramada? n. The Sultan moved on the same night, and his health began to improve. The troops were mustered, and waited for his brother al-Malik al-'Adil, who arrived on 10 ramada? n/22 October. 1
THE SIEGE-TOWERS ARE BURNT DOWN (IBN AL-ATHI? R, XII, 28-30)
During the siege of Acre the Franks built three lofty wooden towers, each one sixty cubits tall. They had five floors, each crowded with soldiers. The wood for them had been brought
The date is more than a month earlier than that given by Ibn al-Athi? r and his source 'Ima? d ad-Din
1
(half-way through shawwa? l).
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from abroad, as a very special kind was needed for these towers. They were covered with skins, vinegar, mud and fire-resisting substances. The Franks cleared a path for their advance and brought all three up under the walls of Acre. The assault began on 20 rabi? ' I (587/27 April 1190). They towered over the walls, and the men inside them fought the defenders on the walls, and pushed them back, while the Franks began to fill up the moat. Thus the city was on the point of being taken by assault. The people of Acre sent a man to escape by swimming and tell Saladin what was happening, and that capture seemed immi- nent. The Sultan ordered his army to mount and advanced on the enemy, engaging them on all sides in fierce and unceasing combat, and endeavoured by this means to distract them from their attack on the city. The Franks divided their forces, one part to attack Saladin and the other the city, and so the pressure on Acre was relieved.
The fighting lasted for eight days on end, until the 28th of the month/5th May, when the exhaustion of both sides after eight days of continuous day and night fighting brought it to an end. The Muslims were now convinced that the Franks would take the city, seeing that the defenders could not fend off attacks from their siege-towers. They had exhausted every stratagem to no avail, and followed this by showering the towers with Greek fire, but made no impression on them. They were convinced therefore that they were doomed, when God aided them and enabled the towers to be burnt.
It happened like this: there was a man from Damascus who was a passionate collec- tor of pyrotechnic devices and ingredients for reinforcing the effect of fire. His friends reproached and rebuked him for his passion, but he replied that it was an occupation that did no harm to anyone and which interested him as a hobby. By a strange coincidence this man was in Acre, and when he saw the towers being built for use against the city he began to collect together the ingredients that he knew would increase the effectiveness of fire and make it inextinguishable by earth, vinegar or any other substance. When he had everything ready he presented it to the ami? r Qaraqu? sh, commander and governor of Acre, and told him to order the artillery to aim one of their catapults at a tower and fire off what he had given him, and it would set the tower alight. Qaraqu? sh was out of his mind with fear that the city would fall, with a frenzy that almost killed him. The man's words drove him to even greater fury and he raged at him: 'These men have used all their skill to hit the towers with Greek fire and everything else, without success! ' But some of those present said: 'Who knows that God has not put our salvation in this man's hands? There is no harm in doing what he proposes. ' So Qaraqu? sh consented and told the artillery to obey the man's orders. They shot a certain number of containers full of naphtha and other things without starting a fire, and the Franks, seeing that when the containers fell they did not burn anything, called out and danced about and made jokes from the top of the tower. When the inventor saw that the containers shot from the catapult really hit the tower he sent over one that was filled with his invention, and at once the tower went up in flames. He shot a second and a third time; the fire spread through the tower, preventing the men on the five platforms from escaping to safety. Thus it was burnt with everyone in it, as well as a store of cuirasses and arms. The Franks, seeing that the first containers were ineffective, had been inclined to stay calm and make no effort to save themselves, until God gave them a foretaste of Hell-fire. When the first tower was burnt the Muslims turned to the second, whose soldiers fled in fear, and the third, and burnt them both, making this a day to stand out in the memory. The Muslims looked on and rejoiced, their faces lit up with joy again after sorrow, for the victory and
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preservation from death of their co-religionists, for every one of them had a friend or rela- tion in the city. The inventor was brought before Saladin who offered him great wealth and honour, but he refused to take anything. 'I did it for love of God,' he said, 'and I want no other reward than Him. ' The joyful news travelled through the provinces, and the Sultan sent for reinforcements from the East. First to arrive was 'Ima? d ad-Din Zangi ibn Maudu? d ibn Zangi, ruler of Sinja? r and the Jazira, then 'Ala? ' ad-Din son of 'Izz ad-Din ibn Maudu? d ibn Zangi, ruler of Mosul, sent by his father to command the Mosul army, then Zain ad-Din Yusuf of Arbela. As soon as each arrived he attacked the Franks with his troops and fought with the rest of the army, and after that pitched his tents.
Various Incidents during the Siege
(BAHA? ' AD-DIN, 178-9, 201-3, 211)
A SHIP FROM BEIRU? T REACHES ACRE BY MEANS OF A RUSE
The Franks, God damn them! had posted their ships all round Acre to blockade the harbour against Muslim shipping. The besieged were in dire need of food and provisions. A group of Muslims embarked at Beiru? t with a cargo of four hundred sacks of grain, cheese, onions, mutton and other provisions. They dressed in Frankish clothes, shaved their beards, put some pigs on the upper deck where they could be seen from a distance,1 set up crosses, weighed anchor and made for the city from the open sea. When they came into contact with enemy ships the Franks accosted them in small boats and galleys saying: 'We see that you are making for the city,' thinking that they too were Franks. The Muslims replied: 'But haven't you taken it yet? ' 'Not yet. ' 'Then we will make for the Frankish army. But there was another ship travelling with us on the same wind; warn it not to enter the city. ' There was in fact a Frankish ship behind them on the same route, making for the army. The patrol- boat saw it and made off to warn it. Thus the Muslim ship was free to follow its own course, and entered port on a favourable wind, safe and sound by God's grace. They brought great joy, for the inhabitants were now suffering severe hardships. This happened in the last ten days of rajab (586/August- September 1190).
THE STORY OF THE SWIMMER ISA
One of the most strange and amazing incidents of the siege was this: a Muslim swimmer called Isa used to come into the city by night with messages and money carried in his belt, eluding enemy surveillance. He would dive down, and come up on the other side of the boom. One night, carrying three purses containing a thousand dinar and messages for the army in his belt he set out on his swim, but met with an accident from which he died. It was some time before we learnt of his death. It was his custom, on entering the city, to send up a messenger-pigeon to tell of his arrival. When the bird did not appear we realized that he must be dead. One day some time later a group of people was on the beach by the city when the sea cast up a body on the shore. Examination revealed that it was Isa the swimmer. In
1
Unclean animals that a Muslim would never eat.
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his belt they found the gold and the wax-paper containing the letters; the gold was used as payment for the troops. This is the only man who has faithfully carried out his duties even after death. This too happened in the last ten days of rajab.
AN AMBUSH
On 22 shawwa? l (586/22 November 1190) the Sultan decided to stage an ambush for the enemy. He selected a group of warriors and gallant knights chosen from a great number, and told them to leave camp by night and wait at the foot of a hill to the north of Acre, not far from the enemy camp, where al-Malik al-'Adil had been stationed in the battle that was called after him. A few of them were to allow the enemy to see them, and by going up to the tents to provoke them, and then, when the Franks came out to get them, to escape in the direction of the Muslims. The detachment obeyed and marched off to arrive at the hill by night and take up their positions. Saturday 23rd dawned and a small band, mounted on swift horses, emerged and made for the enemy tents, firing arrows at them. Provoked by this persistent attack about two hundred Frankish knights in full armour, with fine horses and weapons, appeared and attacked without infantry. The smallness of the Muslim band had beguiled them into giving battle. The Muslims fled before them, fighting and retreating at the same time, until they reached the ambush. At their arrival the hidden warriors burst out and with one shout fell on the Franks like lions on their prey. The Franks resisted and fought nobly, but they were put to flight. The Muslims overcame them, killed many and unseated and captured a good number and took their horses and arms.
The good news reached the Muslim camp, and voices were raised in praise and jubila- tion to God. The Sultan rode out to meet the heroes (I was on duty at his side) as far as Tall Kaisa? n, where he met the leaders of the band. There he stopped to inspect the prison- ers, while the people praised and thanked him for his gesture. The Sultan examined the prisoners and ascertained who they were. Among them was the commander of the King of France's army, whom the latter had sent to help before his own arrival. In the same way the King's treasurer was taken prisoner. The Sultan returned to his tent happy and contented, sent for the prisoners, and had the herald summon all who had captured one to bring him into his presence. They all appeared with their prisoners; I was present on the occasion. Saladin treated the most important and distinguished prisoners with respect and gave them robes of honour. He gave the captain of the King's guard a special fur robe, and to each of the others one from Jarkh, for it was very cold and they were suffering from it. He sent for food for them, which they ate, and had a tent pitched for them near his own. He continued to show honour to them and sometimes invited the commander to his table. Then he had them sent to Damascus, whither they were conducted with honour. He gave them permis- sion to write to their companions and send for clothes and other necessities from the camp. This they did, and then left for Damascus.
SALADIN'S HUMANITY
Forty-five Franks taken at Beiru? t were brought before Saladin on their arrival there that day. 1 On this occasion I was able to observe his unparalleled generosity with my own eyes. Among the prisoners was a very old man, without a tooth in his head or the strength to do
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more than get himself about. The Sultan told the interpreter to ask him: 'What brought you here at such an advanced age, and how far is this place from your own land? ' He replied: 'My own land is many months' voyage away from here, and my journey here was a pil- grimage to the Holy Sepulchre. ' The Sultan was moved by this to thank him and do him the honour of giving him his liberty and sending him back to the enemy camp on horseback. His small sons asked his permission to kill one of the prisoners, but he refused. They asked me to ask him why, and he said: 'One does not accustom children to shedding blood thus lightly, when they are still incapable of distinguishing a Muslim from an infidel. ' Observe the clemency, conscientiousness and scrupulousness of this King! 1
FRANKISH WOMEN OF PEACE AND WAR2 ('IMA? D AD-DIN, 228-30)
There arrived by ship three hundred lovely Frankish women, full of youth and beauty, assembled from beyond the sea and offering themselves for sin. They were expatriates come to help expatriates, ready to cheer the fallen and sustained in turn to give support and assistance, and they glowed with ardour for carnal intercourse. They were all licentious har- lots, proud and scornful, who took and gave, foul-fleshed and sinful, singers and coquettes, appearing proudly in public, ardent and inflamed, tinted and painted, desirable and appe- tizing, exquisite and graceful, who ripped open and patched up, lacerated and mended, erred and ogled, urged and seduced, consoled and solicited, seductive and languid, desired and desiring, amused and amusing, versatile and cunning, like tipsy adolescents, making love and selling themselves for gold, bold and ardent, loving and passionate, pink-faced and unblushing, black-eyed and bullying, callipygian and graceful, with nasal voices and fleshy thighs, blue-eyed and grey-eyed, broken-down little fools. Each one trailed the train of her robe behind her and bewitched the beholder with her effulgence. She swayed like a sapling, revealed herself like a strong castle, quivered like a small branch, walked proudly with a cross on her breast, sold her graces for gratitude, and longed to lose her robe and her honour. They arrived after consecrating their persons as if to works of piety, and offered and prostituted the most chaste and precious among them. They said that they set out with the intention of consecrating their charms, that they did not intend to refuse themselves to bachelors, and they maintained that they could make themselves acceptable to God by no better sacrifice than this. So they set themselves up each in a pavilion or tent erected for her use, together with other lovely young girls of their age, and opened the gates of pleasure. They dedicated as a holy offering what they kept between their thighs; they were openly licentious and devoted themselves to relaxation; they removed every obstacle to making of themselves free offerings. They plied a brisk trade in dissoluteness, adorned the patched-up fissures, poured themselves into the springs of libertinage, shut themselves up in private under the amorous transports of men, offered their wares for enjoyment, invited
At Tall al-'Ayadiyya, near Acre, on 9 rabi? ' I 587/6 April 1191.
This is one anecdote in which the Saladin of history and of legend meet.
There follows a page of baroque pornography that may be of interest to connoisseurs of literary teratology.
1 1 2
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the shameless into their embrace, mounted breasts on backs, bestowed their wares on the poor, brought their silver anklets up to touch their golden ear-rings, and were willingly spread out on the carpet of amorous sport. They made themselves targets for men's darts, they were permitted territory for forbidden acts, they offered themselves to the lances' blows and humiliated themselves to their lovers. They put up the tent and loosed the girdle after agreement had been reached. They were the places where tent-pegs are driven in, they invited swords to enter their sheaths, they razed their terrain for planting, they made jav- elins rise toward shields, excited the plough to plough, gave the birds a place to peck with their beaks, allowed heads to enter their ante-chambers and raced under whoever bestrode them at the spur's blow. They took the parched man's sinews to the well, fitted arrows to the bow's handle, cut off sword-belts, engraved coins, welcomed birds into the nest of their thighs, caught in their nets the horns of butting rams, removed the interdict from what is protected, withdrew the veil from what is hidden. They interwove leg with leg, slaked their lovers' thirsts, caught lizard after lizard in their holes, disregarded the wickedness of their intimacies, guided pens to inkwells, torrents to the valley bottom, streams to pools, swords to scabbards, gold ingots to crucibles, infidel girdles to women's zones, firewood to the stove, guilty men to low dungeons, money-changers to dinar, necks to bellies, motes to eyes. They contested for tree-trunks, wandered far and wide to collect fruit, and maintained that this was an act of piety without equal, especially to those who were far from home and wives. They mixed wine, and with the eye of sin they begged for its hire. 1 The men of our army heard tell of them, and were at a loss to know how such women could perform acts of piety by abandoning all decency and shame. However, a few foolish mamlu? ks and ignorant wretches slipped away, under the fierce goad of lust, and followed the people of error. And there were those who allowed themselves to buy pleasure with degradation, and those who repented of their sin and found devious ways of retracing their steps, for the hand of any man who shrinks from (absolute) apostasy dares not stretch out, and it is the nature of him who arrives there to steal away from them, suspecting that what is serious, is serious, and the door of pleasure closes in his face. Now among the Franks a woman who gives herself to a celibate man commits no sin, and her justification is even greater in the case of a priest, if chaste men in dire need find relief in enjoying her.
Another person to arrive by sea was a noblewoman who was very wealthy. She was a queen in her own land, and arrived accompanied by five hundred knights with their horses and money, pages and valets, she paying all their expenses and treating them generously out of her wealth. They rode out when she rode out, charged when she charged, flung them- selves into the fray at her side, their ranks unwavering as long as she stood firm.
Among the Franks there were indeed women who rode into battle with cuirasses and helmets, dressed in men's clothes; who rode out into the thick of the fray and acted like brave men although they were but tender women, maintaining that all this was an act of piety, thinking to gain heavenly rewards by it, and making it their way of life. Praise be to him who led them into such error and out of the paths of wisdom! On the day of battle more than one woman rode out with them like a knight and showed (masculine) endurance in
This is a hint of the true nature of these camp-followers, represented in the rest of the passage as fanatical hierodules of the Christian faith; but even this metaphor from the market, the request with the eye (or the coin) of sin, could be understood in other than a literally venial sense.
1
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spite of the weakness (of her sex); clothed only in a coat of mail they were not recognized as women until they had been stripped of their arms. 1 Some of them were discovered and sold as slaves; and everywhere was full of old women. These were sometimes a support and sometimes a source of weakness. They exhorted and incited men to summon their pride, saying that the Cross imposed on them the obligation to resist to the bitter end, and that the combatants would win eternal life only by sacrificing their lives, and that their God's sepulchre was in enemy hands. Observe how men and women led them into error; the latter in their religious zeal tired of feminine delicacy, and to save themselves from the terror of dismay (on the day of Judgment) became the close companions of perplexity, and having succumbed to the lust for vengeance, became hardened, and stupid and foolish because of the harm they had suffered.
1
Ibn al-Athi? r has the same story. Clearly there was more than one Clorinda in the Christian camp; but from a passage in Usama we learn that Muslim women too were capable of taking up arms if necessary.
CHAPTER FIVE
The expedition of Frederick Barbarossa, which ended in the waters of the Calycadnus and the epidemics of northern Syria, was followed with greater success by those of the kings of France and England. Despite all Saladin's efforts to mobilize all the forces of Isla? m in a counter-crusade (we owe to Abu Shama the text of one of his impassioned appeals on the subject), in 1191, her food and her army gone, Acre submitted. Baha? ' ad-Din paints for us a vivid picture of the last hours and the tragedy of the surrender with its bloody epilogue, a disgrace to the name of Coeur de Lion, when the Muslim prisoners were massacred in cold blood.
CONRAD OF MONTFERRAT AND THE THIRD CRUSADE (BAHA? ' AD-DI? N, 181)
. . . the Marquis, the ruler of Tyre, was one of the most cunning and experienced of the Franks, and his was the chief responsibility for luring the crowds of Crusaders from over- seas. He had a picture of Jerusalem painted showing the Church of the Resurrection, the object of pilgrimage and deepest veneration to them; according to them the Messiah's tomb is there, in which he was buried after his crucifixion. 1 This sepulchre was the object of their pilgrimage, and they believed that every year fire came down upon it from heaven at one of their feasts. 2 Above the tomb the Marquis had a horse painted, and mounted on it a Muslim knight who was trampling the tomb, over which his horse was urinating. This picture was sent abroad to the markets and meeting-places; priests carried it about, clothed in their hab- its, their heads covered, groaning: 'O the shame! ' In this way they raised a huge army, God alone knows how many, among them the King of Germany with his troops.
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA'S CRUSADE AND HIS DEATH (IBN AL-ATHI? R, XII, 30-2)
In 586/1190 the King of Germany left his country, which was inhabited by one of the most numerous and vigorous of the Frankish tribes. Troubled by the fall of Jerusalem to the Muslims, he marshalled his army, equipped them fully and left his land for Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor sent word of his coming to Saladin and promised that he would not let him pass through his lands. When the King of Germany reached Constantinople the Emperor was in no position to prevent his passage because of the size of his army, but he
We have already remarked on the Docetist theories of Muslim Christology.
The fire ceremony on Holy Saturday, celebrated at the Holy Sepulchre until the last century.
1 2
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denied him any provisions and forbade his subjects to supply the army with what it needed, so that they found themselves short of food and provisions.
