, as
represented
in Original Letters to the Duke of Shrewsbury from Somers Halifax, Oxford, Secretary Vernon, etc.
Marx - Capital-Volume-I
.
while others, of a more practical cast, follow the trade in deer with an eye solely to profit.
For it is a fact, that a mountain range laid out in forest is, in many cases, more profitable to the proprietor than when let as a sheep-walk.
.
.
.
The huntsman who wants a deer-forest limits his offers by no other calculation than the extent of his purse.
.
.
.
Sufferings have been inflicted in the Highlands scarcely less severe than those occasioned by the policy of the Norman kings.
Deer have received extended ranges, while men have been hunted within a narrower and still narrower circle.
.
.
.
One after one the liberties of the people have been cloven down.
.
.
.
And the oppressions are daily on the increase.
.
.
.
The clearance and dispersion of the people is pursued by the proprietors as a settled principle, as an agricultural necessity, just as trees and brushwood are cleared from the wastes of America or Australia; and the operation goes on in a quiet, business- like way, &c.
?
33
The spoliation of the church's property, the fraudulent alienation of the State domains, the robbery of the common lands, the usurpation of feudal and clan property, and its transformation into modern private property under circumstances of reckless terrorism, were just so many idyllic methods of primitive accumulation. They conquered the field for capitalistic agriculture, made the soil part and parcel of capital, and created for the town industries the necessary supply of a --free? and outlawed proletariat.
1 --The petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with their own hands, and enjoyed a modest competence. . . . then formed a much more important part of the nation than at present. If we may trust the best statistical writers of that age, not less than 160,000 proprietors who, with their families, must have made up more than a seventh of the whole population, derived their subsistence from little freehold estates. The average income of these small landlords. . . was estimated at between ? 60 and ? 70 a year. It was computed that the number of persons who tilled their own land was greater than the number of those who farmed the land of others. ? Macaulay: ? History of England,? 10th ed. , 1854, I. pp. 333, 334. Even in the last third of the 17th century, 4/5 of the English people were agricultural. (l. c. , p. 413. ) I quote Macaulay, because as systematic falsifier of history he minimises as much as possible facts of this kind.
2 We must never forget that even the serf was not only the owner, if but a tribute-paying owner, of the piece of land attached to his house, but also a co-possessor of the common land. --Le paysan (in Silesia, under Frederick II. ) est serf. ? Nevertheless, these serfs possess common lands. --On n'a pas pu encore engager les Sile? siens au partage des communes, tandis que dans la Nouvelle Marche, il n'y a gue`re de village ou` ce partage ne soit exe? cute? avec le plus grand succe`s. ? [The peasant . . . is a serf. . . . It has not yet been possible to persuade the Silesians to partition the common lands, whereas in the Neumark there is scarcely a village where the partition has not been implemented with very great success] (Mirabeau: --De la Monarchie Prussienne. ? Londres, 1788, t. ii, pp. 125, 126. )
3 Japan, with its purely feudal organisation of landed property and its developed petite culture, gives a much truer picture of the European middle ages than all our history books, dictated as these are, for the most part, by bourgeois prejudices. It is very convenient to be --liberal? at the expense of the middle ages.
4 In his --Utopia,? Thomas More says, that in England --your shepe that were wont to be so meke and tame, and so smal eaters, now, as I heare saye, be become so great devourers and so wylde that they eate up, and swallow downe, the very men themselfes. ? --Utopia,? transl. by Robinson, ed. Arber, Lond. , 1869, p. 41.
? ? 510 Chapter 27
5 Bacon shows the connexion between a free, well-to-do peasantry and good infantry. --This did wonderfully concern the might and mannerhood of the kingdom to have farms as it were of a standard sufficient to maintain an able body out of penury, and did in effect amortise a great part of the lands of the kingdom unto the hold and occupation of the yeomanry or middle people, of a condition between gentlemen, and cottagers and peasants. . . . For it hath been held by the general opinion of men of best judgment in the wars. . . . that the principal strength of an army consisteth in the infantry or foot. And to make good infantry it requireth men bred, not in a servile or indigent fashion, but in some free and plentiful manner. Therefore, if a state run most to noblemen and gentlemen, and that the husbandman and ploughmen be but as their workfolk and labourers, or else mere cottagers (which are but hous'd beggars), you may have a good cavalry, but never good stable bands of foot. . . . And this is to be seen in France, and Italy, and some other parts abroad, where in effect all is noblesse or peasantry. . . . insomuch that they are inforced to employ mercenary bands of Switzers and the like, for their battalions of foot; whereby also it comes to pass that those nations have much people and few soldiers. ? (--The Reign of Henry VII. ? Verbatim reprint from Kennet's England. Ed. 1719. Lond. , 1870, p. 308. )
6 Dr. Hunter, l. c. , p. 134. --The quantity of land assigned (in the old laws) would now be judged too great for labourers, and rather as likely to convert them into small farmers. ? (George Roberts: --The Social History of the People of the Southern Counties of England in Past Centuries. ? Lond. , 1856, pp. 184-185. )
7 --The right of the poor to share in the tithe, is established by the tenour of ancient statutes. ? (Tuckett, l. c. , Vol. II. , pg. 804-805. )
8 William Cobbett: --A History of the Protestant Reformation,? ? 471.
9 The --spirit? of Protestantism may be seen from the following, among other things. In the south of England certain landed proprietors and well-to-do farmers put their heads together and propounded ten questions as to the right interpretation of the poor-law of Elizabeth. These they laid before a celebrated jurist of that time, Sergeant Snigge (later a judge under James I. ) for his opinion. --Question 9 -- Some of the more wealthy farmers in the parish have devised a skilful mode by which all the trouble of executing this Act (the 43rd of Elizabeth) might be avoided. They have proposed that we shall erect a prison in the parish, and then give notice to the neighbourhood, that if any persons are disposed to farm the poor of this parish, they do give in sealed proposals, on a certain day, of the lowest price at which they will take them off our hands; and that they will be authorised to refuse to any one unless he be shut up in the aforesaid prison. The proposers of this plan conceive that there will be found in the adjoining counties, persons, who, being unwilling to labour and not possessing substance or credit to take a farm or ship, so as to live without labour, may be induced to make a very advantageous offer to the parish. If any of the poor perish under the contractor's care, the sin will lie at his door, as the parish will have done its duty by them. We are, however, apprehensive that the present Act (43rd of Elizabeth) will not warrant a prudential measure of this kind; but you are to learn that the rest of the freeholders of the county, and of the adjoining county of B, will very readily join in instructing their members to propose an Act to enable the parish to contract with a person to lock up and work the poor; and to declare that if any person shall refuse to be so locked up and worked, he shall be entitled to no relief. This, it is hoped, will prevent persons in distress from wanting relief, and be the means of keeping down parishes. ? (R. Blakey: --The History of Political Literature from the Earliest Times. ? Lond. , 1855, Vol. II. , pp. 84-85. ) In Scotland, the abolition of serfdom took place some centuries later than in England. Even in 1698, Fletcher of Saltoun, declared in the Scotch parliament, --The number of beggars in Scotland is reckoned at not less than 200,000. The only remedy that I, a republican on principle, can suggest, is to restore the old state of serfdom, to make slaves of all those who are unable to provide for their own subsistence. ? Eden, l. c. , Book I. , ch. 1, pp. 60-61, says, --The decrease of villenage seems necessarily to have been the era of the origin of the poor. Manufactures and
? ? 511 Chapter 27
commerce are the two parents of our national poor. ? Eden, like our Scotch republican on principle, errs only in this: not the abolition of villenage, but the abolition of the property of the agricultural labourer in the soil made him a proletarian, and eventually a pauper. In France, where the expropriation was effected in another way, the ordonnance of Moulins, 1571, and the Edict of 1656, correspond to the English poor-laws.
10 Professor Rogers, although formerly Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford, the hotbed of Protestant orthodoxy, in his preface to the --History of Agriculture? lays stress on the fact of the pauperisation of the mass of the people by the Reformation.
11 --A Letter to Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart. , on the High Price of Provisions. By a Suffolk Gentleman. ? Ipswich, 1795, p. 4. Even the fanatical advocate of the system of large farms, the author of the --Inquiry into the Connexion between the Present Price of Provisions,? London, 1773, p. 139, says: --I most lament the loss of our yeomanry, that set of men who really kept up the independence of this nation; and sorry I am to see their lands now in the hands of monopolising lords, tenanted out to small farmers, who hold their leases on such conditions as to be little better than vassals ready to attend a summons on every mischievous occasion. ?
12 On the private moral character of this bourgeois hero, among other things: --The large grant of lands in Ireland to Lady Orkney, in 1695, is a public instance of the king's affection, and the lady's influence. . . Lady Orkney's endearing offices are supposed to have been -- foeda labiorum ministeria. ? (In the Sloane Manuscript Collection, at the British Museum, No. 4224. The Manuscript is entitled: --The character and behaviour of King William, Sunderland, etc.
, as represented in Original Letters to the Duke of Shrewsbury from Somers Halifax, Oxford, Secretary Vernon, etc. ? It is full of curiosa. )
13 --The illegal alienation of the Crown Estates, partly by sale and partly by gift, is a scandalous chapter in English history. . . a gigantic fraud on the nation. ? (F. W. Newman, --Lectures on Political Economy. ? London, 1851, pp. 129, 130. ) [For details as to how the present large landed proprietors of England came into their possessions see --Our Old Nobility. By Noblesse Oblige. ? London, 1879. -- F. E. ]
14 Read, e. g. , E. Burke's Pamphlet on the ducal house of Bedford, whose offshoot was Lord John Russell, the --tomtit of Liberalism. ?
15 --The farmers forbid cottagers to keep any living creatures besides themselves and children, under the pretence that if they keep any beasts or poultry, they will steal from the farmers' barns for their support; they also say, keep the cottagers poor and you will keep them industrious, &c. , but the real fact I believe, is that the farmers may have the whole right of common to themselves. ? (--A Political Inquiry into the Consequences of Enclosing Waste Lands. ? London, 1785, p. 75. )
16 Eden, l. c. , preface.
17 --Capital Farms. ? Two letters on the Flour Trade and the Dearness of Corn. By a person in business. London, 1767, pp. 19, 20.
18 --Merchant Farms. ? --An Enquiry into the Causes of the Present High Price of Provisions. ? London, 1767, p. 11. Note. -- This excellent work, that was published anonymously, is by the Rev. Nathaniel Forster.
19 Thomas Wright: --A Short Address to the Public on the Monopoly of Large Farms,? 1779, pp. 2, 3.
20 Rev. Addington: --Inquiry into the Reasons for or against Enclosing Open Fields,? London, 1772, pp. 37, 43 passim.
21 Dr. R. Price, l. c. , v. ii. , p. 155, Forster, Addington, Kent, Price, and James Anderson, should be read and compared with the miserable prattle of Sycophant MacCulloch in his catalogue: --The Literature of Political Economy,? London, 1845.
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22 Price, l. c. , p. 147.
23 Price, l. c. , p. 159. We are reminded of ancient Rome. --The rich had got possession of the greater part of the undivided land. They trusted in the conditions of the time, that these possessions would not be again taken from them, and bought, therefore, some of the pieces of land lying near theirs, and belonging to the poor, with the acquiescence of their owners, and took some by force, so that they now were cultivating widely extended domains, instead of isolated fields. Then they employed slaves in agriculture and cattle-breeding, because freemen would have been taken from labour for military service. The possession of slaves brought them great gain, inasmuch as these, on account of their immunity from military service, could freely multiply and have a multitude of children. Thus the powerful men drew all wealth to themselves, and all the land swarmed with slaves. The Italians, on the other hand, were always decreasing in number, destroyed as they were by poverty, taxes, and military service. Even when times of peace came, they were doomed to complete inactivity, because the rich were in possession of the soil, and used slaves instead of freemen in the tilling of it. ? (Appian: --Civil Wars,? I. 7. ) This passage refers to the time before the Licinian rogations. Military service, which hastened to so great an extent the ruin of the Roman plebeians, was also the chief means by which, as in a forcing-house, Charlemagne brought about the transformation of free German peasants into serfs and bondsmen.
24 --An Inquiry into the Connexion between the Present Price of Provisions, &c. ,? pp. 124, 129. To the like effect, but with an opposite tendency: --Working-men are driven from their cottages and forced into the towns to seek for employment; but then a larger surplus is obtained, and thus capital is augmented. ? (--The Perils of the Nation,? 2nd ed. London. , 1843, p. 14. )
25 l. c. , p. 132.
26 Steuart says: --If you compare the rent of these lands? (he erroneously includes in this economic category the tribute of the taskmen to the clanchief) --with the extent, it appears very small. If you compare it with the numbers fed upon the farm, you will find that an estate in the Highlands maintains, perhaps, ten times as many people as another of the same value in a good and fertile province. ? (l. c. , vol. i. , ch. xvi. , p. 104. )
27 James Anderson: --Observations on the Means of Exciting a Spirit of National Industry, &c. ,? Edinburgh, 1777.
28 In 1860 the people expropriated by force were exported to Canada under false pretences. Some fled to the mountains and neighbouring islands. They were followed by the police, came to blows with them and escaped.
29 --In the Highlands of Scotland,? says Buchanan, the commentator on Adam Smith, 1814, --the ancient state of property is daily subverted. . . . The landlord, without regard to the hereditary tenant (a category used in error here), now offers his land to the highest bidder, who, if he is an improver, instantly adopts a new system of cultivation. The land, formerly overspread with small tenants or labourers, was peopled in proportion to its produce, but under the new system of improved cultivation and increased rents, the largest possible produce is obtained at the least possible expense: and the useless hands being, with this view, removed, the population is reduced, not to what the land will maintain, but to what it will employ. --The dispossessed tenants either seek a subsistence in the neighbouring towns,? &c. (David Buchanan: --Observations on, &c. , A. Smith's Wealth of Nations. ? Edinburgh, 1814, vol. iv. , p. 144. ) --The Scotch grandees dispossessed families as they would grub up coppice-wood, and they treated villages and their people as Indians harassed with wild beasts do, in their vengeance, a jungle with tigers. . . . Man is bartered for a fleece or a carcase of mutton, nay, held cheaper. . . . Why, how much worse is it than the intention of the Moguls, who, when they had broken into the northern provinces of China, proposed in council to exterminate the inhabitants, and convert the land into pasture. This proposal many Highland proprietors have effected in their own country
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against their own countrymen. ? (George Ensor: --An Inquiry Concerning the Population of Nations. ? Lond,. 1818, pp. 215, 216. )
30 When the present Duchess of Sutherland entertained Mrs. Beecher Stowe, authoress of --Uncle Tom's Cabin,? with great magnificence in London to show her sympathy for the Negro slaves of the American republic -- a sympathy that she prudently forgot, with her fellow-aristocrats, during the civil war, in which every --noble? English heart beat for the slave-owner -- I gave in the New York Tribune the facts about the Sutherland slaves. (Epitomised in part by Carey in --The Slave Trade. ? Philadelphia, 1853, pp. 203, 204. ) My article was reprinted in a Scotch newspaper, and led to a pretty polemic between the latter and the sycophants of the Sutherlands.
31 Interesting details on this fish trade will be found in Mr. David Urquhart's Portfolio, new series. -- Nassau W. Senior, in his posthumous work, already quoted, terms --the proceedings in Sutherlandshire one of the most beneficent clearings since the memory of man. ? (l. c. )
32 The deer-forests of Scotland contain not a single tree. The sheep are driven from, and then the deer driven to, the naked hills, and then it is called a deer-forest. Not even timber-planting and real forest culture.
33 Robert Somers: --Letters from the Highlands: or the Famine of 1847. ? London, 1848, pp. 12-28 passim. These letters originally appeared in The Times. The English economists of course explained the famine of the Gaels in 1847, by their over-population. At all events, they --were pressing on their food-supply. ? The --clearing of estates,? or as it is called in Germany, --Bauernlegen,? occurred in Germany especially after the 30 years' war, and led to peasant-revolts as late as 1790 in Kursachsen. It obtained especially in East Germany. In most of the Prussian provinces, Frederick II. for the first time secured right of property for the peasants. After the conquest of Silesia he forced the landlords to rebuild the huts, barns, etc. , and to provide the peasants with cattle and implements. He wanted soldiers for his army and tax-payers for his treasury. For the rest, the pleasant life that the peasant led under Frederick's system of finance and hodge-podge rule of despotism, bureaucracy and feudalism, may be seen from the following quotation from his admirer, Mirabeau: --Le lin fait donc une des grandes richesses du cultivateur dans le Nord de l'Allemagne. Malheureusement pour l'espe`ce humaine, ce n'est qu'une ressource contre la mise`re et non un moyen de bien-e^tre. Les impo^ts directs, les corve? es, les servitudes de tout genre, e? crasent le cultivateur allemand, qui paie encore des impo^ts indirects dans tout ce qu'il ache`te. . .
The spoliation of the church's property, the fraudulent alienation of the State domains, the robbery of the common lands, the usurpation of feudal and clan property, and its transformation into modern private property under circumstances of reckless terrorism, were just so many idyllic methods of primitive accumulation. They conquered the field for capitalistic agriculture, made the soil part and parcel of capital, and created for the town industries the necessary supply of a --free? and outlawed proletariat.
1 --The petty proprietors who cultivated their own fields with their own hands, and enjoyed a modest competence. . . . then formed a much more important part of the nation than at present. If we may trust the best statistical writers of that age, not less than 160,000 proprietors who, with their families, must have made up more than a seventh of the whole population, derived their subsistence from little freehold estates. The average income of these small landlords. . . was estimated at between ? 60 and ? 70 a year. It was computed that the number of persons who tilled their own land was greater than the number of those who farmed the land of others. ? Macaulay: ? History of England,? 10th ed. , 1854, I. pp. 333, 334. Even in the last third of the 17th century, 4/5 of the English people were agricultural. (l. c. , p. 413. ) I quote Macaulay, because as systematic falsifier of history he minimises as much as possible facts of this kind.
2 We must never forget that even the serf was not only the owner, if but a tribute-paying owner, of the piece of land attached to his house, but also a co-possessor of the common land. --Le paysan (in Silesia, under Frederick II. ) est serf. ? Nevertheless, these serfs possess common lands. --On n'a pas pu encore engager les Sile? siens au partage des communes, tandis que dans la Nouvelle Marche, il n'y a gue`re de village ou` ce partage ne soit exe? cute? avec le plus grand succe`s. ? [The peasant . . . is a serf. . . . It has not yet been possible to persuade the Silesians to partition the common lands, whereas in the Neumark there is scarcely a village where the partition has not been implemented with very great success] (Mirabeau: --De la Monarchie Prussienne. ? Londres, 1788, t. ii, pp. 125, 126. )
3 Japan, with its purely feudal organisation of landed property and its developed petite culture, gives a much truer picture of the European middle ages than all our history books, dictated as these are, for the most part, by bourgeois prejudices. It is very convenient to be --liberal? at the expense of the middle ages.
4 In his --Utopia,? Thomas More says, that in England --your shepe that were wont to be so meke and tame, and so smal eaters, now, as I heare saye, be become so great devourers and so wylde that they eate up, and swallow downe, the very men themselfes. ? --Utopia,? transl. by Robinson, ed. Arber, Lond. , 1869, p. 41.
? ? 510 Chapter 27
5 Bacon shows the connexion between a free, well-to-do peasantry and good infantry. --This did wonderfully concern the might and mannerhood of the kingdom to have farms as it were of a standard sufficient to maintain an able body out of penury, and did in effect amortise a great part of the lands of the kingdom unto the hold and occupation of the yeomanry or middle people, of a condition between gentlemen, and cottagers and peasants. . . . For it hath been held by the general opinion of men of best judgment in the wars. . . . that the principal strength of an army consisteth in the infantry or foot. And to make good infantry it requireth men bred, not in a servile or indigent fashion, but in some free and plentiful manner. Therefore, if a state run most to noblemen and gentlemen, and that the husbandman and ploughmen be but as their workfolk and labourers, or else mere cottagers (which are but hous'd beggars), you may have a good cavalry, but never good stable bands of foot. . . . And this is to be seen in France, and Italy, and some other parts abroad, where in effect all is noblesse or peasantry. . . . insomuch that they are inforced to employ mercenary bands of Switzers and the like, for their battalions of foot; whereby also it comes to pass that those nations have much people and few soldiers. ? (--The Reign of Henry VII. ? Verbatim reprint from Kennet's England. Ed. 1719. Lond. , 1870, p. 308. )
6 Dr. Hunter, l. c. , p. 134. --The quantity of land assigned (in the old laws) would now be judged too great for labourers, and rather as likely to convert them into small farmers. ? (George Roberts: --The Social History of the People of the Southern Counties of England in Past Centuries. ? Lond. , 1856, pp. 184-185. )
7 --The right of the poor to share in the tithe, is established by the tenour of ancient statutes. ? (Tuckett, l. c. , Vol. II. , pg. 804-805. )
8 William Cobbett: --A History of the Protestant Reformation,? ? 471.
9 The --spirit? of Protestantism may be seen from the following, among other things. In the south of England certain landed proprietors and well-to-do farmers put their heads together and propounded ten questions as to the right interpretation of the poor-law of Elizabeth. These they laid before a celebrated jurist of that time, Sergeant Snigge (later a judge under James I. ) for his opinion. --Question 9 -- Some of the more wealthy farmers in the parish have devised a skilful mode by which all the trouble of executing this Act (the 43rd of Elizabeth) might be avoided. They have proposed that we shall erect a prison in the parish, and then give notice to the neighbourhood, that if any persons are disposed to farm the poor of this parish, they do give in sealed proposals, on a certain day, of the lowest price at which they will take them off our hands; and that they will be authorised to refuse to any one unless he be shut up in the aforesaid prison. The proposers of this plan conceive that there will be found in the adjoining counties, persons, who, being unwilling to labour and not possessing substance or credit to take a farm or ship, so as to live without labour, may be induced to make a very advantageous offer to the parish. If any of the poor perish under the contractor's care, the sin will lie at his door, as the parish will have done its duty by them. We are, however, apprehensive that the present Act (43rd of Elizabeth) will not warrant a prudential measure of this kind; but you are to learn that the rest of the freeholders of the county, and of the adjoining county of B, will very readily join in instructing their members to propose an Act to enable the parish to contract with a person to lock up and work the poor; and to declare that if any person shall refuse to be so locked up and worked, he shall be entitled to no relief. This, it is hoped, will prevent persons in distress from wanting relief, and be the means of keeping down parishes. ? (R. Blakey: --The History of Political Literature from the Earliest Times. ? Lond. , 1855, Vol. II. , pp. 84-85. ) In Scotland, the abolition of serfdom took place some centuries later than in England. Even in 1698, Fletcher of Saltoun, declared in the Scotch parliament, --The number of beggars in Scotland is reckoned at not less than 200,000. The only remedy that I, a republican on principle, can suggest, is to restore the old state of serfdom, to make slaves of all those who are unable to provide for their own subsistence. ? Eden, l. c. , Book I. , ch. 1, pp. 60-61, says, --The decrease of villenage seems necessarily to have been the era of the origin of the poor. Manufactures and
? ? 511 Chapter 27
commerce are the two parents of our national poor. ? Eden, like our Scotch republican on principle, errs only in this: not the abolition of villenage, but the abolition of the property of the agricultural labourer in the soil made him a proletarian, and eventually a pauper. In France, where the expropriation was effected in another way, the ordonnance of Moulins, 1571, and the Edict of 1656, correspond to the English poor-laws.
10 Professor Rogers, although formerly Professor of Political Economy in the University of Oxford, the hotbed of Protestant orthodoxy, in his preface to the --History of Agriculture? lays stress on the fact of the pauperisation of the mass of the people by the Reformation.
11 --A Letter to Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart. , on the High Price of Provisions. By a Suffolk Gentleman. ? Ipswich, 1795, p. 4. Even the fanatical advocate of the system of large farms, the author of the --Inquiry into the Connexion between the Present Price of Provisions,? London, 1773, p. 139, says: --I most lament the loss of our yeomanry, that set of men who really kept up the independence of this nation; and sorry I am to see their lands now in the hands of monopolising lords, tenanted out to small farmers, who hold their leases on such conditions as to be little better than vassals ready to attend a summons on every mischievous occasion. ?
12 On the private moral character of this bourgeois hero, among other things: --The large grant of lands in Ireland to Lady Orkney, in 1695, is a public instance of the king's affection, and the lady's influence. . . Lady Orkney's endearing offices are supposed to have been -- foeda labiorum ministeria. ? (In the Sloane Manuscript Collection, at the British Museum, No. 4224. The Manuscript is entitled: --The character and behaviour of King William, Sunderland, etc.
, as represented in Original Letters to the Duke of Shrewsbury from Somers Halifax, Oxford, Secretary Vernon, etc. ? It is full of curiosa. )
13 --The illegal alienation of the Crown Estates, partly by sale and partly by gift, is a scandalous chapter in English history. . . a gigantic fraud on the nation. ? (F. W. Newman, --Lectures on Political Economy. ? London, 1851, pp. 129, 130. ) [For details as to how the present large landed proprietors of England came into their possessions see --Our Old Nobility. By Noblesse Oblige. ? London, 1879. -- F. E. ]
14 Read, e. g. , E. Burke's Pamphlet on the ducal house of Bedford, whose offshoot was Lord John Russell, the --tomtit of Liberalism. ?
15 --The farmers forbid cottagers to keep any living creatures besides themselves and children, under the pretence that if they keep any beasts or poultry, they will steal from the farmers' barns for their support; they also say, keep the cottagers poor and you will keep them industrious, &c. , but the real fact I believe, is that the farmers may have the whole right of common to themselves. ? (--A Political Inquiry into the Consequences of Enclosing Waste Lands. ? London, 1785, p. 75. )
16 Eden, l. c. , preface.
17 --Capital Farms. ? Two letters on the Flour Trade and the Dearness of Corn. By a person in business. London, 1767, pp. 19, 20.
18 --Merchant Farms. ? --An Enquiry into the Causes of the Present High Price of Provisions. ? London, 1767, p. 11. Note. -- This excellent work, that was published anonymously, is by the Rev. Nathaniel Forster.
19 Thomas Wright: --A Short Address to the Public on the Monopoly of Large Farms,? 1779, pp. 2, 3.
20 Rev. Addington: --Inquiry into the Reasons for or against Enclosing Open Fields,? London, 1772, pp. 37, 43 passim.
21 Dr. R. Price, l. c. , v. ii. , p. 155, Forster, Addington, Kent, Price, and James Anderson, should be read and compared with the miserable prattle of Sycophant MacCulloch in his catalogue: --The Literature of Political Economy,? London, 1845.
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22 Price, l. c. , p. 147.
23 Price, l. c. , p. 159. We are reminded of ancient Rome. --The rich had got possession of the greater part of the undivided land. They trusted in the conditions of the time, that these possessions would not be again taken from them, and bought, therefore, some of the pieces of land lying near theirs, and belonging to the poor, with the acquiescence of their owners, and took some by force, so that they now were cultivating widely extended domains, instead of isolated fields. Then they employed slaves in agriculture and cattle-breeding, because freemen would have been taken from labour for military service. The possession of slaves brought them great gain, inasmuch as these, on account of their immunity from military service, could freely multiply and have a multitude of children. Thus the powerful men drew all wealth to themselves, and all the land swarmed with slaves. The Italians, on the other hand, were always decreasing in number, destroyed as they were by poverty, taxes, and military service. Even when times of peace came, they were doomed to complete inactivity, because the rich were in possession of the soil, and used slaves instead of freemen in the tilling of it. ? (Appian: --Civil Wars,? I. 7. ) This passage refers to the time before the Licinian rogations. Military service, which hastened to so great an extent the ruin of the Roman plebeians, was also the chief means by which, as in a forcing-house, Charlemagne brought about the transformation of free German peasants into serfs and bondsmen.
24 --An Inquiry into the Connexion between the Present Price of Provisions, &c. ,? pp. 124, 129. To the like effect, but with an opposite tendency: --Working-men are driven from their cottages and forced into the towns to seek for employment; but then a larger surplus is obtained, and thus capital is augmented. ? (--The Perils of the Nation,? 2nd ed. London. , 1843, p. 14. )
25 l. c. , p. 132.
26 Steuart says: --If you compare the rent of these lands? (he erroneously includes in this economic category the tribute of the taskmen to the clanchief) --with the extent, it appears very small. If you compare it with the numbers fed upon the farm, you will find that an estate in the Highlands maintains, perhaps, ten times as many people as another of the same value in a good and fertile province. ? (l. c. , vol. i. , ch. xvi. , p. 104. )
27 James Anderson: --Observations on the Means of Exciting a Spirit of National Industry, &c. ,? Edinburgh, 1777.
28 In 1860 the people expropriated by force were exported to Canada under false pretences. Some fled to the mountains and neighbouring islands. They were followed by the police, came to blows with them and escaped.
29 --In the Highlands of Scotland,? says Buchanan, the commentator on Adam Smith, 1814, --the ancient state of property is daily subverted. . . . The landlord, without regard to the hereditary tenant (a category used in error here), now offers his land to the highest bidder, who, if he is an improver, instantly adopts a new system of cultivation. The land, formerly overspread with small tenants or labourers, was peopled in proportion to its produce, but under the new system of improved cultivation and increased rents, the largest possible produce is obtained at the least possible expense: and the useless hands being, with this view, removed, the population is reduced, not to what the land will maintain, but to what it will employ. --The dispossessed tenants either seek a subsistence in the neighbouring towns,? &c. (David Buchanan: --Observations on, &c. , A. Smith's Wealth of Nations. ? Edinburgh, 1814, vol. iv. , p. 144. ) --The Scotch grandees dispossessed families as they would grub up coppice-wood, and they treated villages and their people as Indians harassed with wild beasts do, in their vengeance, a jungle with tigers. . . . Man is bartered for a fleece or a carcase of mutton, nay, held cheaper. . . . Why, how much worse is it than the intention of the Moguls, who, when they had broken into the northern provinces of China, proposed in council to exterminate the inhabitants, and convert the land into pasture. This proposal many Highland proprietors have effected in their own country
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against their own countrymen. ? (George Ensor: --An Inquiry Concerning the Population of Nations. ? Lond,. 1818, pp. 215, 216. )
30 When the present Duchess of Sutherland entertained Mrs. Beecher Stowe, authoress of --Uncle Tom's Cabin,? with great magnificence in London to show her sympathy for the Negro slaves of the American republic -- a sympathy that she prudently forgot, with her fellow-aristocrats, during the civil war, in which every --noble? English heart beat for the slave-owner -- I gave in the New York Tribune the facts about the Sutherland slaves. (Epitomised in part by Carey in --The Slave Trade. ? Philadelphia, 1853, pp. 203, 204. ) My article was reprinted in a Scotch newspaper, and led to a pretty polemic between the latter and the sycophants of the Sutherlands.
31 Interesting details on this fish trade will be found in Mr. David Urquhart's Portfolio, new series. -- Nassau W. Senior, in his posthumous work, already quoted, terms --the proceedings in Sutherlandshire one of the most beneficent clearings since the memory of man. ? (l. c. )
32 The deer-forests of Scotland contain not a single tree. The sheep are driven from, and then the deer driven to, the naked hills, and then it is called a deer-forest. Not even timber-planting and real forest culture.
33 Robert Somers: --Letters from the Highlands: or the Famine of 1847. ? London, 1848, pp. 12-28 passim. These letters originally appeared in The Times. The English economists of course explained the famine of the Gaels in 1847, by their over-population. At all events, they --were pressing on their food-supply. ? The --clearing of estates,? or as it is called in Germany, --Bauernlegen,? occurred in Germany especially after the 30 years' war, and led to peasant-revolts as late as 1790 in Kursachsen. It obtained especially in East Germany. In most of the Prussian provinces, Frederick II. for the first time secured right of property for the peasants. After the conquest of Silesia he forced the landlords to rebuild the huts, barns, etc. , and to provide the peasants with cattle and implements. He wanted soldiers for his army and tax-payers for his treasury. For the rest, the pleasant life that the peasant led under Frederick's system of finance and hodge-podge rule of despotism, bureaucracy and feudalism, may be seen from the following quotation from his admirer, Mirabeau: --Le lin fait donc une des grandes richesses du cultivateur dans le Nord de l'Allemagne. Malheureusement pour l'espe`ce humaine, ce n'est qu'une ressource contre la mise`re et non un moyen de bien-e^tre. Les impo^ts directs, les corve? es, les servitudes de tout genre, e? crasent le cultivateur allemand, qui paie encore des impo^ts indirects dans tout ce qu'il ache`te. . .
