The
Evolutionist
at large.
Cambridge History of English Literature - 1908 - v14
A large
number of words, chiefly Latin, borrowed since the renascence,
did not survive the end of the seventeenth century, and most of
the survivors are still with us. Borrowing from Latin and French
has gone on to the present day. The war of 1914, like other wars,
seems likely to add to our stock. Communiqué has secured a firm
foothold in our newspapers not only for French official communica-
tions but, also, for British, German and Russian, and even South
African. From French and from other languages of Europe we
have borrowed words of commerce, of seafaring, of science, of art,
of literature, of social life. War, exploration, trading, colonising
and travelling have brought us words from America, Africa, Asia,
Australia and the islands of the sea, while the Celtic tongues at
home have added to the store. It is sometimes difficult to know
the immediate source of a loan. A word may come to us from
French, or it may be taken from Latin though it mimics the French
mode. Words from distant lands may, for example, reach us
through Italian or Spanish, through French or Dutch English
has received from French the Arabic houri, minaret, sofa and
zero; the Turkish odalisque and kiosk; the Russian ukase; the
Mexican jalap and ocelot. From the Dutch came the Malay
cockatoo; from the Portuguese the Persian sepoy and the East
Indian teak; from Spanish the Peruvian puma. Italian handed
on the Persian bazaar; an Indian vernacular gave us the Persian
shawl. Gaelic words like cairn, ingle, sporran entered English
from the Scottish dialect. Many classical Greek words have
been transmitted by Latin or have assumed a Latin shape, as
atmosphere, chrysalis, geology, monad, nausea, oasis, octopus,
phase, phenomenon, phonetic, phosphorus, siphon, sporadic,
thesaurus.
During the last three centuries, the sources from which English
has borrowed most freely have been French, Latin, Greek and, to
a less extent, Italian. The loans are of great variety, which, in
a fragmentary way, appears in the following lists. From Latin we
have such words as arena, axis, bacillus, cactus, circus, devastate,
deviate, exert, facsimile, farrago, fortuitous, hallucination,
## p. 458 (#488) ############################################
458
Changes in the Language [CH.
incandescent, incipient, indigenous, indulge, joke, junction, larva,
maximum, minimum, mollusca, nebula, noxious, nucleus, obtrude,
odium, omnivorous, osseous, otiose, par, pendulum, permeate,
preclude, puerile, quadruped, quota, ratio, reluctant, sinecure,
spontaneous, tact, tandem, terrific, ulterior, vertigo, veto, viaduct;
from Greek, autonomy, cacophonous, eczema, euphemism, exegesis,
heterodox, idiomatic, kinetic, kudos, meteorology, monotony, nous,
orthodox, ostracise, panoply, semantic, tonic, zymotic; from
French, avalanche, badinage, bagatelle, barracks, bivouac, bronze,
buccaneer, burlesque, chauffeur, chicane, cockade, cutlet, debouch,
decamp, dragoon, echelon, embarrass, façade, gala, glacier,
hangar, isolation, lampoon, levee, moraine, mystify, naïve, ogre,
oxygen, parachute, parasol, parade, parvenu, picnic, piston,
prude, quadrille, ration, ricochet, roué, rouge (cosmetic), routine,
sash (of window), séance, solidarity, sobriquet, soufflé, souvenir,
tableau, terrorism, trousseau, vaudeville, zouave; from Italian,
balcony, bravura, crescendo, dado, dilettante, extravaganza,
granite, grotto, incognito, influenza, lava, martello, oboe, opera,
pianoforte, quartet, regatta, semolina, sirocco, solo, sonata,
soprano, terracotta, ultramarine. From the other European
tongues, the loans are far fewer though still important. The
following exemplify what we owe to Dutch-commodore, casel,
gas, Hottentot, hustle, kink, maulstick, morass, ogle, roster, skate
(on ice), sketch, sloop, smack (ship), splice, taffrail, tattoo (of drum),
trigger, yacht; to South African Dutch-commandeer, kraal,
laager, spoor, sjambok, trek, veldt; to Spanish—castanet, cigar,
flotilla, garrotte, guerrilla, junto, quadroon, regalia (cigar),
sambo, sierra, siesta; to Portuguese-albatross, cobra, dodo, emu,
jose, palaver, verandah, zebra; to German--feldspar, gneiss,
kriegspiel, lager, mangel-wurzel, poodle, plunder, quartz, swindler,
waltz, zeitgeist, zinc; to Russian-drosky, knout, mammoth,
samovar, steppe; to Hungarian-shako, tokay (wine); to Polish-
mazurka; to Icelandic-geyser; to Swedish-sloyd; to Norwegian
-fiord, ski ; to Welsh—cromlech, eisteddfod ; to Gaelic-clay-
more, ptarmigan, pibroch; to Irish-banshee, Fenian, shillelagh,
Tory; to Breton-menhir.
When we come to Asia, we naturally find that our vocabulary
has borrowed largely from the Indian languages-chintz, coolie,
juggernaut, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, pyjamas, pundit, raj,
shampoo, sikh, sirdar, thug, tomtom, zenana. We have from
Persian-baksheesh, durbar; from Turkish-bosh, effendi, jackal,
kismet, pasha; from Arabic-allah, ameer, emir, fellah, harem,
## p. 459 (#489) ############################################
F
XV] Appropriations from Foreign Tongues 459
salaam, simoom, zareba; from Malay-amuck, compound (en-
closure), guttapercha, trepang, upas; from Japanese-jinricksha;
from Javanese—bantam ; from Chinese_bohea, kotow, pekoe,
souchong, tea. With few exceptions, of which kosher may be one,
words of Hebrew origin in common English use have come through
other tongues.
American languages have given us moccasin, musquash, skunk,
squaw, tapir, toboggan, tomahawk, totem, wigwam ; African-
chimpanzee, gnu, morocco, quagga; Australasian and Polynesian
-atoll, boomerang, dingo, kangaroo, taboo, tattoo (skin-marking).
Many of these loans have interesting associations. The Poly-
nesian tattoo was first made known to Englishmen in the third
quarter of the eighteenth century by captain Cook; the German
plunder reminds us of the devastating Thirty Years' war and of
prince Rupert's marauders in England during the civil war;
words like easel and sketch, smack and yacht recall the painters
and the sailors of Holland, as terracotta and ultramarine, opera
and soprano recall the artists and singers of Italy. Tomahawk
goes back to the early English settlements near the Red Indians;
terrorism, first recorded in English in 1795, is an offspring of the
French ‘Reign of Terror,' 1793—4; and the Spanish guerrilla, in
a despatch of Wellington (1809), is a legacy from the Peninsular
But these few instances must suffice.
The readiness with which English borrows from foreign tongues
or builds words out of foreign materials, explains the existence of
such pairs as mind, mental ; mouth, oral; spring, vernal ; moon,
lunar ; son, filial; man, human; coal, carbonic; milk, lacteal ;
where the noun is native, the adjective foreign. This is sometimes
termed a defect, on the ground that the words, while connected
in sense, are not outwardly linked by form. Custom, however,
obviates any disadvantage the defect may have. Besides, in many
cases, native adjectives exist by the side of the foreign, as manly,
human; fatherly, paternal ; watery, aqueous ; kingly, royal.
Similar pairs of nouns are greatness, magnitude; length, longitude;
height, altitude. By means of the double forms, we express
differences of meaning, or vary the phraseology according to
circumstances. This advantage will naturally have little weight
with those who wish foreign words expelled, whether useful or
not, who, like William Barnes, advocate demsterhood, folkdom,
folkwain, pushwainling, cudchewsome for criticism, democracy,
omnibus, perambulator, ruminating.
Barnes represents the extreme views of the supporters of the
war.
## p. 460 (#490) ############################################
460
Changes in the Language [CH.
>
native element in English against the foreign. This opposition is,
in part, associated with the alternation in style which has been
manifest, most noticeably in the domain of prose, during the last
three centuries—the recurrent movement between the plain,
unadorned style and the rhetorical, ornate style. Each form has
ebbed and flowed : neither, however, has existed absolutely alone.
Each is exposed to its own danger : the plain may degenerate into
the bald or the vulgar, the ornate into the extravagant or the
gaudy.
Among the Elizabethans, Lyly and Sidney had endeavoured to
beautify prose. In the first half of the seventeenth century, we
meet with various devices to enrich literary style, exemplified by
the 'conceits' of Donne, Crashaw and other metaphysical poets,
and, in prose, by the antitheses and tropes of Bacon, the quaintness
of Burton and Fuller, the ornate splendour of Taylor, Milton and
Browne. But the average reader found it difficult to comprehend
their strange-often highly Latinised-vocabulary, their involved
sentences, their far-fetched allusions, their bold figures ; and after
the restoration arose the cry for a plainer, clearer style? A longing
for an academy on the French model was several times expressed.
In 1664, the Royal Society appointed a committee to improve the
English language, but nothing resulted. One of the members of
the committee was John Dryden, who had already (Rival-Ladies,
dedication) lamented
that, speaking so noble a language as we do, we have not a more certain
measure of it as they have in France, where they have an Academy, enacted
for the purpose.
Dryden, however, was destined to take the lead in adapting the
conversational English of the age to be a suitable medium for the
varied aims of prose ; and this simpler style he also introduced into
poetry. His Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668) is written in straight-
forward conversational English, and may be regarded, indirectly at
least, as a manifesto of the new prose. A direct manifesto bad
recently appeared in The History of the Royal Society, by Thomas
Sprat. There he condemns 'this vicious abundance of phrase, this
trick of metaphors, this volubility of tongue, which makes so great
a noise in the world. He points out that the Royal Society had
vigorously applied the only remedy for this extravagance;
and that has been a constant resolution to reject all amplification, digressions,
and swellings of style; to return back to the primitive purity and shortness
,
when men delivered so many things almost in an equal number of words.
See, ante, vol. vini, chap. XVI.
a
1
## p. 461 (#491) ############################################
Xv]
Influence of The Spectator
461
They have exacted from all their members a close, naked, natural way of
speaking, positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing all
things as near the mathematical plainness as they can, and preferring the
language of artisans, countrymen and merchants before that of wits and
scholars.
However plausible the Society's preference might seem, however
admirably the vernacular was handled by Bunyan and Defoe, as
later by Cobbett, however effective was Locke's plain bluntness,
the unmeasured use of the language of the common people nearly
destroyed literary English at the end of the seventeenth century
and the beginning of the eighteenth. The language of the average
man abounds in colloquial elisions and abbreviations, in careless
constructions, in familiar catchwords and slang. These were in-
dulged in by L'Estrange and other writers of periodicals and
controversial pamphlets. Swift, Addison and Steele, on the other
hand, sought to restore the purity of the language. In The Tatler
(no. 230), Swift censures elisions like can't do't for cannot do it,
the pronunciation of absolves instead of absolveth, and shortenings
like phizz, mob, rep. He pillories banter, bamboozle, country put,
kidney, adding ‘I have done my utmost for some years past to stop
the progress of mob and banter, but have been plainly bore down
by numbers. '
Accordingly, he appeals to Isaac Bickerstaff to make use of his
authority as censor, and by an annual Index Expurgatorius expunge all
words and phrases that are offensive to good sense, and condemn those
barbarous mutilations of vowels and syllables.
The Spectator (nos. 135, 147, 165) took up the theme of abbrevia-
tions of syllables and inroads of foreign words. In the first of
these papers, Addison desiderates ‘something like an Academy,
that by the best authorities and rules drawn from the analogy of
languages shall settle all controversies between grammar and
idiom. '
The Spectator continued, for several generations, to be the
general pattern for prose. Johnson reminds us of this when he
says, Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not
coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and
nights to the volumes of Addison. '
Occasionally, however, the model was diverged from; and style
degenerated. Then, dignity was restored to prose, in different
ways, by Johnson, with his Latinised diction, his antitheses, his
balanced structure; by Gibbon, with his periphrases and his rolling
6
## p. 462 (#492) ############################################
462
Changes in the Language [CH. ,
a
periods ; by Burke, with his eloquent copiousness and his glowing
imagery.
With the romantic revival came a vital change. Eighteenth-
century poets, in their efforts to distinguish the language of poetry
from the language of prose, had elaborated a conventional diction.
The romantic poets eagerly sought to supersede this convention by
vivid, appropriate words. To obtain these, they often ransacked
the older treasures of the language. Prose, also, was influenced by
the romantic movement, though more slowly; and, to a certain
extent, was freed from artificiality and formality of diction. In the
early nineteenth century, Southey is an instance of the perfection
attainable in the simple style. Since then, there have been several
movements away from the standard style, some of them towards
elaborate, gorgeous, rhythmical prose. The earliest movement
took various directions in De Quincey, Landor, Macaulay and
Carlyle. About the middle of the century, contemporary with the
word-painting and music of Ruskin's prose and the simple beauty
of Newman's, many writers showed a tendency towards a slipshod
colloquialism. The reaction that followed—the effects of which are
not yet exhausted-is seen in the striving after the refinements of
style associated with the names of Rossetti and Swinburne in verse,
and of Pater and Stevenson in prose.
Several of the suggestions to establish a censorship of English
have been mentioned. But the greatest effort was Swift's Proposal
for correcting, improving and ascertaining the English Tongue
(1712), in a letter to the earl of Oxford, then lord high treasurer.
After repeating and amplifying his views in The Tatler, Swift
asks Oxford to appoint a society with authority to remove defects
in the grammar of English and gross improprieties, however well
sanctioned by usage. Many words should be expelled, many more
should be corrected, perhaps not a few should be restored. But
the kernel of his proposal is
that some method should be thought on for ascertaining and fixing our
language for ever, after such alterations are made in it as shall be thought
requisite. For I am of opinion, that it is better a language should not be
wholly perfect, than that it should be perpetually changing.
He does not, however, mean that the vocabulary is not to be
increased.
Provided that no word, which a society shall give a sanction to be after-
wards antiquated and exploded, they may have liberty to receive whatever
new ones they shall find occasion for.
This ‘petty treatise,' as Dr Johnson terms it, had some effect, for
a
## p. 463 (#493) ############################################
a
xv]
Summary
463
Oxford nominated several persons, but the death of queen Anne
stopped the scheme.
One of Johnson's aims in compiling his Dictionary was to fix
the English language; but, in the preface, he confessed he had been
too sanguine.
We laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years;
and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who. . . shall imagine
that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption
and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, or clear the
world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation.
With this hope, however, academies have been instituted, to guard the
avenues of their languages, to retain fugitives, and repulse invaders; but
their vigilance and activity have hitherto been vain; sounds are too volatile
and subtile for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash the winds,
are equally the undertakings of pride, unwilling to measure its desires by its
strength.
He hopes the spirit of English liberty will hinder or destroy an
academy, but individual effort should seek to keep English from
degenerating: 'we have long preserved our constitution, let us
make some struggles for our language. '
Johnson's fear of degeneration has not yet been justified. And,
when we survey what English has done in the past, when we see
its capacity today both as an instrument of clear and exact com-
munication and as a means of artistic literary expression, we may
be confident that, instead of degenerating, it will continue to
advance, and to increase in strength, copiousness and flexibility.
## p. 464 (#494) ############################################
It seemed to us not inappropriate to conclude the final volume
of The Cambridge History of English Literature with a summary
of the progress and development of the English language during
the three centuries which have passed away since the death
of its greatest master. To his name we would fain offer this
work as a tribute of reverence and recognition. Whether the
year of the tercentenary of his death will close before the country
in which he took pride, and its sisterlands, have completed
the sacrifice offered by them neither with a light heart nor for
ignoble ends, is hidden from our eyes; but, alike in war and in
peace, the creations of his genius form part of the inheritance of
which it behoves our nation and our empire to remain worthy.
The English language, since the death of Shakespeare--an event
almost coincident with the beginnings of Britain beyond the seas
has been employed in many offices besides serving as the vehicle
of our literature; and English literature has fulfilled other purposes
besides that of being simply a part of our national life. Indeed,
no observation is more trite than the warning often addressed to
students of a national literature to abstain from seeking in the
literary productions of any particular period, or even in the leading
ideas and influences to be traced in them, a reflection or refrac-
tion of the experiences of contemporary national history. Some
response of the kind the mirror will never altogether refuse ; but
its strength and distinctness will vary indefinitely; at times, they
will be faint; at others, marred or invaded by counteracting or by
independent forces. Of these, as the history of English literature
alone, from its earliest stages to the present, would suffice to show,
the most important is that of individual genius, which defies condi-
tions of time and place. Nor should it be forgotten that literature
is an art, and that art, and her fellow science, though they have
!
## p. 465 (#495) ############################################
often been the servants of kings, or of communities of divers kinds,
are, of their nature, freeborn, and do not owe obedience to any
laws save their own. The relations between ethical and aesthetical
standards are not the less real and vital; but they have no title
to be considered identical.
The harmless method of former generations—which was wont
to tack on chapters treating particular periods in the history of
literature (as in those of religion, commerce, education and so
forth) to the political history of the same divisions of time—will,
therefore, no longer meet the demands of the present age of study
and research. And equally unsatisfactory-any brilliant attempts
to carry it out notwithstanding—is the other more seductive
method of simply treating the course of a nation's literary history
as an organic part of its political and social experiences, which
accompanies their movement from stage to stage, as though it
were a resultant of the same causes and subject to the same
curves of progress or reaction.
The difficulties of the task undertaken in attempting to con-
struct a consecutive narrative of the growth through many centuries
of a national literature remain undiminished when not only is the
centre of gravity of such a history sought in itself, but, also,
its unity is dependent on the general conception of it by those
responsible for its execution. These difficulties are certainly not
least formidable when the work follows the cooperative system,
practically indispensable in the case of a history so vast in its
dimensions and so varied as that of English literature. Since the
day when, in or near the college from which these parting words
are dated, Gray, whose own lyrics bridged the distance between
the medieval bards and the poets of his own age, conceived —
though, like Pope before him, he never himself executed—the plan
of a general history of English poetry, the attempts to realise his
idea either for the poetical branch, or for the entire body, of
English literature have been few though far from insignificant.
Yet, while the field of research has continually expanded, the
demands of the scientific method of critical treatment have, very
properly, become more and more exacting. For ourselves, we
30
E. L. XIV.
## p. 466 (#496) ############################################
felt no hesitation in adopting the principle of cooperative author-
ship; and the result has been to identify with this History, as a
whole, a body of contributors who have written in the spirit of
devotion to the same principles of criticism, as well as, each of
them, to the interest of his particular theme.
The limits of our enterprise—for which, as a whole, we hope
all the writers in these volumes will allow us to claim a collective
responsibility–have now been reached. We send forth this work,
completed so far as it was in our power, with a clear sense of its
imperfections, unavoidable or not, but, also, in the hope that, in
some measure, it may attest the interest taken by our age and
country in one of the noblest of their inheritances.
A. W. W.
A. R. W.
PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE
April 1916
THE END
## p. 467 (#497) ############################################
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The Relations of Mind and Brain. 1877. 3rd edn. 1892.
The Relations of Science and Religion. 1881.
number of words, chiefly Latin, borrowed since the renascence,
did not survive the end of the seventeenth century, and most of
the survivors are still with us. Borrowing from Latin and French
has gone on to the present day. The war of 1914, like other wars,
seems likely to add to our stock. Communiqué has secured a firm
foothold in our newspapers not only for French official communica-
tions but, also, for British, German and Russian, and even South
African. From French and from other languages of Europe we
have borrowed words of commerce, of seafaring, of science, of art,
of literature, of social life. War, exploration, trading, colonising
and travelling have brought us words from America, Africa, Asia,
Australia and the islands of the sea, while the Celtic tongues at
home have added to the store. It is sometimes difficult to know
the immediate source of a loan. A word may come to us from
French, or it may be taken from Latin though it mimics the French
mode. Words from distant lands may, for example, reach us
through Italian or Spanish, through French or Dutch English
has received from French the Arabic houri, minaret, sofa and
zero; the Turkish odalisque and kiosk; the Russian ukase; the
Mexican jalap and ocelot. From the Dutch came the Malay
cockatoo; from the Portuguese the Persian sepoy and the East
Indian teak; from Spanish the Peruvian puma. Italian handed
on the Persian bazaar; an Indian vernacular gave us the Persian
shawl. Gaelic words like cairn, ingle, sporran entered English
from the Scottish dialect. Many classical Greek words have
been transmitted by Latin or have assumed a Latin shape, as
atmosphere, chrysalis, geology, monad, nausea, oasis, octopus,
phase, phenomenon, phonetic, phosphorus, siphon, sporadic,
thesaurus.
During the last three centuries, the sources from which English
has borrowed most freely have been French, Latin, Greek and, to
a less extent, Italian. The loans are of great variety, which, in
a fragmentary way, appears in the following lists. From Latin we
have such words as arena, axis, bacillus, cactus, circus, devastate,
deviate, exert, facsimile, farrago, fortuitous, hallucination,
## p. 458 (#488) ############################################
458
Changes in the Language [CH.
incandescent, incipient, indigenous, indulge, joke, junction, larva,
maximum, minimum, mollusca, nebula, noxious, nucleus, obtrude,
odium, omnivorous, osseous, otiose, par, pendulum, permeate,
preclude, puerile, quadruped, quota, ratio, reluctant, sinecure,
spontaneous, tact, tandem, terrific, ulterior, vertigo, veto, viaduct;
from Greek, autonomy, cacophonous, eczema, euphemism, exegesis,
heterodox, idiomatic, kinetic, kudos, meteorology, monotony, nous,
orthodox, ostracise, panoply, semantic, tonic, zymotic; from
French, avalanche, badinage, bagatelle, barracks, bivouac, bronze,
buccaneer, burlesque, chauffeur, chicane, cockade, cutlet, debouch,
decamp, dragoon, echelon, embarrass, façade, gala, glacier,
hangar, isolation, lampoon, levee, moraine, mystify, naïve, ogre,
oxygen, parachute, parasol, parade, parvenu, picnic, piston,
prude, quadrille, ration, ricochet, roué, rouge (cosmetic), routine,
sash (of window), séance, solidarity, sobriquet, soufflé, souvenir,
tableau, terrorism, trousseau, vaudeville, zouave; from Italian,
balcony, bravura, crescendo, dado, dilettante, extravaganza,
granite, grotto, incognito, influenza, lava, martello, oboe, opera,
pianoforte, quartet, regatta, semolina, sirocco, solo, sonata,
soprano, terracotta, ultramarine. From the other European
tongues, the loans are far fewer though still important. The
following exemplify what we owe to Dutch-commodore, casel,
gas, Hottentot, hustle, kink, maulstick, morass, ogle, roster, skate
(on ice), sketch, sloop, smack (ship), splice, taffrail, tattoo (of drum),
trigger, yacht; to South African Dutch-commandeer, kraal,
laager, spoor, sjambok, trek, veldt; to Spanish—castanet, cigar,
flotilla, garrotte, guerrilla, junto, quadroon, regalia (cigar),
sambo, sierra, siesta; to Portuguese-albatross, cobra, dodo, emu,
jose, palaver, verandah, zebra; to German--feldspar, gneiss,
kriegspiel, lager, mangel-wurzel, poodle, plunder, quartz, swindler,
waltz, zeitgeist, zinc; to Russian-drosky, knout, mammoth,
samovar, steppe; to Hungarian-shako, tokay (wine); to Polish-
mazurka; to Icelandic-geyser; to Swedish-sloyd; to Norwegian
-fiord, ski ; to Welsh—cromlech, eisteddfod ; to Gaelic-clay-
more, ptarmigan, pibroch; to Irish-banshee, Fenian, shillelagh,
Tory; to Breton-menhir.
When we come to Asia, we naturally find that our vocabulary
has borrowed largely from the Indian languages-chintz, coolie,
juggernaut, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, pyjamas, pundit, raj,
shampoo, sikh, sirdar, thug, tomtom, zenana. We have from
Persian-baksheesh, durbar; from Turkish-bosh, effendi, jackal,
kismet, pasha; from Arabic-allah, ameer, emir, fellah, harem,
## p. 459 (#489) ############################################
F
XV] Appropriations from Foreign Tongues 459
salaam, simoom, zareba; from Malay-amuck, compound (en-
closure), guttapercha, trepang, upas; from Japanese-jinricksha;
from Javanese—bantam ; from Chinese_bohea, kotow, pekoe,
souchong, tea. With few exceptions, of which kosher may be one,
words of Hebrew origin in common English use have come through
other tongues.
American languages have given us moccasin, musquash, skunk,
squaw, tapir, toboggan, tomahawk, totem, wigwam ; African-
chimpanzee, gnu, morocco, quagga; Australasian and Polynesian
-atoll, boomerang, dingo, kangaroo, taboo, tattoo (skin-marking).
Many of these loans have interesting associations. The Poly-
nesian tattoo was first made known to Englishmen in the third
quarter of the eighteenth century by captain Cook; the German
plunder reminds us of the devastating Thirty Years' war and of
prince Rupert's marauders in England during the civil war;
words like easel and sketch, smack and yacht recall the painters
and the sailors of Holland, as terracotta and ultramarine, opera
and soprano recall the artists and singers of Italy. Tomahawk
goes back to the early English settlements near the Red Indians;
terrorism, first recorded in English in 1795, is an offspring of the
French ‘Reign of Terror,' 1793—4; and the Spanish guerrilla, in
a despatch of Wellington (1809), is a legacy from the Peninsular
But these few instances must suffice.
The readiness with which English borrows from foreign tongues
or builds words out of foreign materials, explains the existence of
such pairs as mind, mental ; mouth, oral; spring, vernal ; moon,
lunar ; son, filial; man, human; coal, carbonic; milk, lacteal ;
where the noun is native, the adjective foreign. This is sometimes
termed a defect, on the ground that the words, while connected
in sense, are not outwardly linked by form. Custom, however,
obviates any disadvantage the defect may have. Besides, in many
cases, native adjectives exist by the side of the foreign, as manly,
human; fatherly, paternal ; watery, aqueous ; kingly, royal.
Similar pairs of nouns are greatness, magnitude; length, longitude;
height, altitude. By means of the double forms, we express
differences of meaning, or vary the phraseology according to
circumstances. This advantage will naturally have little weight
with those who wish foreign words expelled, whether useful or
not, who, like William Barnes, advocate demsterhood, folkdom,
folkwain, pushwainling, cudchewsome for criticism, democracy,
omnibus, perambulator, ruminating.
Barnes represents the extreme views of the supporters of the
war.
## p. 460 (#490) ############################################
460
Changes in the Language [CH.
>
native element in English against the foreign. This opposition is,
in part, associated with the alternation in style which has been
manifest, most noticeably in the domain of prose, during the last
three centuries—the recurrent movement between the plain,
unadorned style and the rhetorical, ornate style. Each form has
ebbed and flowed : neither, however, has existed absolutely alone.
Each is exposed to its own danger : the plain may degenerate into
the bald or the vulgar, the ornate into the extravagant or the
gaudy.
Among the Elizabethans, Lyly and Sidney had endeavoured to
beautify prose. In the first half of the seventeenth century, we
meet with various devices to enrich literary style, exemplified by
the 'conceits' of Donne, Crashaw and other metaphysical poets,
and, in prose, by the antitheses and tropes of Bacon, the quaintness
of Burton and Fuller, the ornate splendour of Taylor, Milton and
Browne. But the average reader found it difficult to comprehend
their strange-often highly Latinised-vocabulary, their involved
sentences, their far-fetched allusions, their bold figures ; and after
the restoration arose the cry for a plainer, clearer style? A longing
for an academy on the French model was several times expressed.
In 1664, the Royal Society appointed a committee to improve the
English language, but nothing resulted. One of the members of
the committee was John Dryden, who had already (Rival-Ladies,
dedication) lamented
that, speaking so noble a language as we do, we have not a more certain
measure of it as they have in France, where they have an Academy, enacted
for the purpose.
Dryden, however, was destined to take the lead in adapting the
conversational English of the age to be a suitable medium for the
varied aims of prose ; and this simpler style he also introduced into
poetry. His Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668) is written in straight-
forward conversational English, and may be regarded, indirectly at
least, as a manifesto of the new prose. A direct manifesto bad
recently appeared in The History of the Royal Society, by Thomas
Sprat. There he condemns 'this vicious abundance of phrase, this
trick of metaphors, this volubility of tongue, which makes so great
a noise in the world. He points out that the Royal Society had
vigorously applied the only remedy for this extravagance;
and that has been a constant resolution to reject all amplification, digressions,
and swellings of style; to return back to the primitive purity and shortness
,
when men delivered so many things almost in an equal number of words.
See, ante, vol. vini, chap. XVI.
a
1
## p. 461 (#491) ############################################
Xv]
Influence of The Spectator
461
They have exacted from all their members a close, naked, natural way of
speaking, positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing all
things as near the mathematical plainness as they can, and preferring the
language of artisans, countrymen and merchants before that of wits and
scholars.
However plausible the Society's preference might seem, however
admirably the vernacular was handled by Bunyan and Defoe, as
later by Cobbett, however effective was Locke's plain bluntness,
the unmeasured use of the language of the common people nearly
destroyed literary English at the end of the seventeenth century
and the beginning of the eighteenth. The language of the average
man abounds in colloquial elisions and abbreviations, in careless
constructions, in familiar catchwords and slang. These were in-
dulged in by L'Estrange and other writers of periodicals and
controversial pamphlets. Swift, Addison and Steele, on the other
hand, sought to restore the purity of the language. In The Tatler
(no. 230), Swift censures elisions like can't do't for cannot do it,
the pronunciation of absolves instead of absolveth, and shortenings
like phizz, mob, rep. He pillories banter, bamboozle, country put,
kidney, adding ‘I have done my utmost for some years past to stop
the progress of mob and banter, but have been plainly bore down
by numbers. '
Accordingly, he appeals to Isaac Bickerstaff to make use of his
authority as censor, and by an annual Index Expurgatorius expunge all
words and phrases that are offensive to good sense, and condemn those
barbarous mutilations of vowels and syllables.
The Spectator (nos. 135, 147, 165) took up the theme of abbrevia-
tions of syllables and inroads of foreign words. In the first of
these papers, Addison desiderates ‘something like an Academy,
that by the best authorities and rules drawn from the analogy of
languages shall settle all controversies between grammar and
idiom. '
The Spectator continued, for several generations, to be the
general pattern for prose. Johnson reminds us of this when he
says, Whoever wishes to attain an English style, familiar but not
coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and
nights to the volumes of Addison. '
Occasionally, however, the model was diverged from; and style
degenerated. Then, dignity was restored to prose, in different
ways, by Johnson, with his Latinised diction, his antitheses, his
balanced structure; by Gibbon, with his periphrases and his rolling
6
## p. 462 (#492) ############################################
462
Changes in the Language [CH. ,
a
periods ; by Burke, with his eloquent copiousness and his glowing
imagery.
With the romantic revival came a vital change. Eighteenth-
century poets, in their efforts to distinguish the language of poetry
from the language of prose, had elaborated a conventional diction.
The romantic poets eagerly sought to supersede this convention by
vivid, appropriate words. To obtain these, they often ransacked
the older treasures of the language. Prose, also, was influenced by
the romantic movement, though more slowly; and, to a certain
extent, was freed from artificiality and formality of diction. In the
early nineteenth century, Southey is an instance of the perfection
attainable in the simple style. Since then, there have been several
movements away from the standard style, some of them towards
elaborate, gorgeous, rhythmical prose. The earliest movement
took various directions in De Quincey, Landor, Macaulay and
Carlyle. About the middle of the century, contemporary with the
word-painting and music of Ruskin's prose and the simple beauty
of Newman's, many writers showed a tendency towards a slipshod
colloquialism. The reaction that followed—the effects of which are
not yet exhausted-is seen in the striving after the refinements of
style associated with the names of Rossetti and Swinburne in verse,
and of Pater and Stevenson in prose.
Several of the suggestions to establish a censorship of English
have been mentioned. But the greatest effort was Swift's Proposal
for correcting, improving and ascertaining the English Tongue
(1712), in a letter to the earl of Oxford, then lord high treasurer.
After repeating and amplifying his views in The Tatler, Swift
asks Oxford to appoint a society with authority to remove defects
in the grammar of English and gross improprieties, however well
sanctioned by usage. Many words should be expelled, many more
should be corrected, perhaps not a few should be restored. But
the kernel of his proposal is
that some method should be thought on for ascertaining and fixing our
language for ever, after such alterations are made in it as shall be thought
requisite. For I am of opinion, that it is better a language should not be
wholly perfect, than that it should be perpetually changing.
He does not, however, mean that the vocabulary is not to be
increased.
Provided that no word, which a society shall give a sanction to be after-
wards antiquated and exploded, they may have liberty to receive whatever
new ones they shall find occasion for.
This ‘petty treatise,' as Dr Johnson terms it, had some effect, for
a
## p. 463 (#493) ############################################
a
xv]
Summary
463
Oxford nominated several persons, but the death of queen Anne
stopped the scheme.
One of Johnson's aims in compiling his Dictionary was to fix
the English language; but, in the preface, he confessed he had been
too sanguine.
We laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years;
and with equal justice may the lexicographer be derided, who. . . shall imagine
that his dictionary can embalm his language, and secure it from corruption
and decay, that it is in his power to change sublunary nature, or clear the
world at once from folly, vanity, and affectation.
With this hope, however, academies have been instituted, to guard the
avenues of their languages, to retain fugitives, and repulse invaders; but
their vigilance and activity have hitherto been vain; sounds are too volatile
and subtile for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash the winds,
are equally the undertakings of pride, unwilling to measure its desires by its
strength.
He hopes the spirit of English liberty will hinder or destroy an
academy, but individual effort should seek to keep English from
degenerating: 'we have long preserved our constitution, let us
make some struggles for our language. '
Johnson's fear of degeneration has not yet been justified. And,
when we survey what English has done in the past, when we see
its capacity today both as an instrument of clear and exact com-
munication and as a means of artistic literary expression, we may
be confident that, instead of degenerating, it will continue to
advance, and to increase in strength, copiousness and flexibility.
## p. 464 (#494) ############################################
It seemed to us not inappropriate to conclude the final volume
of The Cambridge History of English Literature with a summary
of the progress and development of the English language during
the three centuries which have passed away since the death
of its greatest master. To his name we would fain offer this
work as a tribute of reverence and recognition. Whether the
year of the tercentenary of his death will close before the country
in which he took pride, and its sisterlands, have completed
the sacrifice offered by them neither with a light heart nor for
ignoble ends, is hidden from our eyes; but, alike in war and in
peace, the creations of his genius form part of the inheritance of
which it behoves our nation and our empire to remain worthy.
The English language, since the death of Shakespeare--an event
almost coincident with the beginnings of Britain beyond the seas
has been employed in many offices besides serving as the vehicle
of our literature; and English literature has fulfilled other purposes
besides that of being simply a part of our national life. Indeed,
no observation is more trite than the warning often addressed to
students of a national literature to abstain from seeking in the
literary productions of any particular period, or even in the leading
ideas and influences to be traced in them, a reflection or refrac-
tion of the experiences of contemporary national history. Some
response of the kind the mirror will never altogether refuse ; but
its strength and distinctness will vary indefinitely; at times, they
will be faint; at others, marred or invaded by counteracting or by
independent forces. Of these, as the history of English literature
alone, from its earliest stages to the present, would suffice to show,
the most important is that of individual genius, which defies condi-
tions of time and place. Nor should it be forgotten that literature
is an art, and that art, and her fellow science, though they have
!
## p. 465 (#495) ############################################
often been the servants of kings, or of communities of divers kinds,
are, of their nature, freeborn, and do not owe obedience to any
laws save their own. The relations between ethical and aesthetical
standards are not the less real and vital; but they have no title
to be considered identical.
The harmless method of former generations—which was wont
to tack on chapters treating particular periods in the history of
literature (as in those of religion, commerce, education and so
forth) to the political history of the same divisions of time—will,
therefore, no longer meet the demands of the present age of study
and research. And equally unsatisfactory-any brilliant attempts
to carry it out notwithstanding—is the other more seductive
method of simply treating the course of a nation's literary history
as an organic part of its political and social experiences, which
accompanies their movement from stage to stage, as though it
were a resultant of the same causes and subject to the same
curves of progress or reaction.
The difficulties of the task undertaken in attempting to con-
struct a consecutive narrative of the growth through many centuries
of a national literature remain undiminished when not only is the
centre of gravity of such a history sought in itself, but, also,
its unity is dependent on the general conception of it by those
responsible for its execution. These difficulties are certainly not
least formidable when the work follows the cooperative system,
practically indispensable in the case of a history so vast in its
dimensions and so varied as that of English literature. Since the
day when, in or near the college from which these parting words
are dated, Gray, whose own lyrics bridged the distance between
the medieval bards and the poets of his own age, conceived —
though, like Pope before him, he never himself executed—the plan
of a general history of English poetry, the attempts to realise his
idea either for the poetical branch, or for the entire body, of
English literature have been few though far from insignificant.
Yet, while the field of research has continually expanded, the
demands of the scientific method of critical treatment have, very
properly, become more and more exacting. For ourselves, we
30
E. L. XIV.
## p. 466 (#496) ############################################
felt no hesitation in adopting the principle of cooperative author-
ship; and the result has been to identify with this History, as a
whole, a body of contributors who have written in the spirit of
devotion to the same principles of criticism, as well as, each of
them, to the interest of his particular theme.
The limits of our enterprise—for which, as a whole, we hope
all the writers in these volumes will allow us to claim a collective
responsibility–have now been reached. We send forth this work,
completed so far as it was in our power, with a clear sense of its
imperfections, unavoidable or not, but, also, in the hope that, in
some measure, it may attest the interest taken by our age and
country in one of the noblest of their inheritances.
A. W. W.
A. R. W.
PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE
April 1916
THE END
## p. 467 (#497) ############################################
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