But that
cautious
general wanted to see some proof of his revolt, by commencing hostilities against the king, before he trusted his claims.
Polyaenus - Strategems
The enemy left many dead on the field, and many others were taken prisoner.
3 Orontes, with ten thousand Greek hoplites, fought at Cyme against Autophradates, who advanced against him with the same number of cavalry. Orontes ordered his men to look around, and observe the extensiveness of the plain. He told them that, if they loosened their ranks, it would be impossible to withstand the charge of the enemy's cavalry. Accordingly, they kept their ranks compact and close, and received the cavalry upon their spears. When the cavalry found that they could make no impression on them, they retreated. Orontes ordered the Greeks, when the cavalry made a second attack upon them, to advance three paces forward to meet them. The cavalry supposed that they meant to charge them, and fled away from the battlefield.
4 After losing a great number of his allies, who had been cut off in an ambush by Autophradates, Orontes spread a report that a group of mercenaries were on the march to join him. He took care that this message, with every mark of confirmation that he could give it, was communicated to Autophradates. By night he armed the strongest of the barbarians in Greek armour; and as soon as it was day, he posted them in his army amongst the rest of the Greeks, along with interpreters who knew both languages and could repeat the Greek commands in the barbarian language. Autophradates, seeing such a large number of men in Greek armour, assumed that Orontes had received the reinforcements, of which he had been informed. Not wishing to risk a battle at so great a disadvantage, he broke up his camp and retreated.
[15] Xerxes.
When Xerxes undertook an expedition against Greece, he persuaded a number of nations to join in the enterprise, by spreading a report that he had gained the support of some of the principal Greeks, who were willing to betray the country to him. The others supposed that they would be marching not to subdue a country, but to take possession of it. Therefore they were easily persuaded to join the confederacy, and many of the barbarian states voluntarily offered themselves as allies.
2 When some Greek spies were caught in his camp, Xerxes, instead of punishing them, ordered them to be taken through every part of it, and shown all his forces. Then he ordered them to go back and tell the Greeks everything which he had allowed them to seen. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 146]
3 While Xerxes lay at anchor at Abydus, waiting to intercept the Greek fleet, he captured a fleet of store-ships, laden with provisions. The barbarians wanted to sink the ships, with all the men who were on board them. Xerxes would not agree to this, but summoned the men and asked where they were heading. "For Greece," they replied. "So are we," said Xerxes, "and therefore the ships belong to us. Now go away. " As soon as the men reached Greece, they spread universal terror there with their reports of Xerxes' invasion. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 147]
4 To conceal the great numbers of the barbarians, who had been killed at Thermopylae, Xerxes ordered the relatives of those who had been to lost, to go out by night and bury them in secret.
5 Xerxes could not bring all of his numerous army into action at Thermopylae, because of the narrowness of the pass, and many Persians were killed there. But Ephialtes of Trachis revealed to him a secret way across the mountains, and Xerxes sent a hundred thousand men along that route. These men went round in a circuit and fell upon the rear of the Greeks. They cut down Leonidas himself, and every man of the little force he commanded.
[16] Artaxerxes.
Artaxerxes sent Tithraustes to seize Tisaphernes. He gave him two letters, one to Tisaphernes himself, appointing him to command an expedition against the Greeks, and another to Ariaeus, ordering him to assist Tithraustes in capturing Tisaphernes. As soon as Ariaeus, who was then staying at Colossae in Phrygia, read the letter, he sent to Tisaphernes asking to meet him about some importance business, in particular concerning Greece. Tisaphernes entertained no suspicion of any plot against him. He left his bodyguard behind in Sardis, and immediately went to meet Ariaeus, accompanied by a body of three hundred Arcadians and Milesians. When he arrived, he laid aside his sword, and went into a bath. Ariaeus and his attendants suddenly rushed upon him, and seized him. Then they put him in a covered carriage and delivered him to Tithraustes. Tithraustes took him to Celaenae, and there struck off his head, which he carried to the king. Artaxerxes sent it to his mother Parysatis, who long wished to see Tisaphernes suffer in revenge for the death of Cyrus. And the mothers and wives of all the Greeks, who had followed Cyrus, expressed equal satisfaction at the punishment of a man, who had used such great treachery towards their sons and husbands. [see also: Diodorus, 14. 80]
2 Artaxerxes tried by all possible means to stir up wars between the Greeks. He was always willing to help the conquered side; for by giving assistance to the weaker power, he placed them nearer to equality, and thereby he exhausted the victors' strength.
[17] Ochus.
After the death of Artaxerxes, his son Ochus realised that he would not immediately have the same authority over his subjects, which his father had. Therefore he prevailed upon the eunuchs, the stewards, and the captain of the guard, to conceal the death of his father for a period of ten months. In the meantime, he wrote letters in his father's name, and sealed them with the royal signet, commanding his subjects to acknowledge Ochus as their king, and to pay homage to him. When this decree had been obeyed by all his subjects, Ochus announced the death of his father, and ordered a general mourning for him, according to the custom of the Persians.
[18] Tisaphernes.
Tisaphernes entered into a close alliance with Clearchus, and placed his concubines at his service. He said that he wished to have a similar relationship with the other Greek generals. His invitation was accepted by Proxenus of Boeotia, Menon of Thessaly, Agis of Arcadia, and Socrates of Achaea. They were introduced to Tisaphernes, accompanied by twenty officers and two hundred soldiers. Tisaphernes seized the generals and sent them in chains to the king; the other men were massacred. [see also: Xenophon, Anab_2. 5'31]
2 Tisaphernes planned to attack Miletus, and seize all the deserters, who had taken refuge there. Although he had not at the time made any preparations for such an expedition, he carefully spread a report of his plan, so that the Milesians removed all their property from the country into the city. As soon as he was really prepared for the expedition, he pretended to change his mind, and dismissed his army, with secret orders that no soldier should travel far away. As soon as the Milesians heard that his army had been disbanded, they relaxed their guard and ventured out into the county. Then Tisaphernes suddenly collected his forces, and seized all the Milesians who were dispersed outside the city.
[19] Pharnabazus.
The Lacedaemonians recalled Lysander from Asia, because Pharnabazus had accused him of misdemeanours. When Lysander urged him to be less severe in the condemnation of his conduct, Pharnabazus promised that he would, and he wrote a letter to the Lacedaemonians, containing the message which Lysander wanted. But at the same time, he secretly wrote another letter, which gave a very different account. When he sealed the letter, he contrived to replace the letter which Lysander had seen with the secret letter, which was of exactly the same appearance. Lysander took this letter, and on his return to Lacedaemon, he delivered it to the ephors, as was customary. As soon as they had read the letter, they showed it to him, and they remarked that there was no room for any defence, because he was condemned by the very letter, which he himself had produced. [see also: Plutarch, Lys_19]
[20] Glos.
Glos, while on an expedition against Cyprus, suspected that the Greeks who were in his service were trying to stir up the Greeks in Ionia against him. To discover the culprits, he ordered a trireme to sail for Ionia. The master delayed sailing for several days, on pretence of gathering a crew and provisions, but in reality to give a chance for anyone who wished to put letters on board for their friends. As soon as the ship was out of the harbour, the master put to land at a particular point, as Glos had instructed. Glos met him there, and took possession of all the letters, which had been given to him to take to Ionia. From these letters, he discovered who were his enemies. He did not punish them immediately, but he took the earliest available opportunity to get rid of them.
[21] Datames.
When Datames was being pressed by his men for their arrears of pay, he assembled them and assured them that he had great treasures available, at a place which was only three days' march away from them. "Therefore," he said, "let us march there as quickly as possible. " From the confidence with which he said this, the army believed him, and immediately began their march. When they came within one day's march of the place, he ordered them to halt, and rest themselves. Meanwhile he took some mules and camels, and went to a temple, which was adorned with the wealth of the country. From there he seized thirty talents of silver, with which he filled a few vases. He carried the vases back to the army on the camels and mules, along with a great number of other vases of the same shape and size, which he pretended to be full. Upon his return, he showed the full vases to the soldiers, who in their delight at the sight believed what he said about the other vases. But he told them that, before he could distribute the money to each of them, he need to go to Amisus to have the bullion turned into coins. Amisus was many days' march distant from there, and was very bleak place in which to spend the winter. The troops showed no disposition to march there, and did not trouble him for the rest of the winter about their arrears.
2 Datames intended to attack Sinope; but the city had a very strong fleet, while he had none, nor any carpenters to build one for him. Therefore he entered into an alliance with them, and promised to lay siege to Sestus, which was most hostile to them, and put it into their hands. The inhabitants of Sinope were delighted with the proposal; and offered to assist him in the enterprise in whatever way he might want. He told them that he had plenty of money and men, but what he needed was siege engines, catapults, battering rams and testudos. He had none of these things, which would be essential for carrying out a siege. The inhabitants of Sinope immediately provided him with all the builders and carpenters that they had. He employed these men in building ships, as well as siege engines; and in this way he created a fleet, with which he attacked Sinope instead of Sestus.
3 Datames crossed the river Euphrates, to make war on the great king [of the Persians] and invade his territories. The king marched against him with a large force, but because his army was poorly supplied with provisions, he was much delayed in his march. Meanwhile Damates was obliged, by the difficulty of procuring forage for so numerous a body of troops, to retreat hastily before the formidable force, that was advancing against him. After marching to the nearest point of the river which he could reach, he fastened two carriages abreast, and then fastened two more onto them. On the bottom of the circumference of the wheels he nailed broad boards, to stop them sinking into the mud. He then ordered some of the strongest men in his army to swim over the river, and to lead after them a number of the strongest horses that could be picked out. The carriages, on which he placed his baggage, were fastened to the horses by ropes. His men thrust the carriages into the river, where they were pulled forwards by the men who had gone ahead, and by the horses. In this way he crossed the river without loss; and gained ten days' march ahead of the king, by which he achieved a safe retreat.
4 Shortly before a battle [on the plain of] Aspendus, Datames received intelligence that some of his own soldiers were plotting against him. He changed armour with one of his officers, who wore his armour, while Datames went into battle with borrowed clothes. The plotters, mistaking the person who wore the royal armour for the king, were discovered in their attack on him, and captured. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_9]
5 While he was besieging Sinope, Datames received a letter from the king, ordering him to raise the siege immediately. Datames did not want it to be thought, that he had been ordered to do this. As soon as he had read the letter, he offered homage to it, and made a sacrifice for the occasion, as if he had received an especial favour from the king. Then by night he embarked on a ship and sailed away.
6 When Datames was being closely pursued by Autophradates, he reached a river. He did not dare to attempt to cross the river in the face of the enemy, but he pretended to encamp by the side of it. He fixed very large and high tents in the sight of the enemy, and concealed the cavalry and the baggage behind them. He ordered his men not to unharness the horses, or to take off their bridles; and he told the soldiers to keep hold of their weapons. When they saw Datames encamped, the enemy halted and encamped against him. They took their horses away from the carriages, and put them out to fodder; and they began to prepare their meals. Datames had his horses, his men, and everything else in readiness for crossing the river. As soon as he saw that the enemy were relaxed, he began the crossing. While the enemy were still collecting their scattered troops, forming their line, preparing their horses, and arming themselves, he was able to cross over in safety.
7 In the middle of a battle, an officer on the left wing deserted to the enemy with a body of cavalry, and threw the infantry into consternation. Datames ran up to the dispirited troops, and told them to keep to their ranks, so that they could make an attack. He said that the cavalry had made that movement on his orders, in order to take the opportunity of supporting the attack of the infantry. The infantry believed him, and in their eagerness to snatch the victory from the cavalry, they vigorously attacked the enemy in a compact body. It was only after they had defeated the enemy, that they learned the truth about the treachery of the cavalry. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_6]
[22] Cosingas.
The generals of the Cebrenii and Sycaeboae, two Thracian tribes, were chosen from among the priests of Hera. Cosingas, according to the tradition of the country, was elected to be their priest and general; but the army took some objection to him, and refused to obey him. To suppress the rebelliousness that had taken hold of the troops, Cosingas built a number of long ladders, and fastened them one to another. He then put out a report, that he had decided to climb up to heaven, in order to inform Hera of the disobedience of the Thracians. The Thracians, who are notoriously stupid and ridiculous, were terrified by the idea of their general's intended journey, and the resulting wrath of heaven. They implored him not to carry out his plan, and they promised with an oath to obey all of his future commands.
[23] Mausolus.
When Mausolus, king of Caria, had need of more money than he could raise from his subjects, he assembled his friends, and pretended that he was afraid that the great king would strip him of all his dominions. He showed them his treasures, gold and silver, his horses, jewels, and whatever else he had of value. He said that he intended to send it all to the king, with a request to allow him to continue in his hereditary territories. His friends believed that the situation really was as he described; and the same day, they sent him an immense amount of treasure.
2 In order to gain control of Latmus, a strongly fortified city, Mausolus pretended that he wanted to form a close alliance with the Latmians. For that purpose, he restored to them the hostages, whom Hidrieus had taken; and he appointed Latmians to be his bodyguard, as if they were men on whose loyalty he could trust. He made a point of obliging them, in whatever they wished; and after winning their support in this way, he asked them to send him three hundred men as guards for his person. He pretended that he had business, that required him to go to Pygela, and that he was afraid of the sinister schemes of Herophytus of Ephesus. The men whom he asked for were immediately sent to him, and they accompanied him, along with other forces he had in readiness, as he marched to Latmus, on his route to Pygela. When the citizens all came out, to see the army pass, a body of troops, whom he had placed in ambush during the night, sallied out, and occupied the city, which had been deserted by its inhabitants, with the gates left wide open. Mausolus then turned round and entered Latmus with all his forces, and made himself master of the city. [see also: Polyaenus, 8. 53'4]
[24] Borges.
Borges was appointed by the great king to be governor of Eion, a city situated on the river Strymon. When the city was closely besieged by the Greeks, Borges bravely held out to the last extremity, and finding that he could not longer defend the city, he determined not to surrender to the enemy the place, which the king had sent him to hold. Instead, he set fire to it, and perished in the flames, along with his wife and children. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 107]
[25] Dromichaetes.
# Dromichaetes was king of Thrace, and Lysimachus was king of Macedonia. When Lysimachus made war on Thrace, Dromichaetes used the following stratagem against him. Seuthes, his general, pretended to resent some insult which he had received from the Thracian king, and deserted to Lysimachus. Lysimachus trusted his loyalty, and followed his directions. But Seuthes brought the Macedonian army into such a situation, that they had to contend at the same time with famine, thirst and a powerful enemy. Dromichaetes took the opportunity to attack them when they were in this situation. Although the Macedonian army is reported to have amounted to a hundred thousand men, he defeated them with great slaughter, and took Lysimachus prisoner.
[26] Ariobarzanes.
Ariobarzanes was blocked up by Autophradates at Adramyttium, by land and sea. He lacked a supply of both provisions and men, which he was unable to bring in, because the enemy watched him so closely. He ordered the commander of the garrison in Pteleūs, the neighbouring island, to contact Autophradates, and pretend to be ready to betray the island to him. In accordance with this proposal, Autophradates ordered his fleet to sail and take possession of the island. While the fleet was away, Ariobarzanes brought an ample supply of provisions and men into Adramyttium.
[27] Autophradates.
Autophradates, in an expedition into Pisidia, marched into a defile with his army; but he discovered that the enemy had secured the defile, and that he would be unable to pass through it without great loss. He therefore retreated for a distance of about 90 stades. As soon as night came on, the Pisidians, who had observed his retreat, left their position; but Autophradates quickly marched back with his light-armed troops and passed through the defile. The rest of his army followed him and penetrated into Pisidia, which he ravaged thoroughly. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 4'5]
2 Autophradates observed that the Ephesians, who were encamped opposite him, were walking around in a leisurely fashion, and relaxing. He proposed a conference with the Ephesian leaders, which they accepted. While he was thus engaged with them, the generals of his cavalry and hoplites, according to the orders which he had given them, suddenly attacked the Ephesians, who were dispersed in straggling groups, and unprepared for action. Some of them were cut down, and the rest were made prisoners.
3 In order to persuade the mercenaries to follow him, Autophradates arranged for a report to be spread around, that his expedition was in reality no more than a general muster of his troops, with the purpose of docking the pay of all who did not appear in arms. The men therefore all armed themselves, and took their positions, claiming to be ready for action. Autophradates immediately marched them out, informing them that the review, which they had been expecting, would be against a real enemy on the battlefield.
[28] Arsames.
When Arsames was besieging Barce, the inhabitants of the city sent envoys to him with proposals of peace. He agreed to their terms, and in confirmation of it, he gave them his hand, as is the Persian custom. After raising the siege, he recommended that they make a close alliance with the king against the Greeks, and proposed that they should furnish him with a number of carriages, which he needed for his Greek expedition. They agreed with this proposal, and sent some of their leaders to him to arrange measures for the expedition. Arsames received these men courteously, and held a magnificent banquet for them. He also opened up a market for all the inhabitants of Barce, where a vast profusion of all kinds of things were put up for sale. Accordingly the inhabitants came out in great numbers to make purchases, but on a given signal the Persians took possession of the gates and rushed into the city. They plundered the city, and put to the sword anyone who attempted to resist them.
2 After Arsames had revolted from the king, he took control of Greater Phrygia, and made war against the king's generals. He received intelligence that his own cavalry commander was collaborating with the enemy, and had promised to desert to them, as soon as they met in battle. He went to the commander's tent by night, and ordered him to be examined under torture. As soon as a full confession of the fact had been made, he ordered the arms and uniform of the cavalry, who had joined in the plot, to be taken away from them; and others, in whom he trusted, to wear them instead. He ordered these men, as soon as they saw the enemy give the signal for desertion, to pretend to ride over to them, and then fall on their rear. After giving these orders, Arsames vigorously attacked the front of the enemy; at the same time, his cavalry obeyed the signal, but instead of assisting the enemy, fell upon their rear. Their ranks were immediately broken, and most of them were cut down as they fled.
[29] Mithridates.
After Datames had revolted, the king order Mithridates to capture him, either dead or alive. Mithridates pretended to join in the revolt, and offered to join Datames.
But that cautious general wanted to see some proof of his revolt, by commencing hostilities against the king, before he trusted his claims. Mithridates accordingly began to ravage the countryside; he levelled his forts to the ground, burned his own villages, extorted money, and plundered his subjects. After Mithridates had taken such decisive action against the king, the two generals agreed on a conference, at which they were to meet unarmed. But Mithridates had secretly concealed a number of daggers around the spot, which was chosen for their meeting; he hid them in the ground, and marked the places where he had concealed them. After they had walked about together, and had spent a considerable time in conversation, Datames took his leave, and they parted. But Mithridates hastily dug up one of the daggers, which he concealed under his left arm, and called back Datames, on the pretence that he had forgotten something else, which he needed to say. Datames accordingly returned, and Mithridates pointed at a mountain, which he said they ought to secure. While Datames was looking at the mountain intently, Mithridates plunged the dagger into his breast. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_10]
2 Mithridates was closely pursued to a city in Paphlagonia, where he took refuge. In the night, he stripped the houses of their furniture, vases, and other valuables, and scattered them indiscriminately around the streets. He then left the city as quickly as possible. When his pursuers entered the city the next morning, and saw vases and other valuables scattered around the streets, they immediately fell to plundering. Although their generals ordered them to carry on the pursuit without delay, they refused to forgo the profit which was before their eyes. In this way Mithridates was able to leave them far behind, and completed his escape.
[30] Mempsis.
# Mempsis was forced to retreat before Aribaeus, who had made war on him, but he decided not to be blocked up in his city. For this reason, he brought out everything that was most valuable - his wives, his children, and all his treasures. He placed them outside the walls, and destroyed the gates. Aribaeus saw marks of desperation in his conduct, and drew away his army. He considered it unwise to fight with an enemy, who was so determined to achieve either death, or victory.
[31] Cersobleptes.
Some of the relatives of Cersobleptes revolted from him, after embezzling large sums of money. He afterwards however found a way of recalling them to their duty; and, to separate them from each other, he gave them the command of different cities. After some time had passed, he sent orders for them to be seized, on account of the money which they had embezzled. He expelled them from their cities, and confiscated their estates.
[32] Seuthes.
When Seuthes, the second-in-command of Cersobleptes, was very short of money, he sent orders to every farmer, to sow as much land as would require five medimni of seed. He carried the great quantity of corn, which was produced by this increase in tillage, down to the sea. There he sold it at somewhat less than the market price; which immediately brought into the treasury a very considerable sum of money.
[33] Artabazus.
Timoxenus of Scione promised to betray Potidaea, which Artabazus was besieging. Their correspondence was carried on by a letter fixed to an arrow, which was shot at a particular place; and the answer was returned by another arrow. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 128]
2 Artabazus instructed Pammenes, who was suspected of communicating with the enemy, to go to make payments, and distribute corn to the troops. But as soon as Pammenes entered the camp, he ordered him to be seized, and handed him over to his brothers Oxythres and Dibictus. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 34]
3 Artabazus, the son of Pharnaces, escaped from Plataea, and came to Thessaly. When the Thessalians questioned him about the battle, he was afraid to admit the defeat which the Persians had suffered, and he replied, that he was on his way to Thrace, to deliver a secret message from the king, but Mardonius would soon follow after him, with the news of the victory which he had obtained. By this pretence, Artabazus escaped from Thessaly, before the news of the Persians' defeat became known. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 89]
[34] Aryandes.
When Aryandes was besieging Barce, he dug a ditch by night in front of the walls; over the ditch he placed some beams of wood, and covered them with a little earth. Some time later, he proposed terms of peace to the Barcaeans; and he concluded a treaty with them on the site of the ditch which he had dug, where he swore to adhere to the conditions of the treaty, as long as the ground he stood on continued. When the treaty had been concluded, the Barcaeans opened their gates. But the soldiers of Aryandes broke open the ditch, and made themselves masters of the city, on the pretext that the ground, on which the two sides stood when they made the treaty, no longer existed. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 201]
[35] Brennus.
# Brennus, king of the Gauls, in order to persuade the Gauls to undertake an expedition against Greece, convened an assembly of men and women, and ordered some Greek prisoners to be displayed there, who were poor and feeble, with their heads shaven and shabbily dressed. Next to them he placed some Gauls, who were stout handsome men, equipped with Gallic armour. Then he addressed the assembly: "Such as these," he said, "are the men who march with us into battle; and such, as those you see, are the enemies with which we have to contend. " By these means, the Gauls were brought to conceive such a contempt for the Greeks, that they readily offered to serve in an expedition against them.
2 # When the Gallic army marched into Greece, Brennus saw some gold statues at Delphi. He sent for some Delphian captives, and asked them through an interpreter, if the statues were of solid gold. When they informed him that they were only brass, covered with a thin layer of gold, he told them that he would certainly execute any of them, who gave out such a report. He ordered them therefore, whenever they were asked about the statues, to say the opposite, that they were made of solid gold. Then he sent for some of his generals, and in their presence he again asked the prisoners the same question, that he had already put to them. They, as they had been instructed, replied that they were all real gold. He ordered the generals to communicate this message to the army; in order that the prospect of so much wealth might encourage them to obtain it through conquest.
[36] Mygdonius.
When Mygdonius was closely besieged, and suffering from a severe shortage of provisions, he ordered heaps of stone and earth to be brought into the market place. He bundled them together with clay, and covered them with corn, some with wheat, and others with barley. He also ordered some of the largest and fattest mules, that could be picked out, to be turned out of the city. Then he dispatched a herald into the enemy's camp, and asked them to send some envoys to negotiate a ransom for the mules, and whatever other property the citizens might have lost. As soon as the envoys arrives, they were brought into the market-place, where Mygdonius met them. There they saw vast heaps of wheat, and barley, and heard orders given to servants to measure out great quantities of corn in other places also. On their return, the envoys reported that the town was provided with large stores. The enemy believed that this was confirmed by the fatness of the mules. They concluded that there was little prospect of reducing the town by starvation, and therefore they raised the siege.
[37] Paerisades.
Paerisades, king of Pontus, used three distinct outfits of clothing on different occasions: one when he reviewed his troops, another in time of battle, and a third when he was forced to take flight. The reasons he gave for this custom were as follows: at a review, he wished to be known by every individual in his army; in battle, he wished not to be known by the enemy; and when he was forced to take flight, he wished to be known by no-one.
[38] Seuthes.
When the Athenians were raiding and ravaging the coastal districts of Chersonesus, Seuthes hired two thousand light-armed Getae. He ordered them to ravage the country in full view of the enemy, destroying it with fire, and attacking the people on the walls with missiles and arrows. The Athenians assumed from these hostile actions, that the Getae were enemies of the Thracians. They disembarked in order to join them, and marched boldly up to the walls. Seuthes immediately sallied out of the city against them; and the Getae, advancing as if to their assistance, fell on their rear. Thus the Athenians, attacked on one side by the Thracians, and by the Getae on the other, were all cut to pieces.
[39] Cheiles.
# In order to rid himself of three thousand Persians, who had been involved in a revolt, Cheiles pretended to have received a threatening letter from Seleucus. He told them that, by their assistance, he hoped to bring Seleucus to reason. For this purpose, he instructed them to assemble at Randa, a town not far distant, and he promised to meet them there. In a deep and sheltered valley nearby, Cheiles posted three hundred Macedonian and Thracian cavalrymen, along with three thousand heavy-armed troops. He ordered them, as soon as they saw an iron shield raised up, to charge out and cut the Persians to pieces. The Persians assembled as they had been instructed; and Cheiles' plan was executed so effectively, that all three thousand were massacred.
[40] Oborzus.
When Oborzus was informed that a conspiracy had been formed against him by three thousand Persians, he discharged them, and banished them to a place in Persia, called Comastus, to which they were escorted by a strong guard. The country abounded with villages; it was very populous, and the roads were well accommodated with inns. In the towns, where they were lodged, they were dispersed in several inns; and the inn-keepers were ordered by the guards, who escorted them, and who surrounded the towns, each to kill his lodgers. Accordingly they made their lodgers drunk, and then killed them. In this way, the three thousand Persians were murdered in the night, and buried, without any tumult or confusion.
[41] Surenas.
# Crassus, when he had been ignominiously defeated by the Parthians, retreated into the mountains. Surenas, the general of the Parthians, was afraid that he would rally his forces, and renew the fight in desperation. Therefore he sent a herald to inform Crassus, that the great king was ready to enter into a treaty of peace with him, and that, after convincing the Romans of the Parthians' courage, he was now ready to convince them of their generosity. Crassus suspected a plot, and he was unwilling to meet with them. But his soldiers, whose spirits were depressed and broken, clashed their weapons, and insisted that he comply with the barbarians' request. In silent sorrow, Crassus set out for the Parthian camp on foot, but Surenas, who pretended to treat him with great respect, sent a richly ornamented horse, for him to ride. Then the barbarian groom pricked the horse and made him spring forwards. The horse would have carried Crassus, as was intended, into the middle of the Parthian army, had not Octavius, one of his legates, perceived the danger and caught hold of the reins; and Petronius, a tribune, did the same. Octavius immediately drew his sword, and killed the groom on the spot, but he himself was slain by a Parthian. Exathres the Parthian attacked Crassus, cut off his head and right hand, and carried them to Hyrodes, the great king of the Parthians. The king was at the time engaged in a banquet, where Jason of Tralles was performing the Bacchae of Euripides. The actor had just uttered this verse:
A new-skinned calf we from the mountains bring,
Blest spoil -
when they arrived with the head of Crassus, and brought it in to the king. While everyone immediately clapped and cheered, Exathres jumped up and observed, that the verse was most appropriate for the occasion. This incident gave a new zest to the royal banquet; the king rewarded the bearer with a handsome present, and gave the actor a talent.
[42] The Celts.
The Celts, who were engaged in a long and indecisive war against the Autoriatae, poisoned their own food and wine with noxious herbs, and suddenly left their camp by night in pretended confusion. The Autoriatae supposed that the enemy had admitted their inferiority and made a precipitate retreat. They took possession of their camp, and feasted on the provisions which they found there. But soon they were seized with a violent sickness, and while they were in that condition, the Celts attacked them, and slew them.
[43] The Thracians.
The Thracians fought against the Boeotians by lake Copais, and were defeated; then they retreated to Helicon, and made a truce with the Boeotians for a certain number of days, to give time for agreeing the terms of peace. The Boeotians, who were confident because of their recent victory and the truce that followed it, celebrated a sacrifice in honour of Athene Itonia. But at night while they still were intent on the ceremony, and engaged in festivities, the Thracians armed, and attacked them; they cut many of them to pieces, and took a great number prisoners. When the Boeotians afterwards charged them with a breach of the truce, the Thracians replied that the terms of the truce expressed a certain number of days, but said nothing concerning the nights. [see also: Strabo, 9. 401 (9. 2. 4)]
[44] The Scythians.
The Scythians, when they were about to go into battle against the Triballi, ordered their farmers and horse-keepers, as soon as they saw them engaged in fighting the enemy, to show themselves at a distance with as great a number of horses as they could collect. The Triballi on a distant view of such a number of men and horses, and the dust they raised, supposed them to be a fresh body of Scythians advancing to the assistance of their countrymen; and so they took fright, and fled away. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 4'20]
2 While the Scythians were fighting in Asia, the Scythian women, thinking that they had been deserted by their husbands, had children by their slaves. When their masters returned, the slaves decided to resist them by force. They accordingly took the field; and advanced in arms, to give them battle. One of the Scythians, fearing that, once the fighting started, desperation might make the slaves brave, advised that the Scythians should lay down their arms and bows, and advance against their slaves with whips in their hands. Accordingly the Scythians took up their whips; and the slaves, suddenly made conscious of their own servitude, immediately threw down their arms, and fled. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 3]
[45] The Persians.
The Persians, suspecting the Samians and Milesians of treachery, posted them alone on the heights of Mycale, supposedly because they were well acquainted with the country; but in reality, to prevent them from corrupting the rest of the Ionians. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 99]
2 When the Persians under Cyrus were fighting against the Medes; Oebares the satrap fled from the battlefield, and all the Persians under his command followed him. The Persian women marched out in a body, and met the fugitives; lifting up their skirts, they called out to the men, "Where are you running? Will you hide yourselves here, from where you came? " The women's reproof struck the Persians with shame. They returned to the battle, and defeated the enemy. [see also: Plutarch, Mor_246'A]
[46] The Taurians.
When preparing for battle, the Taurians, a Scythian people, always used to dig ditches, throw up mounds, and make the ground behind them impassable. Because their means of retreat had been cut off in this way, they knew they had no alternative, but to conquer or die.
[47] The Trojan Women.
During their journey back home from Troy, the Pallenians landed at Phlegra. While the men made raids into the interior, the captive Trojan women, who were tired with the voyage, and apprehensive of the ill treatment which they might receive from the Greek women, set fire to the fleet, at the instigation of Aethia, the sister of Priamus. After they had been thus deprived of their ships, the Greeks occupied the region of Scione, in which they built a city, and instead of Phlegra they called it Pallene.
[48] The Women of Salmatis.
# When Hannibal was besieging Salmatis, a great and wealthy city in Spain, he agreed with the inhabitants to raise the siege, on payment of three hundred talents of silver, and the delivery of three hundred hostages. The inhabitants of Salmatis afterwards refused to carry out the terms of their agreement. As a result, Hannibal detached a body of troops to plunder the town. The barbarians then begged him for permission to leave the city with their wives, and only the clothes which they wore; they promised to leave behind their slaves, weapons, and other belongings. The women according marched out with their husbands, each carrying a dagger concealed in her bosom. The soldiers immediately entered the town, and started plundering it. Then the women gave the daggers to their husbands, who re-entered the city and attacked the plunderers, while some of the women accompanied them with drawn swords. They captured some of the enemy, and drove the rest out of the city. Out of respect for the bravery of the women, Hannibal restored to them their hostages, their country, and their property.
[49] The Tyrrhenian Women.
The Tyrrhenians, who inhabited Lemnos and Imbros, were expelled from their homes by the Athenians, and landed at Taenarus. There they served as auxiliaries to the Spartans in the war against the Helots. As a reward for this service, they were presented with the freedom of the state, and they were allowed to intermarry with the Spartans. But they were suspected of being disaffected, because they were excluded from the council and all positions of trust. Afterwards they were accused of plotting against the state, and the Lacedaemonians threw them into prison. Their wives went to the prison, and asked the guards for permission to visit their husbands and talk with them. When the guards let them in, they exchanged clothes with their husbands; and in the evening the men escaped, disguised in the women's clothes, while the women remained in prison, dressed in their husbands' clothes, and prepared for whatever sufferings might ensue. The men did not forget or desert their wives; they took possession of Taygetus, and encouraged the Helots to revolt. The Lacedaemonians were afraid that there might be serious consequences; so they sent an embassy to settle the controversy, and gave them back their wives. They also supplied them with money and ships; and sent them out as Lacedaemonian colonists. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 146]
[50] The Celtic Women.
# The Celts, who had long been troubled by civil wars, had taken up arms against each other, and were just advancing to battle, when their wives rushed into the battlefield, threw themselves between the two armies, and begged them to lay aside their differences. By the insistence of the women, the battle was postponed; and in the end the disputes of the different parties were happily and amicably resolved. Ever since then, throughout the towns and villages of the Celts, whenever there is a debate about peace, or war, concerning either themselves or their allies, the women are always consulted. And in their treaties with Hannibal it was specified, that if the Celts should have any accusation to make against any of the Carthaginians, the dispute should be referred to the generals and commanders of the cavalry; but if the Carthaginians had any accusation to make against any of the Celts, it should be referred to the judgement of the Celtic women.
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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 8, Chapters 1-25
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.
The Greek text of Book 8 is available in archive. org.
CONTENTS: 1 Amulius ; 2 Numitor ; 3 Romulus ; 4 Numa ; 5 Tullus ; 6 Tarquinius ; 7 Camillus ; 8 Mucius ; 9 Sulla ; 10 Marius ; 11 Marcellus ; 12 Atilius ; 13 Gaius ; 14 Fabius ; 15 Quintus ; 16 Scipio ; 17 Porcius Cato ; 18 Daunus ; 19 Titus ; 20 Gaius ; 21 Pinarius ; 22 Sertorius ; 23 Caesar ; 24 Augustus ; 25 The Romans ; → Following Chapters (26-71)
[Preface] This eighth book of stratagems I address to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus. And having with it finished the collection I promised, I have only to wish you success in the wars, in which you are at present engaged, equal to your military merits, and to myself your favourable opinion, that amidst my civil employments I have devoted my leisure hours to such pursuits, as may serve the Roman empire, and the Greeks, in conducting wars, and regulating treaties of peace. What is won in the field, must be secured in the council-house; and he, that excels in both, deserves immortal glory, and his country's thanks.
[1] Amulius.
Amulius and Numitor were brothers. Amulius the younger kept his brother in captivity, and himself mounted the throne of Alba. And to prevent Numitor, who had an only daughter Sylvia, from having any posterity capable of taking revenge on his usurpation, he appointed her priestess of Vesta; who in consequence of that office became devoted to perpetual virginity.
[2] Numitor.
Remus and Romulus, sons of Mars and Sylvia, formed a design against Amulius, possessed themselves of the citadel, and from thence attacked the city. Numitor, who was privy to the conspiracy, summoned the citizens; he told them that the enemy meant to attack the city, that Amulius had betrayed the interests of it, and fled; but bade them meet him in the market place. The citizens accordingly armed, and assembled; when Remus and Romulus, after having slain Amulius, marched out of the citadel, harangued the citizens, and told them, who they were, how they had been injured, and the resolution they had taken to avenge the injustice which had been done to their grandfather. The people applauded the act, and placed Numitor on the throne.
[3] Romulus.
When the Romans were in need of wives, Romulus ordered a proclamation to be made throughout the neighbouring cities, that he intended to make a sacrifice to Equestrian Neptune; on which occasion he meant to exhibit sports, and games, and athletic exercises, and to reward the victors with magnificent presents. From the adjacent towns this drew numbers of people of all ranks; men, women, and maidens. Romulus strictly ordered his people to offer no violence either to the men, or matrons, but when a particular signal was given, to seize the maidens; and that not for purposes of lust, but to contract marriages with them. And from these marriages the first Romans were born. [see also: Livy, 1. 9]
2 Romulus encamped about ten stades from Fidenae, and in the night marched out his forces, forming a narrow front with one half of his troops; and the rest he posted in ambush, having given his orders to the officers, who commanded the ambuscade. As soon as it was dawn, he advanced with his little army against the gates; which he ordered his light troops, furnished with hatchets and pick-axes, to break down. The Fidenates, enraged at his presumption and temerity, opened their gates, and without any order rushed out, and attacked the enemy, who slowly and in good ordered retreated before them. The Fidenates, suspecting nothing of an ambush, and despising the paucity of the troops they saw, pressed closely on him, presuming on a cheap and easy victory.
3 Orontes, with ten thousand Greek hoplites, fought at Cyme against Autophradates, who advanced against him with the same number of cavalry. Orontes ordered his men to look around, and observe the extensiveness of the plain. He told them that, if they loosened their ranks, it would be impossible to withstand the charge of the enemy's cavalry. Accordingly, they kept their ranks compact and close, and received the cavalry upon their spears. When the cavalry found that they could make no impression on them, they retreated. Orontes ordered the Greeks, when the cavalry made a second attack upon them, to advance three paces forward to meet them. The cavalry supposed that they meant to charge them, and fled away from the battlefield.
4 After losing a great number of his allies, who had been cut off in an ambush by Autophradates, Orontes spread a report that a group of mercenaries were on the march to join him. He took care that this message, with every mark of confirmation that he could give it, was communicated to Autophradates. By night he armed the strongest of the barbarians in Greek armour; and as soon as it was day, he posted them in his army amongst the rest of the Greeks, along with interpreters who knew both languages and could repeat the Greek commands in the barbarian language. Autophradates, seeing such a large number of men in Greek armour, assumed that Orontes had received the reinforcements, of which he had been informed. Not wishing to risk a battle at so great a disadvantage, he broke up his camp and retreated.
[15] Xerxes.
When Xerxes undertook an expedition against Greece, he persuaded a number of nations to join in the enterprise, by spreading a report that he had gained the support of some of the principal Greeks, who were willing to betray the country to him. The others supposed that they would be marching not to subdue a country, but to take possession of it. Therefore they were easily persuaded to join the confederacy, and many of the barbarian states voluntarily offered themselves as allies.
2 When some Greek spies were caught in his camp, Xerxes, instead of punishing them, ordered them to be taken through every part of it, and shown all his forces. Then he ordered them to go back and tell the Greeks everything which he had allowed them to seen. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 146]
3 While Xerxes lay at anchor at Abydus, waiting to intercept the Greek fleet, he captured a fleet of store-ships, laden with provisions. The barbarians wanted to sink the ships, with all the men who were on board them. Xerxes would not agree to this, but summoned the men and asked where they were heading. "For Greece," they replied. "So are we," said Xerxes, "and therefore the ships belong to us. Now go away. " As soon as the men reached Greece, they spread universal terror there with their reports of Xerxes' invasion. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 147]
4 To conceal the great numbers of the barbarians, who had been killed at Thermopylae, Xerxes ordered the relatives of those who had been to lost, to go out by night and bury them in secret.
5 Xerxes could not bring all of his numerous army into action at Thermopylae, because of the narrowness of the pass, and many Persians were killed there. But Ephialtes of Trachis revealed to him a secret way across the mountains, and Xerxes sent a hundred thousand men along that route. These men went round in a circuit and fell upon the rear of the Greeks. They cut down Leonidas himself, and every man of the little force he commanded.
[16] Artaxerxes.
Artaxerxes sent Tithraustes to seize Tisaphernes. He gave him two letters, one to Tisaphernes himself, appointing him to command an expedition against the Greeks, and another to Ariaeus, ordering him to assist Tithraustes in capturing Tisaphernes. As soon as Ariaeus, who was then staying at Colossae in Phrygia, read the letter, he sent to Tisaphernes asking to meet him about some importance business, in particular concerning Greece. Tisaphernes entertained no suspicion of any plot against him. He left his bodyguard behind in Sardis, and immediately went to meet Ariaeus, accompanied by a body of three hundred Arcadians and Milesians. When he arrived, he laid aside his sword, and went into a bath. Ariaeus and his attendants suddenly rushed upon him, and seized him. Then they put him in a covered carriage and delivered him to Tithraustes. Tithraustes took him to Celaenae, and there struck off his head, which he carried to the king. Artaxerxes sent it to his mother Parysatis, who long wished to see Tisaphernes suffer in revenge for the death of Cyrus. And the mothers and wives of all the Greeks, who had followed Cyrus, expressed equal satisfaction at the punishment of a man, who had used such great treachery towards their sons and husbands. [see also: Diodorus, 14. 80]
2 Artaxerxes tried by all possible means to stir up wars between the Greeks. He was always willing to help the conquered side; for by giving assistance to the weaker power, he placed them nearer to equality, and thereby he exhausted the victors' strength.
[17] Ochus.
After the death of Artaxerxes, his son Ochus realised that he would not immediately have the same authority over his subjects, which his father had. Therefore he prevailed upon the eunuchs, the stewards, and the captain of the guard, to conceal the death of his father for a period of ten months. In the meantime, he wrote letters in his father's name, and sealed them with the royal signet, commanding his subjects to acknowledge Ochus as their king, and to pay homage to him. When this decree had been obeyed by all his subjects, Ochus announced the death of his father, and ordered a general mourning for him, according to the custom of the Persians.
[18] Tisaphernes.
Tisaphernes entered into a close alliance with Clearchus, and placed his concubines at his service. He said that he wished to have a similar relationship with the other Greek generals. His invitation was accepted by Proxenus of Boeotia, Menon of Thessaly, Agis of Arcadia, and Socrates of Achaea. They were introduced to Tisaphernes, accompanied by twenty officers and two hundred soldiers. Tisaphernes seized the generals and sent them in chains to the king; the other men were massacred. [see also: Xenophon, Anab_2. 5'31]
2 Tisaphernes planned to attack Miletus, and seize all the deserters, who had taken refuge there. Although he had not at the time made any preparations for such an expedition, he carefully spread a report of his plan, so that the Milesians removed all their property from the country into the city. As soon as he was really prepared for the expedition, he pretended to change his mind, and dismissed his army, with secret orders that no soldier should travel far away. As soon as the Milesians heard that his army had been disbanded, they relaxed their guard and ventured out into the county. Then Tisaphernes suddenly collected his forces, and seized all the Milesians who were dispersed outside the city.
[19] Pharnabazus.
The Lacedaemonians recalled Lysander from Asia, because Pharnabazus had accused him of misdemeanours. When Lysander urged him to be less severe in the condemnation of his conduct, Pharnabazus promised that he would, and he wrote a letter to the Lacedaemonians, containing the message which Lysander wanted. But at the same time, he secretly wrote another letter, which gave a very different account. When he sealed the letter, he contrived to replace the letter which Lysander had seen with the secret letter, which was of exactly the same appearance. Lysander took this letter, and on his return to Lacedaemon, he delivered it to the ephors, as was customary. As soon as they had read the letter, they showed it to him, and they remarked that there was no room for any defence, because he was condemned by the very letter, which he himself had produced. [see also: Plutarch, Lys_19]
[20] Glos.
Glos, while on an expedition against Cyprus, suspected that the Greeks who were in his service were trying to stir up the Greeks in Ionia against him. To discover the culprits, he ordered a trireme to sail for Ionia. The master delayed sailing for several days, on pretence of gathering a crew and provisions, but in reality to give a chance for anyone who wished to put letters on board for their friends. As soon as the ship was out of the harbour, the master put to land at a particular point, as Glos had instructed. Glos met him there, and took possession of all the letters, which had been given to him to take to Ionia. From these letters, he discovered who were his enemies. He did not punish them immediately, but he took the earliest available opportunity to get rid of them.
[21] Datames.
When Datames was being pressed by his men for their arrears of pay, he assembled them and assured them that he had great treasures available, at a place which was only three days' march away from them. "Therefore," he said, "let us march there as quickly as possible. " From the confidence with which he said this, the army believed him, and immediately began their march. When they came within one day's march of the place, he ordered them to halt, and rest themselves. Meanwhile he took some mules and camels, and went to a temple, which was adorned with the wealth of the country. From there he seized thirty talents of silver, with which he filled a few vases. He carried the vases back to the army on the camels and mules, along with a great number of other vases of the same shape and size, which he pretended to be full. Upon his return, he showed the full vases to the soldiers, who in their delight at the sight believed what he said about the other vases. But he told them that, before he could distribute the money to each of them, he need to go to Amisus to have the bullion turned into coins. Amisus was many days' march distant from there, and was very bleak place in which to spend the winter. The troops showed no disposition to march there, and did not trouble him for the rest of the winter about their arrears.
2 Datames intended to attack Sinope; but the city had a very strong fleet, while he had none, nor any carpenters to build one for him. Therefore he entered into an alliance with them, and promised to lay siege to Sestus, which was most hostile to them, and put it into their hands. The inhabitants of Sinope were delighted with the proposal; and offered to assist him in the enterprise in whatever way he might want. He told them that he had plenty of money and men, but what he needed was siege engines, catapults, battering rams and testudos. He had none of these things, which would be essential for carrying out a siege. The inhabitants of Sinope immediately provided him with all the builders and carpenters that they had. He employed these men in building ships, as well as siege engines; and in this way he created a fleet, with which he attacked Sinope instead of Sestus.
3 Datames crossed the river Euphrates, to make war on the great king [of the Persians] and invade his territories. The king marched against him with a large force, but because his army was poorly supplied with provisions, he was much delayed in his march. Meanwhile Damates was obliged, by the difficulty of procuring forage for so numerous a body of troops, to retreat hastily before the formidable force, that was advancing against him. After marching to the nearest point of the river which he could reach, he fastened two carriages abreast, and then fastened two more onto them. On the bottom of the circumference of the wheels he nailed broad boards, to stop them sinking into the mud. He then ordered some of the strongest men in his army to swim over the river, and to lead after them a number of the strongest horses that could be picked out. The carriages, on which he placed his baggage, were fastened to the horses by ropes. His men thrust the carriages into the river, where they were pulled forwards by the men who had gone ahead, and by the horses. In this way he crossed the river without loss; and gained ten days' march ahead of the king, by which he achieved a safe retreat.
4 Shortly before a battle [on the plain of] Aspendus, Datames received intelligence that some of his own soldiers were plotting against him. He changed armour with one of his officers, who wore his armour, while Datames went into battle with borrowed clothes. The plotters, mistaking the person who wore the royal armour for the king, were discovered in their attack on him, and captured. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_9]
5 While he was besieging Sinope, Datames received a letter from the king, ordering him to raise the siege immediately. Datames did not want it to be thought, that he had been ordered to do this. As soon as he had read the letter, he offered homage to it, and made a sacrifice for the occasion, as if he had received an especial favour from the king. Then by night he embarked on a ship and sailed away.
6 When Datames was being closely pursued by Autophradates, he reached a river. He did not dare to attempt to cross the river in the face of the enemy, but he pretended to encamp by the side of it. He fixed very large and high tents in the sight of the enemy, and concealed the cavalry and the baggage behind them. He ordered his men not to unharness the horses, or to take off their bridles; and he told the soldiers to keep hold of their weapons. When they saw Datames encamped, the enemy halted and encamped against him. They took their horses away from the carriages, and put them out to fodder; and they began to prepare their meals. Datames had his horses, his men, and everything else in readiness for crossing the river. As soon as he saw that the enemy were relaxed, he began the crossing. While the enemy were still collecting their scattered troops, forming their line, preparing their horses, and arming themselves, he was able to cross over in safety.
7 In the middle of a battle, an officer on the left wing deserted to the enemy with a body of cavalry, and threw the infantry into consternation. Datames ran up to the dispirited troops, and told them to keep to their ranks, so that they could make an attack. He said that the cavalry had made that movement on his orders, in order to take the opportunity of supporting the attack of the infantry. The infantry believed him, and in their eagerness to snatch the victory from the cavalry, they vigorously attacked the enemy in a compact body. It was only after they had defeated the enemy, that they learned the truth about the treachery of the cavalry. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_6]
[22] Cosingas.
The generals of the Cebrenii and Sycaeboae, two Thracian tribes, were chosen from among the priests of Hera. Cosingas, according to the tradition of the country, was elected to be their priest and general; but the army took some objection to him, and refused to obey him. To suppress the rebelliousness that had taken hold of the troops, Cosingas built a number of long ladders, and fastened them one to another. He then put out a report, that he had decided to climb up to heaven, in order to inform Hera of the disobedience of the Thracians. The Thracians, who are notoriously stupid and ridiculous, were terrified by the idea of their general's intended journey, and the resulting wrath of heaven. They implored him not to carry out his plan, and they promised with an oath to obey all of his future commands.
[23] Mausolus.
When Mausolus, king of Caria, had need of more money than he could raise from his subjects, he assembled his friends, and pretended that he was afraid that the great king would strip him of all his dominions. He showed them his treasures, gold and silver, his horses, jewels, and whatever else he had of value. He said that he intended to send it all to the king, with a request to allow him to continue in his hereditary territories. His friends believed that the situation really was as he described; and the same day, they sent him an immense amount of treasure.
2 In order to gain control of Latmus, a strongly fortified city, Mausolus pretended that he wanted to form a close alliance with the Latmians. For that purpose, he restored to them the hostages, whom Hidrieus had taken; and he appointed Latmians to be his bodyguard, as if they were men on whose loyalty he could trust. He made a point of obliging them, in whatever they wished; and after winning their support in this way, he asked them to send him three hundred men as guards for his person. He pretended that he had business, that required him to go to Pygela, and that he was afraid of the sinister schemes of Herophytus of Ephesus. The men whom he asked for were immediately sent to him, and they accompanied him, along with other forces he had in readiness, as he marched to Latmus, on his route to Pygela. When the citizens all came out, to see the army pass, a body of troops, whom he had placed in ambush during the night, sallied out, and occupied the city, which had been deserted by its inhabitants, with the gates left wide open. Mausolus then turned round and entered Latmus with all his forces, and made himself master of the city. [see also: Polyaenus, 8. 53'4]
[24] Borges.
Borges was appointed by the great king to be governor of Eion, a city situated on the river Strymon. When the city was closely besieged by the Greeks, Borges bravely held out to the last extremity, and finding that he could not longer defend the city, he determined not to surrender to the enemy the place, which the king had sent him to hold. Instead, he set fire to it, and perished in the flames, along with his wife and children. [see also: Herodotus, 7. 107]
[25] Dromichaetes.
# Dromichaetes was king of Thrace, and Lysimachus was king of Macedonia. When Lysimachus made war on Thrace, Dromichaetes used the following stratagem against him. Seuthes, his general, pretended to resent some insult which he had received from the Thracian king, and deserted to Lysimachus. Lysimachus trusted his loyalty, and followed his directions. But Seuthes brought the Macedonian army into such a situation, that they had to contend at the same time with famine, thirst and a powerful enemy. Dromichaetes took the opportunity to attack them when they were in this situation. Although the Macedonian army is reported to have amounted to a hundred thousand men, he defeated them with great slaughter, and took Lysimachus prisoner.
[26] Ariobarzanes.
Ariobarzanes was blocked up by Autophradates at Adramyttium, by land and sea. He lacked a supply of both provisions and men, which he was unable to bring in, because the enemy watched him so closely. He ordered the commander of the garrison in Pteleūs, the neighbouring island, to contact Autophradates, and pretend to be ready to betray the island to him. In accordance with this proposal, Autophradates ordered his fleet to sail and take possession of the island. While the fleet was away, Ariobarzanes brought an ample supply of provisions and men into Adramyttium.
[27] Autophradates.
Autophradates, in an expedition into Pisidia, marched into a defile with his army; but he discovered that the enemy had secured the defile, and that he would be unable to pass through it without great loss. He therefore retreated for a distance of about 90 stades. As soon as night came on, the Pisidians, who had observed his retreat, left their position; but Autophradates quickly marched back with his light-armed troops and passed through the defile. The rest of his army followed him and penetrated into Pisidia, which he ravaged thoroughly. [see also: Frontinus, Str_1. 4'5]
2 Autophradates observed that the Ephesians, who were encamped opposite him, were walking around in a leisurely fashion, and relaxing. He proposed a conference with the Ephesian leaders, which they accepted. While he was thus engaged with them, the generals of his cavalry and hoplites, according to the orders which he had given them, suddenly attacked the Ephesians, who were dispersed in straggling groups, and unprepared for action. Some of them were cut down, and the rest were made prisoners.
3 In order to persuade the mercenaries to follow him, Autophradates arranged for a report to be spread around, that his expedition was in reality no more than a general muster of his troops, with the purpose of docking the pay of all who did not appear in arms. The men therefore all armed themselves, and took their positions, claiming to be ready for action. Autophradates immediately marched them out, informing them that the review, which they had been expecting, would be against a real enemy on the battlefield.
[28] Arsames.
When Arsames was besieging Barce, the inhabitants of the city sent envoys to him with proposals of peace. He agreed to their terms, and in confirmation of it, he gave them his hand, as is the Persian custom. After raising the siege, he recommended that they make a close alliance with the king against the Greeks, and proposed that they should furnish him with a number of carriages, which he needed for his Greek expedition. They agreed with this proposal, and sent some of their leaders to him to arrange measures for the expedition. Arsames received these men courteously, and held a magnificent banquet for them. He also opened up a market for all the inhabitants of Barce, where a vast profusion of all kinds of things were put up for sale. Accordingly the inhabitants came out in great numbers to make purchases, but on a given signal the Persians took possession of the gates and rushed into the city. They plundered the city, and put to the sword anyone who attempted to resist them.
2 After Arsames had revolted from the king, he took control of Greater Phrygia, and made war against the king's generals. He received intelligence that his own cavalry commander was collaborating with the enemy, and had promised to desert to them, as soon as they met in battle. He went to the commander's tent by night, and ordered him to be examined under torture. As soon as a full confession of the fact had been made, he ordered the arms and uniform of the cavalry, who had joined in the plot, to be taken away from them; and others, in whom he trusted, to wear them instead. He ordered these men, as soon as they saw the enemy give the signal for desertion, to pretend to ride over to them, and then fall on their rear. After giving these orders, Arsames vigorously attacked the front of the enemy; at the same time, his cavalry obeyed the signal, but instead of assisting the enemy, fell upon their rear. Their ranks were immediately broken, and most of them were cut down as they fled.
[29] Mithridates.
After Datames had revolted, the king order Mithridates to capture him, either dead or alive. Mithridates pretended to join in the revolt, and offered to join Datames.
But that cautious general wanted to see some proof of his revolt, by commencing hostilities against the king, before he trusted his claims. Mithridates accordingly began to ravage the countryside; he levelled his forts to the ground, burned his own villages, extorted money, and plundered his subjects. After Mithridates had taken such decisive action against the king, the two generals agreed on a conference, at which they were to meet unarmed. But Mithridates had secretly concealed a number of daggers around the spot, which was chosen for their meeting; he hid them in the ground, and marked the places where he had concealed them. After they had walked about together, and had spent a considerable time in conversation, Datames took his leave, and they parted. But Mithridates hastily dug up one of the daggers, which he concealed under his left arm, and called back Datames, on the pretence that he had forgotten something else, which he needed to say. Datames accordingly returned, and Mithridates pointed at a mountain, which he said they ought to secure. While Datames was looking at the mountain intently, Mithridates plunged the dagger into his breast. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_10]
2 Mithridates was closely pursued to a city in Paphlagonia, where he took refuge. In the night, he stripped the houses of their furniture, vases, and other valuables, and scattered them indiscriminately around the streets. He then left the city as quickly as possible. When his pursuers entered the city the next morning, and saw vases and other valuables scattered around the streets, they immediately fell to plundering. Although their generals ordered them to carry on the pursuit without delay, they refused to forgo the profit which was before their eyes. In this way Mithridates was able to leave them far behind, and completed his escape.
[30] Mempsis.
# Mempsis was forced to retreat before Aribaeus, who had made war on him, but he decided not to be blocked up in his city. For this reason, he brought out everything that was most valuable - his wives, his children, and all his treasures. He placed them outside the walls, and destroyed the gates. Aribaeus saw marks of desperation in his conduct, and drew away his army. He considered it unwise to fight with an enemy, who was so determined to achieve either death, or victory.
[31] Cersobleptes.
Some of the relatives of Cersobleptes revolted from him, after embezzling large sums of money. He afterwards however found a way of recalling them to their duty; and, to separate them from each other, he gave them the command of different cities. After some time had passed, he sent orders for them to be seized, on account of the money which they had embezzled. He expelled them from their cities, and confiscated their estates.
[32] Seuthes.
When Seuthes, the second-in-command of Cersobleptes, was very short of money, he sent orders to every farmer, to sow as much land as would require five medimni of seed. He carried the great quantity of corn, which was produced by this increase in tillage, down to the sea. There he sold it at somewhat less than the market price; which immediately brought into the treasury a very considerable sum of money.
[33] Artabazus.
Timoxenus of Scione promised to betray Potidaea, which Artabazus was besieging. Their correspondence was carried on by a letter fixed to an arrow, which was shot at a particular place; and the answer was returned by another arrow. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 128]
2 Artabazus instructed Pammenes, who was suspected of communicating with the enemy, to go to make payments, and distribute corn to the troops. But as soon as Pammenes entered the camp, he ordered him to be seized, and handed him over to his brothers Oxythres and Dibictus. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 34]
3 Artabazus, the son of Pharnaces, escaped from Plataea, and came to Thessaly. When the Thessalians questioned him about the battle, he was afraid to admit the defeat which the Persians had suffered, and he replied, that he was on his way to Thrace, to deliver a secret message from the king, but Mardonius would soon follow after him, with the news of the victory which he had obtained. By this pretence, Artabazus escaped from Thessaly, before the news of the Persians' defeat became known. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 89]
[34] Aryandes.
When Aryandes was besieging Barce, he dug a ditch by night in front of the walls; over the ditch he placed some beams of wood, and covered them with a little earth. Some time later, he proposed terms of peace to the Barcaeans; and he concluded a treaty with them on the site of the ditch which he had dug, where he swore to adhere to the conditions of the treaty, as long as the ground he stood on continued. When the treaty had been concluded, the Barcaeans opened their gates. But the soldiers of Aryandes broke open the ditch, and made themselves masters of the city, on the pretext that the ground, on which the two sides stood when they made the treaty, no longer existed. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 201]
[35] Brennus.
# Brennus, king of the Gauls, in order to persuade the Gauls to undertake an expedition against Greece, convened an assembly of men and women, and ordered some Greek prisoners to be displayed there, who were poor and feeble, with their heads shaven and shabbily dressed. Next to them he placed some Gauls, who were stout handsome men, equipped with Gallic armour. Then he addressed the assembly: "Such as these," he said, "are the men who march with us into battle; and such, as those you see, are the enemies with which we have to contend. " By these means, the Gauls were brought to conceive such a contempt for the Greeks, that they readily offered to serve in an expedition against them.
2 # When the Gallic army marched into Greece, Brennus saw some gold statues at Delphi. He sent for some Delphian captives, and asked them through an interpreter, if the statues were of solid gold. When they informed him that they were only brass, covered with a thin layer of gold, he told them that he would certainly execute any of them, who gave out such a report. He ordered them therefore, whenever they were asked about the statues, to say the opposite, that they were made of solid gold. Then he sent for some of his generals, and in their presence he again asked the prisoners the same question, that he had already put to them. They, as they had been instructed, replied that they were all real gold. He ordered the generals to communicate this message to the army; in order that the prospect of so much wealth might encourage them to obtain it through conquest.
[36] Mygdonius.
When Mygdonius was closely besieged, and suffering from a severe shortage of provisions, he ordered heaps of stone and earth to be brought into the market place. He bundled them together with clay, and covered them with corn, some with wheat, and others with barley. He also ordered some of the largest and fattest mules, that could be picked out, to be turned out of the city. Then he dispatched a herald into the enemy's camp, and asked them to send some envoys to negotiate a ransom for the mules, and whatever other property the citizens might have lost. As soon as the envoys arrives, they were brought into the market-place, where Mygdonius met them. There they saw vast heaps of wheat, and barley, and heard orders given to servants to measure out great quantities of corn in other places also. On their return, the envoys reported that the town was provided with large stores. The enemy believed that this was confirmed by the fatness of the mules. They concluded that there was little prospect of reducing the town by starvation, and therefore they raised the siege.
[37] Paerisades.
Paerisades, king of Pontus, used three distinct outfits of clothing on different occasions: one when he reviewed his troops, another in time of battle, and a third when he was forced to take flight. The reasons he gave for this custom were as follows: at a review, he wished to be known by every individual in his army; in battle, he wished not to be known by the enemy; and when he was forced to take flight, he wished to be known by no-one.
[38] Seuthes.
When the Athenians were raiding and ravaging the coastal districts of Chersonesus, Seuthes hired two thousand light-armed Getae. He ordered them to ravage the country in full view of the enemy, destroying it with fire, and attacking the people on the walls with missiles and arrows. The Athenians assumed from these hostile actions, that the Getae were enemies of the Thracians. They disembarked in order to join them, and marched boldly up to the walls. Seuthes immediately sallied out of the city against them; and the Getae, advancing as if to their assistance, fell on their rear. Thus the Athenians, attacked on one side by the Thracians, and by the Getae on the other, were all cut to pieces.
[39] Cheiles.
# In order to rid himself of three thousand Persians, who had been involved in a revolt, Cheiles pretended to have received a threatening letter from Seleucus. He told them that, by their assistance, he hoped to bring Seleucus to reason. For this purpose, he instructed them to assemble at Randa, a town not far distant, and he promised to meet them there. In a deep and sheltered valley nearby, Cheiles posted three hundred Macedonian and Thracian cavalrymen, along with three thousand heavy-armed troops. He ordered them, as soon as they saw an iron shield raised up, to charge out and cut the Persians to pieces. The Persians assembled as they had been instructed; and Cheiles' plan was executed so effectively, that all three thousand were massacred.
[40] Oborzus.
When Oborzus was informed that a conspiracy had been formed against him by three thousand Persians, he discharged them, and banished them to a place in Persia, called Comastus, to which they were escorted by a strong guard. The country abounded with villages; it was very populous, and the roads were well accommodated with inns. In the towns, where they were lodged, they were dispersed in several inns; and the inn-keepers were ordered by the guards, who escorted them, and who surrounded the towns, each to kill his lodgers. Accordingly they made their lodgers drunk, and then killed them. In this way, the three thousand Persians were murdered in the night, and buried, without any tumult or confusion.
[41] Surenas.
# Crassus, when he had been ignominiously defeated by the Parthians, retreated into the mountains. Surenas, the general of the Parthians, was afraid that he would rally his forces, and renew the fight in desperation. Therefore he sent a herald to inform Crassus, that the great king was ready to enter into a treaty of peace with him, and that, after convincing the Romans of the Parthians' courage, he was now ready to convince them of their generosity. Crassus suspected a plot, and he was unwilling to meet with them. But his soldiers, whose spirits were depressed and broken, clashed their weapons, and insisted that he comply with the barbarians' request. In silent sorrow, Crassus set out for the Parthian camp on foot, but Surenas, who pretended to treat him with great respect, sent a richly ornamented horse, for him to ride. Then the barbarian groom pricked the horse and made him spring forwards. The horse would have carried Crassus, as was intended, into the middle of the Parthian army, had not Octavius, one of his legates, perceived the danger and caught hold of the reins; and Petronius, a tribune, did the same. Octavius immediately drew his sword, and killed the groom on the spot, but he himself was slain by a Parthian. Exathres the Parthian attacked Crassus, cut off his head and right hand, and carried them to Hyrodes, the great king of the Parthians. The king was at the time engaged in a banquet, where Jason of Tralles was performing the Bacchae of Euripides. The actor had just uttered this verse:
A new-skinned calf we from the mountains bring,
Blest spoil -
when they arrived with the head of Crassus, and brought it in to the king. While everyone immediately clapped and cheered, Exathres jumped up and observed, that the verse was most appropriate for the occasion. This incident gave a new zest to the royal banquet; the king rewarded the bearer with a handsome present, and gave the actor a talent.
[42] The Celts.
The Celts, who were engaged in a long and indecisive war against the Autoriatae, poisoned their own food and wine with noxious herbs, and suddenly left their camp by night in pretended confusion. The Autoriatae supposed that the enemy had admitted their inferiority and made a precipitate retreat. They took possession of their camp, and feasted on the provisions which they found there. But soon they were seized with a violent sickness, and while they were in that condition, the Celts attacked them, and slew them.
[43] The Thracians.
The Thracians fought against the Boeotians by lake Copais, and were defeated; then they retreated to Helicon, and made a truce with the Boeotians for a certain number of days, to give time for agreeing the terms of peace. The Boeotians, who were confident because of their recent victory and the truce that followed it, celebrated a sacrifice in honour of Athene Itonia. But at night while they still were intent on the ceremony, and engaged in festivities, the Thracians armed, and attacked them; they cut many of them to pieces, and took a great number prisoners. When the Boeotians afterwards charged them with a breach of the truce, the Thracians replied that the terms of the truce expressed a certain number of days, but said nothing concerning the nights. [see also: Strabo, 9. 401 (9. 2. 4)]
[44] The Scythians.
The Scythians, when they were about to go into battle against the Triballi, ordered their farmers and horse-keepers, as soon as they saw them engaged in fighting the enemy, to show themselves at a distance with as great a number of horses as they could collect. The Triballi on a distant view of such a number of men and horses, and the dust they raised, supposed them to be a fresh body of Scythians advancing to the assistance of their countrymen; and so they took fright, and fled away. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 4'20]
2 While the Scythians were fighting in Asia, the Scythian women, thinking that they had been deserted by their husbands, had children by their slaves. When their masters returned, the slaves decided to resist them by force. They accordingly took the field; and advanced in arms, to give them battle. One of the Scythians, fearing that, once the fighting started, desperation might make the slaves brave, advised that the Scythians should lay down their arms and bows, and advance against their slaves with whips in their hands. Accordingly the Scythians took up their whips; and the slaves, suddenly made conscious of their own servitude, immediately threw down their arms, and fled. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 3]
[45] The Persians.
The Persians, suspecting the Samians and Milesians of treachery, posted them alone on the heights of Mycale, supposedly because they were well acquainted with the country; but in reality, to prevent them from corrupting the rest of the Ionians. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 99]
2 When the Persians under Cyrus were fighting against the Medes; Oebares the satrap fled from the battlefield, and all the Persians under his command followed him. The Persian women marched out in a body, and met the fugitives; lifting up their skirts, they called out to the men, "Where are you running? Will you hide yourselves here, from where you came? " The women's reproof struck the Persians with shame. They returned to the battle, and defeated the enemy. [see also: Plutarch, Mor_246'A]
[46] The Taurians.
When preparing for battle, the Taurians, a Scythian people, always used to dig ditches, throw up mounds, and make the ground behind them impassable. Because their means of retreat had been cut off in this way, they knew they had no alternative, but to conquer or die.
[47] The Trojan Women.
During their journey back home from Troy, the Pallenians landed at Phlegra. While the men made raids into the interior, the captive Trojan women, who were tired with the voyage, and apprehensive of the ill treatment which they might receive from the Greek women, set fire to the fleet, at the instigation of Aethia, the sister of Priamus. After they had been thus deprived of their ships, the Greeks occupied the region of Scione, in which they built a city, and instead of Phlegra they called it Pallene.
[48] The Women of Salmatis.
# When Hannibal was besieging Salmatis, a great and wealthy city in Spain, he agreed with the inhabitants to raise the siege, on payment of three hundred talents of silver, and the delivery of three hundred hostages. The inhabitants of Salmatis afterwards refused to carry out the terms of their agreement. As a result, Hannibal detached a body of troops to plunder the town. The barbarians then begged him for permission to leave the city with their wives, and only the clothes which they wore; they promised to leave behind their slaves, weapons, and other belongings. The women according marched out with their husbands, each carrying a dagger concealed in her bosom. The soldiers immediately entered the town, and started plundering it. Then the women gave the daggers to their husbands, who re-entered the city and attacked the plunderers, while some of the women accompanied them with drawn swords. They captured some of the enemy, and drove the rest out of the city. Out of respect for the bravery of the women, Hannibal restored to them their hostages, their country, and their property.
[49] The Tyrrhenian Women.
The Tyrrhenians, who inhabited Lemnos and Imbros, were expelled from their homes by the Athenians, and landed at Taenarus. There they served as auxiliaries to the Spartans in the war against the Helots. As a reward for this service, they were presented with the freedom of the state, and they were allowed to intermarry with the Spartans. But they were suspected of being disaffected, because they were excluded from the council and all positions of trust. Afterwards they were accused of plotting against the state, and the Lacedaemonians threw them into prison. Their wives went to the prison, and asked the guards for permission to visit their husbands and talk with them. When the guards let them in, they exchanged clothes with their husbands; and in the evening the men escaped, disguised in the women's clothes, while the women remained in prison, dressed in their husbands' clothes, and prepared for whatever sufferings might ensue. The men did not forget or desert their wives; they took possession of Taygetus, and encouraged the Helots to revolt. The Lacedaemonians were afraid that there might be serious consequences; so they sent an embassy to settle the controversy, and gave them back their wives. They also supplied them with money and ships; and sent them out as Lacedaemonian colonists. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 146]
[50] The Celtic Women.
# The Celts, who had long been troubled by civil wars, had taken up arms against each other, and were just advancing to battle, when their wives rushed into the battlefield, threw themselves between the two armies, and begged them to lay aside their differences. By the insistence of the women, the battle was postponed; and in the end the disputes of the different parties were happily and amicably resolved. Ever since then, throughout the towns and villages of the Celts, whenever there is a debate about peace, or war, concerning either themselves or their allies, the women are always consulted. And in their treaties with Hannibal it was specified, that if the Celts should have any accusation to make against any of the Carthaginians, the dispute should be referred to the generals and commanders of the cavalry; but if the Carthaginians had any accusation to make against any of the Celts, it should be referred to the judgement of the Celtic women.
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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 8, Chapters 1-25
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.
The Greek text of Book 8 is available in archive. org.
CONTENTS: 1 Amulius ; 2 Numitor ; 3 Romulus ; 4 Numa ; 5 Tullus ; 6 Tarquinius ; 7 Camillus ; 8 Mucius ; 9 Sulla ; 10 Marius ; 11 Marcellus ; 12 Atilius ; 13 Gaius ; 14 Fabius ; 15 Quintus ; 16 Scipio ; 17 Porcius Cato ; 18 Daunus ; 19 Titus ; 20 Gaius ; 21 Pinarius ; 22 Sertorius ; 23 Caesar ; 24 Augustus ; 25 The Romans ; → Following Chapters (26-71)
[Preface] This eighth book of stratagems I address to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus. And having with it finished the collection I promised, I have only to wish you success in the wars, in which you are at present engaged, equal to your military merits, and to myself your favourable opinion, that amidst my civil employments I have devoted my leisure hours to such pursuits, as may serve the Roman empire, and the Greeks, in conducting wars, and regulating treaties of peace. What is won in the field, must be secured in the council-house; and he, that excels in both, deserves immortal glory, and his country's thanks.
[1] Amulius.
Amulius and Numitor were brothers. Amulius the younger kept his brother in captivity, and himself mounted the throne of Alba. And to prevent Numitor, who had an only daughter Sylvia, from having any posterity capable of taking revenge on his usurpation, he appointed her priestess of Vesta; who in consequence of that office became devoted to perpetual virginity.
[2] Numitor.
Remus and Romulus, sons of Mars and Sylvia, formed a design against Amulius, possessed themselves of the citadel, and from thence attacked the city. Numitor, who was privy to the conspiracy, summoned the citizens; he told them that the enemy meant to attack the city, that Amulius had betrayed the interests of it, and fled; but bade them meet him in the market place. The citizens accordingly armed, and assembled; when Remus and Romulus, after having slain Amulius, marched out of the citadel, harangued the citizens, and told them, who they were, how they had been injured, and the resolution they had taken to avenge the injustice which had been done to their grandfather. The people applauded the act, and placed Numitor on the throne.
[3] Romulus.
When the Romans were in need of wives, Romulus ordered a proclamation to be made throughout the neighbouring cities, that he intended to make a sacrifice to Equestrian Neptune; on which occasion he meant to exhibit sports, and games, and athletic exercises, and to reward the victors with magnificent presents. From the adjacent towns this drew numbers of people of all ranks; men, women, and maidens. Romulus strictly ordered his people to offer no violence either to the men, or matrons, but when a particular signal was given, to seize the maidens; and that not for purposes of lust, but to contract marriages with them. And from these marriages the first Romans were born. [see also: Livy, 1. 9]
2 Romulus encamped about ten stades from Fidenae, and in the night marched out his forces, forming a narrow front with one half of his troops; and the rest he posted in ambush, having given his orders to the officers, who commanded the ambuscade. As soon as it was dawn, he advanced with his little army against the gates; which he ordered his light troops, furnished with hatchets and pick-axes, to break down. The Fidenates, enraged at his presumption and temerity, opened their gates, and without any order rushed out, and attacked the enemy, who slowly and in good ordered retreated before them. The Fidenates, suspecting nothing of an ambush, and despising the paucity of the troops they saw, pressed closely on him, presuming on a cheap and easy victory.
