There
curred as often as an opportunity was offered.
curred as often as an opportunity was offered.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - b
Tiberius suspended the entire administration enabling the poor, who were to receive lands, to
of government, and under heavy penalties forbade the purchase the necessary implements, cattle and the
magistrates to exercise their official authority, until like ; and he accordingly proposed that the money
this question was settled. Fear and exasperation which Attalus had bequeathed to the Romans
increased, and the people looked forward with should be distributed among the people. It is ge-
trembling to the day when the matter was to come nerally stated that this law was carried, but in the
to a decision. When the day of the assembly ar- Epitome of Livy (lib. 58) we read that he only
rived, Tiberius publicly implored Octavius to yield promised the people to bring forward the bill. His
to the wishes of the people, who desired nothing agrarian law had evidently the object of creating an
but what they had a right to claim. When this industrious middle class of husbandmen ; and, in
request was also repudiated, Tiberius proceeded to order to infuse some better blood into them, he is
carry his threat into execution, but offered that his said to have entertained the idea of extending the
own case should be put to the vote first. When Roman franchise, by admitting the Italian allies to
all attempts failed, Tiberius proposed the deposition the full rights of Roman citizens. (Vell. Pat. ii. 2. )
of Octavius, and put it to the vote at once. When The matter certainly appears to have been discussed
seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already at the time, but no steps seem to have been taken,
voted for his deposition, Tiberius stopped the pro- though it would have been one of the wisest and
ceedings, and again implored Octavius to desist most salutary measures that could hare been de-
from his opposition ; but Octavius indignantly ex- vised. He further abridged the time that Roman
claimed, “ Complete what thou hast begun. ” The citizens had to serve in the armies. Macrobius
eighteenth tribe voted, and the tribuneship of (Sal. ii. 10) mentions a ler judiciaria of Tiberius,
Octavius was gone: he was dragged from the but this seems to be only a istake, the name of
hustings, and with difficulty escaped being mur- Tiberius being there written instead of Caius.
dered on the spot. The deposition of a tribune was Tiberius went even so far as to threaten to de-
a thing unheard of in the history of Rome, and was, prive the senate of the administration, inasmuch
accordingly, proclaimed by the opposition as an as he declared that the senate had no right to de-
unconstitutional act. They now triumphed over cide upon the towns and cities of the kingdom of
Gracchus, since he had given them a handle, and Pergamus. Tiberius had thus reached the zenith
by his own act seemed to justify their hostility of his power, but fortune began to turn against
against him. The deposition of Octavius for the him. The opinion of his opponents that he had
lawful exercise of his rights has been looked upon violated the sacred character of a tribune in the
by both ancient and modern writers as a violation person of Octavius, had gradually spread among the
of the laws of the Roman constitution, but its in- people, which in its short-sightedness could not
justice was only of a formal nature, a mere irre distinguish between the motives of the two parties,
gularity; and Tiberius, as Niebuhr (Lectures on and merely looked for momentary advantages and
Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 333) justly remarks, might gratifications. Hence they began not only to show
have said that a tribune who acted independent indifference towards their sincere and disinterested
of the people was an abuse, and a still greater irre- protector, but even turned against bim. In ad-
gularity ; the people surely had the right to take dition to this, his enemies spread the absurd report
away a commission from a man to whom they had that Tiberius had secretly received a diadem and a
given it; it is an absurdity if in a republic this purple robe from the Pergamenian messenger, and
right is not maintained.
that he entertained the thought of making himself
After the removal of Octavius, the agrarian law king of Rome. This report, which every one must
was carried without opposition, and permanent tri- have known to be a mere malicious calumny, was
umvirs were appointed to superintend the measur-spread abroad by the contemptible Pompeius, with
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GRACCHUS.
whom Scipio Nasica, and other persons of distinc- | immediately prepared to repel force by force.
tion, made common cause.
Those who were at a greater distance wanted to
The period at which the tribunes for the next know the cause of this sudden commotion, and as
year were to be elected was now drawing near, and Tiberius could not make his voice heard, on account
Tiberius himself, as well as his friends, were fully of the tumultuous noise, he pointed with his hand
convinced that after the expiration of his office to his head, to indicate that his life was in danger.
his laws would be abolished, and that his life This act was maliciously interpreted by his enemies
would be in imminent danger as so as he as a sign by which he demanded the diadem, and
should be divested of the sacred office of tribune. they hastened to inform the senate of it. The
He therefore resolved to offer himself as a can- senators pretended to be greatly alarmed, and
didntė for the tribuneship of the following year. P. Scipio Nasica called upon the consuls to save
This was indeed an irregularity, for up to that the republic; but the consuls refused to have re-
time no man had ever been invested with the course to violence. The people, who in the mean
office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius was
time had learned that the life of their tribune was
compelled by necessity, and the duty of self- threatened, immediately armed theniselves with
defence, to offer himself as a candidate. It was sticks, the legs of the benches, and any other wea-
unfortunate for him that the election of the tri- pons they could lay hold of, and drove the aristo-
bunes fell in the month of June, when the coun- crats from the assembly. The confusion became
try-people, on whom he could rely most, were general, and the tribunes took to fight. A report
occupied with the harvest in the fields. The was quickly spread that Tiberius had deposed his
peo assembled thus consisted, for the most colleagues, and was going to continue in his office
part, of the city populace, who had little or no without any election.
sympathy with him. His heart was filled with dark This was the moment which the aristocratic
apprehensions and misgivings. He went about, party had been anxiously looking for. Scipio Na-
leading his little son by the hand, and imploring sica sprang up, and exclaimed, “ As the consul
the people not to desert him, and not to expose him betrays the republic, do you who wish to maintain
to the fury of his enemies, against whom he bad the constitution follow me. " The senators rushed
protected them. The tribes began to vote, and towards the assembly from the temple of Fides,
iwo had already declared in favour of Tiberius, where they had held their meeting. The people dis-
when the aristocrats, who were mingled among the persed all directions, and all who did not give
people, exclained that the election was illegal, and way to the senators, or ventured to oppose them,
that no man could be elected tribune for two suc- were knocked down with clubs and sticks. Tibe
cessive years. The presiding tribune, Rubrius, did rius, in endeavouring to escape, fell over the body
not know wbat to do; another tribune offered to of a man who was killed, and as he was attempting
take the presidency, but the rest maintained that to rise, he received a blow on his head, and was
this could be decided only by lot. Amid such dis- killed. He fell at the entrance of the temple of
putes the day passed away, and seeing that his Fides, in front of the statues of the kings. The
enemies were gaining the upper hand, Tiberius honour of being the murderer of Gracchus was dis-
proposed to defer the election till the next day. puted between P. Satureius, one of his own col-
He now went about with his child, and endeavoured leagues, and L. Rufus. Upwards of 300 persons
to rouse the people's sympathy. They were moved by were killed on that day by sticks and stones, but
his fear and danger; a large crowd gathered around none by the sword. In the night following their
him ; they conducted him home, urged him not to bodies were thrown into the Tiber, and the sur-
despair, and kept watch about his house all night, viving friends of Gracchus had to suffer imprison-
to protect him against any unforeseen attack. ment, exile, and death, at the hands of their infuri-
Cheered by this demonstration of the people's fa- ated and merciless opponents.
vour, he, in conjunction with his friends, devised These, and other calamities which afterwards re-
during the night a plan on which they were to act, sulted from the legislation of Tiberius, though it
if his enemies should use violence.
was by no means their cause, might perhaps have
At day break the auspices were consulted, but been avoided by a little more prudence on the part
the signs were unfavourable, and Tiberius was of Tiberius. We may indeed regret that he did
doubtful as to whether he should go to the assem- not all he might have done, but we cannot blame
bly or not ; but his friend Blossius urged him on him for what he did : his motives were the
not to give up his plans for things which perhaps purest, and he suffered the death of a martyr in
were merely accidental. The people were assem- the noblest cause that a statesman can enibrace-
bled in the area of the capitol, and many of them the protection of the poor and oppressed. All the
came down to invite him and conduct him thither. odium that has for many centuries been thrown
When he arrived he was received with loud cheers upon Tiberius and his brother Caius arose partly
and acclamations, and all promised well ; but when from party prejudice, and more especially from a
the voting began, the aristocrats did all they could misunderstanding of the nature of a Roman agrarian
to disturb the proceedings, and the noise and tu- law, which, although it had been pretty clearly
mult became so great that no one could be heard. explained by Sigonius, was yet never generally
At this moinent a senator, who was a friend of recognised till the time of Niebuhr. Velleius Pa.
Gracchus, made his way through the crowd up to terculus, who is otherwise biassed against the
him, and informed him that the senators were as- agrarian law of Gracchus, gives a noble testimony
sembled, and that, as they could not prevaił upon to his character, in these words, “ Vita innocentis-
the consuls to carry out their commands, they simus, ingenio florentissimus, proposito sanctissimus,
themselves were resolved to kill Tiberius, and had tantis denique adornatus virtutibus, quantas, per-
for this purpose armed many of their slaves and fecta et natura et industria, mortalis conditio
partisans. When Tiberius communicated this in- recipit. ” (Plut. Vita Tib. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C.
ielligence to those who stood nearest to him, they li. 9–17; Liv. Epit. 58 ; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3;
W
U 3
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294
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GRACCHUS.
Dion Cass. Frugm. Peir. 86—88 ; Oros. v. 8, | the enemy, just towards his inferiors, princtual in
&c. ; Aur. Vict. de Vir. Illustr. 57; and the pas- the discharge of his duties, and in temperance and
sages of Cicero which are collected in Orelli's Ono- frugality he excelled even his elders. His popu-
masticon, vol. ii. p. 531, &c. ; comp. F. D. Gerlach, larity in the province is attested by two occurrences.
Tib. und C. Gracchus, pp. 1–30; Meyer, Fragm. As ihe winter in Sardinia had been very severe
Orat. Rom. p. 215, &c. 2d edit. ; Ahrens, Die drei and unhealthy, and as the soldiers were suffering
Volkstribunen Tib. Gracchus, Drusus und Sulpicius ; in consequence, the consul demanded clothing for
Niebuhr, Lectures on Rum. Hist. vol. i. p. 223, &c. , his men from the allied towns of the island. The
ed. Schmitz. )
towns sent a petition against this demand to the
8. C. SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the brother of senate at Rome, which thereupon directed the con-
No. 7, and son of No. 6, was, according to Plu- sul to get what he wanted by other means. But
tarch, nine years younger than his brother Tiberius, as he was unable to do this, Caius went round to
but he enjoyed the same careful education. He the towns, and prevailed upon them voluntarily to
was unquestionably a man of greater power and supply the army with clothing and other necessa-
talent than his brother, and had also more oppor- ries. About the same time ambassadors of king
tunity for displaying his abilities ; for, while the Micipsa arrived at Rome to inform the senate, that
career of Tiberius lasted scarcely seven months, out of regard for C. Gracchus, the king would send
that of Caius extends over a series of years. a supply of coru for the Roman army in Sardinia.
At the tiine of his brother's murder, in B. c. 133, These proofs of the great popularity and reputation
Caius was in Spain, where he received his first of Caius were the cause of fresh fear and uneasiness
military trnining in the army of P. Scipio Africa to the optimates. He had now been absent in
nus, who, although his wife was the sister of the Sardinia for two years, and his return was dreaded.
Gracchi, exclaimed, on receiving the intelligence of In order to prevent this, fresh troops were sent to
the murder of Tiberius, “ So perish all who do the Sardinia to replace the old ones ; and Orestes was
like again! " It was probably in the year after his ordered to remain in the island, it being intended
brother's murder, B. c. 132, that Caius returned by this measure to keep Caius there also, on ac-
with Scipio from Spain. The calamity which had count of his office. But he saw through their
befallen his brother had unnerved him, and an scheme, and thwarted it. It appears that during the
inner voice dissuaded him from taking any part in latter period of his stay in Sardinia he had altered
public affairs. The first time that he spoke in his mind, and that his vocation had become clear
public was on behalf of his friend Vettius, who was to him. It is reported that the shade of his brother
under persecution, and whom he defended. On appeared to him in his dreams, and said, " Caius,
that occasion he is said to have surpassed all the why dost thou linger? There is no escape, thou
other Roman orators. The people looked forward must die, like myself, in defending the rights of the
with great anticipations to his future career, but people. " It is attested by Cicero and Plutarch
the aristocracy watched him with jealousy, seeing that Caius was not a demagogue, and that he was
that he promised greater talent, energy, and passion drawn into his political career by a sort of fatality
than his brother, in whose footsteps it was pre- or necessity rather than by his own free will, and
sumed that he would follow. In B. C. 131, C. Pa- that had it not been for the exhortation of his
pirius Carbo, a friend of the Gracchi, brought brother's shade, he would never have sought any
forward a bill to enable a person to hold the office public office. But when he heard the call of
of tribune for two or more consecutive years. C. Tiberius, and was at the same time informed of
Gracchus supported the bill, but it was rejected. the command issued by the senate respecting Au-
The speech he delivered on that occasion appears relius Orestes, he at once embarked, and appeared
again to have made a deep impression upon both at Rome, to the surprise of all parties
. The opti-
parties ; but after this time Caius obeyed the mates were enraged at this conduct, and even his
calling of his inner voice, and for a number of years friends thought it a strange thing for a quaestor to
kept altogether aloof from public affairs. During quit the camp without a special leave of absence.
that period it was even rumoured that he disapproved He was taken to account before the censors, but he
of his brother's measures. Some circumstance or defended himself so ably, and proved so clearly
other, of which, however, we have no distinct that he had not violated any law or custom, that
record, seems again to have excited the fears of the he was declared perfectly innocent. But his ene-
optimates, and plans were devised for preventing mies, bent as they were upon destroying all his in-
Caius from obtaining the tribuneship. It is not fuence, annoyed him with various other accusations,
impossible that this fear of the aristocracy may one of which was, that he had participated in the
have been excited by Caius's speech against M. recent revolt of Fregellae. These prosecutions,
Pennus, which at any rate must have been de- however, were nothing but foul and ill-devised
livered shortly before his quaestorship, B. c. 126. schemes to deprive Gracchus of the popular favour :
(Cic. Brut. 28 ; Fest. s. v. respublicas. ) Chance none of the charges was substantiated by evidence,
seemed to favour the schemes of the optimates, for and all of them only served to place his innocence
in B. c. 126 the lot fell upon C. Gracchus to go in a more conspicuous light. C. Gracchus, who was
as quaestor to Sardinia, under the consul L. Aurelius thus irritated and provoked by acts of glaring in-
Orestes ; and since he was fond of military life, for justice, encouraged by the desire of the people to
which he was as well qualified and disciplined as come forward as their patron, filled with confidence
for speaking in public, he was pleased with the in his own powers and in the justice of the people's
opportunity of leaving Rome.
demands, and, above all, stimulated by the manes
For a time Caius was thus removed from the of his murdered brother, at once determined to be-
jealous and envious eyes of the nobles, but in his come a candidate for the tribuneship, and to carry
province he soon attracted the greatest attention ; out the plans of his brother. When his mother
he gained the approbation of his superiors and the heard of this resolution, she implored him in the
attachment of the soldiers. He was brave against most noving terms to desist from his scheme, and
3
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not to deprive her of her last comfort and support | is visible. This measure, which may be regarded
in her old age. But it was too late; Caius had as a kind of poor-law, has been censured by writers
already gone too far; his hatred of his brothers of all ages, because, it is said, it drained the public
murderers, and the enthusiasm of the people, who treasury, because it led the people to idleness and
flocked to Rome from all parts to choose him as indolence, and because it paved the way for that
the defender of their rights, did not allow him to unruly democracy in which the republic perished.
retrace his steps. The whole of the aristocracy, But in the first place, it must be borne in mind,
without exception, opposed his election, but in
that C. Gracchus did not give away the grain for
vain ; and all they could effect was that Caius was nothing, but only sold it at so low a price that the
not elected first, as he had anticipated, but only poor, with some labour, might be enabled to sup-
fourth. Caius, however, as Plutarch remarks, soon port themselves and their children ; and secondly,
inade himself first, for he surpassed all his contem- that Rome was a republic with immense revenues,
poraries in eloquence; and his misfortunes gave which belonged to the sovereign, that is, to the
him ample scope for speaking frcely, when he people ; and a large class of this sovereign people
lamented the death of his brother, to which he re- was suffering from want and destitution.
There
curred as often as an opportunity was offered. was no other remedy ; the state was obliged to
He entered on his tribuneship on the 10th of De- support these poor; and it is, as Niebuhr justly
cember, B. c. 123. The first steps he took as a remarks, the duty of a free and proud nation to
legislator may be regarded as an expiatory sacrifice provide for those members of the community who
which he offered to the shade of his brother, for are unable to provide for themselves.
they were directed against his enemies and mur- The power of Caius's oratory was irresistible, and
derers. The first law he proposed was aimed carried victory with it in all he undertook ; and on
at the ex-tribune Octavius, and enacted that who the wings of popular favour he was carried from
ever had been deprived by the people of one office triumph to triumph. He now resolved to direct
should never be allowed to offer himself again as a the weapons he had hitherto wielded on behalf of
candidate for another; the second, which was di- the poor against the power of the senate, which had
rected against the murderers of his brother and excited his indignation by systematically opposing
friends, and more especially against Popillius and disturbing his proceedings with the people.
Laenas, enacted that whoever had put to death or Hitherto the judges in the case of judicia publica
banished a Roman citizen without a trial should be had been elected from and by the senators; and
liable to a public prosecution. The former of these these judges being generally men of the same class
bills, however, was withdrawn by Caius at the re- as those who were brought before them to be tried,
quest of his mother; and Laenas avoided the one they had outraged justice in every possible way; the
aimed at him by voluntary exile.
governors of provinces extorted money not only to
After these preliminary steps he renewed the enrich themselves, but also to bribe their judges,
agrarian law of his brother, which had not indeed who made their function a lucrative traffic. Caius
been repealed; but the proper way of carrying it now carried a law by which the judicia publica
into effect had been prevented and delayed by a were transferred from the senate to a court consist-
variety of disputes, which belong to the period being of 300 equites. We have three different de-
tween the death of Tiberius and the tribuneship of scriptions of the enactments of this law; but
Caius. The remaining part of his legislation had Manutius (de Ley. Rom. 15) has made it highly
two great and distinct objects: first to ameliorate probable that two of them refer only to two different
the condition of the poor, and secondly to weaken couciliatory proposals, and that as they were re-
the power of the senate, and with it that of the jected, the law, as stated above, was the final result.
aristocracy generally. His plan was most exten- | This law on the one hand inflicted a severe blow
sive, and embraced nearly every branch of the ad- upon the power of the senate, and on the other it
ministration ; but the details are very little known, raised the equites, who formed a wealthy class of
some of his laws being only slightly alluded to ; citizens between the nobility and the poor, as a
but if we may judge from those of which we have any powerful counterpoise to the senate. It may be
accounts, we are led to conclude that his legislation questioned whether the rivalry which was thus
was of the wisest and most salutary kind; and created between the senate and the equites was
that, if his plans had not been thwarted by the salutary in its consequences or not; but thus much
blind and greedy aristocracy, the Roman republic is certain, that the equites soon discovered as many
might have derived infinite blessings from it. He motives for a bad administration of justice as the
carried a law enacting that the soldiers should be senators had had before. It is said that in the
equipped at the expense of the republic, without discussions upon this law, Gracchus, while address-
any deduction being made on this account from ing the people, turned his face towards the forum,
their pay, as had heretofore been done ; another whereas all orators before that time bad turned
law ordained that no person under the age of seven- their faces towards the senate and the comitium.
teen should be drafted for the army. A third law Another constitutional measure was likewise die
enacted that every month corn should be sold at a rected against the arbitrary proceedings of the
low and fixed price to the poor. The republic had senate, though it was not felt as keenly as the
thus to purchase large supplies of grain ; and out former. Hitherto the senate had assigned the pro-
of the public granaries the people were to receive rinces to the consuls and praetors after their elec-
the bushel (modius) of corn at five-sixths of an as. tion, and thus had it in its power to gratify this or
To carry this law into proper effect, it was neces that person's wish, by assigning to him the province
sary to build extensive granaries, which Caius which he particularly desired, and from which he
superintended and conducted with the most minute hoped to derive most advantage or honour. Grac-
care and unwearied vigilance. The ruins of these chus remedied this evil by a law enacting that the
extensive public granaries existed at Rome through-provinces into which consuls or praetors were to be
out the middle ages, but at present no trace of them sent should be determined upon previous to the
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GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
revenue.
election those magistrates. The province of the progress of his excellent legislation. The course
Asian, which had for many years been left unsettled, which the aristocrats now began to pursue shows
and had thus given to the govemors ample scope most clearly that the good of the republic was not
for plunder and extortion, received at length a the thing for which they were struguling, and that
regular organisation, for which it is indebted to C. they looked upon it merely as a contest for power
Gracchus. In all his measures relating to the ad- and wealth ; they cared little or nothing about the
ministration he took great care of the interests of demoralisation of the people, or the ruin of the re-
the republic; and although he acted with justice public, so long as they could but preserve their
towards the provincials and the people, to whom power undiminished.
lands were assigned, yet he always tried to secure Among the colleagues of C. Gracchus was M.
to the republic her revenues. For the purpose of Livius Drusus, a man of rank, wealth, and elo-
facilitating the commerce and intercourse between quence; he was gained over by the senatorial
the several parts of Italy, and at the same time pirty, and under their directions, and with their
giving assistance and employment to the poor, he sanction, he endeavoured to outbid Caius in the
made new rozuds in all directions, and repaired the proposal of popular measures. He acted the part
old ones; milestones also were erected throughout of a real demagogue, for the purpose of supplanting
Italy. Notwithstanding his great and numerous the sincere friend of the people ; and the people,
undertakings, he conducted and superintended who at all times prize momentary gain more than
everything himself, and each particular point was solid advantages, which work slowly and almost
managed with a care and strictness as if he had imperceptibly, allowed themselves to be duped by
nothing else to engage his attention. His skill and the treacherous agent of the aristocracy. Drusus
tact in his intercourse with persons of all classes proposed a series of measures which were of a far
with whom he was thus brought into connexion, more democratic nature than those of Caius. Caius
and his talent for winning their affections, excited had proposed the establishment of two colonies at
the admiration of every one. His favour with the Tarentum and Capua, consisting of citizens of good
people far and near, as well as with the equites, and respectable character; but Drusus proposed
thus rose to the utmost height.
the establishment of twelve colonies, each of which
While things were thus in the most prosperous was to consist of 3000 needy Roman citizens.
progress, and shortly before the election of the Caius had left the public land distributed among
consuls for the next year took place, he once told the poor, subject to a yearly payment to the trea-
the people that he was going to ask them a favour, sury: Drusus abolished even this payment, and
which he would value above every thing, if they thus deprived the state of a large portion of its
granted it ; but he added, that he would not com-
Gracchus contemplated granting the
plain if they refused it. The people gladly pro- franchise to the Latins, but Drusus brought for-
mised to do anything he might desire ; and every ward a measure that the Latins should be exempt
one believed that he was going to ask for the con- from corporal punishment even while they served
sulship: but on the day of the consular election, in the armies. The people thus imposed upon by
Gracchus conducted his friend C. Fannius into the Drusus, who assured them that the senate sanc-
assembly, and canvassed with his friends for him. tioned his measures from no other desire than that
Fannius was accordingly elected consul in prefer- of serving the poor citizens, gradually became re-
ence to Opimius, who had likewise offered himself conciled to the senate; and the recollection of past
as a candidate. C. Gracchus himself was elected sufferings was effaced by hypocritical assurances
tribune for the next year (B. C. 122) also, although he and demagogic tricks. Another means by which
had not asked for it. M. Fulvius Flaccus, a friend Drusus insinuated himself into the people's con-
of Caius, who had been consul in B. c. 125, had fidence was, that he asked no favour for himself,
caused himself to be elected tribune, for the purpose and took no part in carrying his laws into effect,
of being able to give his support to one important which he left entirely to others; while Caius, with
measure which Caius had in contemplation, viz. the most unwearied activity, superintended and
that of extending the Roman franchise. The plan conducted every thing in person. In proportion as
was to grant the Roman franchise to all the Latins, the ill feeling between the people and the senate
and to make the Italian allies step into the relation abated, the popularity of Caius decreased, and his
in which the Latins had stood until then. This position between the two became more and more
measure, thongh it was the wisest and most salu- perilous. Gracchus had proposed the establish-
tary that could have been devised, was looked for- ment of a colony on the ruins of Carthage, and he
ward to by the senate with the greatest uneasiness himself was appointed one of the triumvirs to con-
and alarm. The Latins and Italian allies had for duct the colonists. He settled every thing in
some time been aspiring to the privilege of the Africa with the utmost rapidity ; and after an ab-
Roman franchise; and Fregellae, being disappointed sence of seventy days, he returned to Rome, shortly
in its expectations, had revolted, but had been de before the time at which the consuls for the next
stroyed by the praetor Opinius. But it is uncertain year were to be elected. Drusus had availed him-
whether Gracchus did actually bring forward a bill self of the absence of Caius for making various
about the extension of the franchise, or wheiher he attacks on his party and his friends, especially on
merely contemplated to do so. The senate, instead Fulvius Flaccus, who began openly to stir up the
of endeavouring to allay the ill feelings of those Italian allies to demand the Roman franchise. It
who thought that a right was withheld from them, was in vain that Caius, after his return, endeavoured
provoked them still more by an edict forbidding to restore what his enemies and his sanguine and
any one who was not a Roman citizen to stay in passionate friend had destroyed. Fannius, who
the city or its vicinity so long as the discussions bad obtained the consulship through the influence
on the bills of C. Gracchus were going on. At the of Caius, had soon after treated him with indiffer.
same time the senate had recourse to the meanest ence, and in the end even made conimon cause
and most contemptible stratagem to check Caius in with his enemies. Opinius, who had never for
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297
GRACCHUS.
given Crius for having procured the election of Fan- | Blew Antyllius on the spot. According to Plutarch,
nius to the consulship, which he himself had coveted, Antyllius was one of the attendants of the consul
now offered himself again as a candidate for that Opimius, and while carrying a sacrifice through
office; and it was generally reported that he was the arcade, insolently provoked the anger of the
determined to abolish the laws of C. Gracchus. bystanders by calling out, “ Make way for honest
The latter had endeavoured to obtain the tribune men, you mscals ! But however this may be,
ship for the third time, but in vain, either because Gracchus took no part in the proceedings on that
he had really lost the popular favour through the morning, and the murder of Antyllius was com-
intrigues of Drusus, or because his colleagues, whommitted wholly against his wish. it produced the
he had offended by some arrangements during the greatest alarm and consternation, and Caius was
public games in favour of the people, acted illegally deeply grieved, for he saw at once that it injured
and fraudulently in the proclamation and return his party, and served to promote the hostile schemes
of the votes. How much Caius had lost confi- of his enemies. He therefore immcdiately descended
dence in himself as well as in his supporters is to the forum, to allay the terror and explain the
clear from the following circumstance. By the unfortunate occurrence ; but nobody would listen
command of the senate, and in pursuance of the to him, and he was shunned by everybody as if he
above-mentioned edict, the consul Fannius drove had been an accursed man. The assembly broke
out of the city all those who were not Roman up, the people dispersed, and Gracchus and Fulvius
citizens ; and Caius, although he had promised Flaccus, lamenting the event, returned home, ac-
them his assistance, if they would defy the edict companied each by a number of friends. Opimius,
and remain at Rome, yet allowed persons of his on the other hand, who had now got the oppor-
own acquaintance to be dragged off before his eyes tunity he wanted, triumphed and urged the people
by the lictors of the consul, without venturing to to avenge the murder. The next day he convoked
help them. The object of Gracchus undoubtedly the senate, while large crowds of the people were
was to avoid violence and prevent civil bloodshed, assembled in the forum. He garrisoned the capitol,
in order that his enemies might not obtain any and with his suite he himself occupied the temple
just ground for attacking him, which was, in fact, of Castor and Pollux, which commanded the view
the very thing they were looking for. But the of the forum. At bis command the body of Antyl-
people, who were unable to appreciate such motives, lius was carried across the forum with loud wail-
looked upon his forbearance as an act of cowardice. ings and lamentations, and was deposited in front
The year of his second tribuneship, B. c. 122, of the senate-house. All this was only a tragic
thus came to its close. After Opimius had entered farce to excite the feelings of the people against
on his consulship, the senate, which had hitherto the murderer and his party. When Opimius
acted rather on the defensive, and opposed Grac- thought the minds of the people sufficiently excited,
chus with intrigues, contrived to lead Caius into he himself entered the senate, and by a declamatory
wrong steps, that he might thus prepare his own exposition of the fearful crime that had been com-
ruin. His enemies began to repeal several of his mitted, he prevailed upon the senate to confer on
The subject of the colony of Carthage himself unlimited power to act as he thought best
was discussed afresh merely to provoke Gracchus, for the good of the republic. By virtue of this
who, in establishing the colony, had disregarded power, Opimius ordered the senate to meet again
the curse pronounced by P. Scipio upon the site of the next day in arms, and each eques was com-
Carthage, and had increased the number of colo- manded to bring with him two armed slaves.
nists to 6000. This and various other annoyances, Civil war was thus declared. These decrees,
which still more estranged the people from him, he framed as they were with apparent calmness, for
endured for a time with forbearance and without the purpose of clothing the spirit of party vengeance
making any resistance, probably because he did in the forms of legal proceedings, completely para-
not believe that his legislation could be really lysed the mass of the people. That the equites,
upset. But as the movements of the hostile faction who as an order had been raised so much by
became more and more threatening, he could no Gracchus, deserted him in the hour of danger, is
longer resist the entreaties of Fulvius Flaccus, and accountable only by the cowardice which is always
once more he resolved to rally his friends around displayed on such occasions by capitalists. On the
him, and take an active part in the public assembly. second day Gracchus had been in the forum, but ho
A day was appointed to decide upon the colony of had left the assembly, and as he went hoine he
Carthage, or, according to Plutarch, to abolish the was seen stopping before the statue of his father ;
laws of Caius. A number of country people flocked he did not utter a word, but at last he sighed
to Rome to support Caius and his friends ; and it deeply, burst into tears, and then returned home.
was said that they had been sent by his mother, Cor- A large multitude of people, who seemed to feel the
nelia. Flaccus with his friends occupied the capitol silent reproach of their ingratitude and cowardia,
early in the morning, and was already haranguing followed bin to his house, and kept watch there
the people, when Caius arrived with his followers. all night.
But he was irresolute and desponding, and had a Fulvius Flaccus, who had been filled with rage
presentiment that blood would be shed. He took and indignation at the decree of the senate and the
no part in the proceedings, and in silence he walked conduct of Opimius, called on his friends to arm
up and down under an arcade, watching the course themselves, and with them he spent the night in
of events. A common man of the name of Antyl drinking and rioting. On the morning he was
lius there approached him, touched his shoulder, with difficulty roused from his drunken sleep to
and bade him spare his country. Caius, who was give the necessary orders, and organise his men for
taken by surprise, gazed at the man as if he had resistance. Amid shouts he and his band seized
suddenly been charged with a crime of which he on the Arentine, where they took up a strong
could not deny his guilt. Some one of Caius's position, in the hope of thus compelling the senate
friends took this look for a significant hint, and to yield. Caius refused to arm: he left his house
enactments.
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GRACCHUS.
GRACILIS.
in the morning, dressed in his toga, and without the work of Meyer, cited below. The people of
any weapon save a dagger, which he concealed Rome who had deserted him in the tour of danger
under his toga It was in vain that his wife, were soon seized by feelings of bitter remorse ;
Licinia, with her child in her arma, implored him statues were erected to the two brothers; the spots
to remain at home; he freed himself from her em- on which they had fallen were declared sacred
brace, and went away with his friends without ground, and sacrifices were offered there as in the
saying a word. When he arrived on the Aventine, temples of the gods. Both brothers had staked
he prevailed on Fulvius to send his younger son as their lives for the noblest object that a statesman
a deputy to the senate, to propose a reconciliation. can propose to himself-the rights of the people ;
The appearance of the beautiful boy and his inno- and so long as these rights are preferred to ibe
cent request moved many of the senators; but privileges of a few whom birth or wealth enable to
Opimius haughtily declared, that the rebels ought oppress and tyrannise over the many, so long will
not to attempt any thing through the medium of a the names of the Gracchi be hallowed in history.
messenger, but that they must lay down their There are, as we have already observed, one or
arms, and surrender at discretion. Gracchus him- two points in their conduct and legislation in which
self was ready to comply with this demand, but all we might wish that they had acted with more
his friends refused, and Fulvius sent his son a wisdom and circumspection, but errure humanum
second time to negotiate. Opimius, who longed to est, and the blaine falls not so much upon the
bring the matter to a decision by force, ordered the Gracchi, as upon those who irritated and provoked
boy to be thrown into prison, and forth with he ad- them with a bitterness and an insolence in the
vanced with a body of armed men towards the face of which it would have required an angel's
Aventine. An amnesty was at the same time pro forbearance to remain calm and prudent (Plut.
claimed for all those who would at once lay down Vit. C. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C. 1. 21-26; Liv.
their arms. This amnesty, the want of a regular Epit. lib. 59–61; Vel. Pat. ii. 6, &c. ; Dion Cass.
plan of action on the part of Fulvius, and the niis- Fragm. Peir. 90; Oros. v. 12; Aur. Vict. de l'ir.
siles of the enemy, soon dispersed the party of Illustr. 65; the passages of Cicero, collected in
Gracchus. Fulvius took to flight, and was mur-Orelli's Onomast. vol. ii
. p. 533, &c. ; comp. F. D.
dered with his elder son. Gracchus, who took no Gerlach, Til. und C. Gracchus, p. 33, &c. ; Meyer,
part in the struggle, and was altogether dissatisfied Fragm. Orat. Rom. p. 224, &c. , 2d edit
. ; Ahrens,
with the manner in which his friends had conducted Die drei Volkstribunen, &c. ; Niebuhr, Lectures on
the affair, withdrew into the temple of Diana, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 341, &c. , ed. Schmitz. )
with a view of making away with himself ; but he 9. (SEMPRONIUS) GRACCHUS, a run-away slave,
was prevented by two faithful friends, Pomponius who gave himself out as a son of Tib. Gracchus.
and Laetorius (others call him Licinius). Before His real name was L. Equitius. (EQUITIUS]
leaving the temple he is said to have sunk on his 10. SEMPRONICS GRACCHUS, & paramour of
knees, and to have pronounced a fearful curse upon Julia, the daughter of Augustus, while she was the
the ungrateful people who had deserted him and wife of M. Agrippa He continued his connection
joined his enemies. He then followed his friends with her after she was married to Tiberius, and
towards the Tiber; and as they arrived at the inflamed her hatred against her husband. On
wooden bridge leading to the Janiculus, he would Julia's banishment, Gracchus was also banished
have been overtaken by his pursuers and cut down, to Cercina, an island off the African coast. There
had not his friends resolutely opposed them, until he lived till the accession of Tiberius, who had him
they were killed. Caius, in the meantime, had put to death, A. D. 14 (Tac.
of government, and under heavy penalties forbade the purchase the necessary implements, cattle and the
magistrates to exercise their official authority, until like ; and he accordingly proposed that the money
this question was settled. Fear and exasperation which Attalus had bequeathed to the Romans
increased, and the people looked forward with should be distributed among the people. It is ge-
trembling to the day when the matter was to come nerally stated that this law was carried, but in the
to a decision. When the day of the assembly ar- Epitome of Livy (lib. 58) we read that he only
rived, Tiberius publicly implored Octavius to yield promised the people to bring forward the bill. His
to the wishes of the people, who desired nothing agrarian law had evidently the object of creating an
but what they had a right to claim. When this industrious middle class of husbandmen ; and, in
request was also repudiated, Tiberius proceeded to order to infuse some better blood into them, he is
carry his threat into execution, but offered that his said to have entertained the idea of extending the
own case should be put to the vote first. When Roman franchise, by admitting the Italian allies to
all attempts failed, Tiberius proposed the deposition the full rights of Roman citizens. (Vell. Pat. ii. 2. )
of Octavius, and put it to the vote at once. When The matter certainly appears to have been discussed
seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already at the time, but no steps seem to have been taken,
voted for his deposition, Tiberius stopped the pro- though it would have been one of the wisest and
ceedings, and again implored Octavius to desist most salutary measures that could hare been de-
from his opposition ; but Octavius indignantly ex- vised. He further abridged the time that Roman
claimed, “ Complete what thou hast begun. ” The citizens had to serve in the armies. Macrobius
eighteenth tribe voted, and the tribuneship of (Sal. ii. 10) mentions a ler judiciaria of Tiberius,
Octavius was gone: he was dragged from the but this seems to be only a istake, the name of
hustings, and with difficulty escaped being mur- Tiberius being there written instead of Caius.
dered on the spot. The deposition of a tribune was Tiberius went even so far as to threaten to de-
a thing unheard of in the history of Rome, and was, prive the senate of the administration, inasmuch
accordingly, proclaimed by the opposition as an as he declared that the senate had no right to de-
unconstitutional act. They now triumphed over cide upon the towns and cities of the kingdom of
Gracchus, since he had given them a handle, and Pergamus. Tiberius had thus reached the zenith
by his own act seemed to justify their hostility of his power, but fortune began to turn against
against him. The deposition of Octavius for the him. The opinion of his opponents that he had
lawful exercise of his rights has been looked upon violated the sacred character of a tribune in the
by both ancient and modern writers as a violation person of Octavius, had gradually spread among the
of the laws of the Roman constitution, but its in- people, which in its short-sightedness could not
justice was only of a formal nature, a mere irre distinguish between the motives of the two parties,
gularity; and Tiberius, as Niebuhr (Lectures on and merely looked for momentary advantages and
Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 333) justly remarks, might gratifications. Hence they began not only to show
have said that a tribune who acted independent indifference towards their sincere and disinterested
of the people was an abuse, and a still greater irre- protector, but even turned against bim. In ad-
gularity ; the people surely had the right to take dition to this, his enemies spread the absurd report
away a commission from a man to whom they had that Tiberius had secretly received a diadem and a
given it; it is an absurdity if in a republic this purple robe from the Pergamenian messenger, and
right is not maintained.
that he entertained the thought of making himself
After the removal of Octavius, the agrarian law king of Rome. This report, which every one must
was carried without opposition, and permanent tri- have known to be a mere malicious calumny, was
umvirs were appointed to superintend the measur-spread abroad by the contemptible Pompeius, with
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GRACCHUS.
whom Scipio Nasica, and other persons of distinc- | immediately prepared to repel force by force.
tion, made common cause.
Those who were at a greater distance wanted to
The period at which the tribunes for the next know the cause of this sudden commotion, and as
year were to be elected was now drawing near, and Tiberius could not make his voice heard, on account
Tiberius himself, as well as his friends, were fully of the tumultuous noise, he pointed with his hand
convinced that after the expiration of his office to his head, to indicate that his life was in danger.
his laws would be abolished, and that his life This act was maliciously interpreted by his enemies
would be in imminent danger as so as he as a sign by which he demanded the diadem, and
should be divested of the sacred office of tribune. they hastened to inform the senate of it. The
He therefore resolved to offer himself as a can- senators pretended to be greatly alarmed, and
didntė for the tribuneship of the following year. P. Scipio Nasica called upon the consuls to save
This was indeed an irregularity, for up to that the republic; but the consuls refused to have re-
time no man had ever been invested with the course to violence. The people, who in the mean
office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius was
time had learned that the life of their tribune was
compelled by necessity, and the duty of self- threatened, immediately armed theniselves with
defence, to offer himself as a candidate. It was sticks, the legs of the benches, and any other wea-
unfortunate for him that the election of the tri- pons they could lay hold of, and drove the aristo-
bunes fell in the month of June, when the coun- crats from the assembly. The confusion became
try-people, on whom he could rely most, were general, and the tribunes took to fight. A report
occupied with the harvest in the fields. The was quickly spread that Tiberius had deposed his
peo assembled thus consisted, for the most colleagues, and was going to continue in his office
part, of the city populace, who had little or no without any election.
sympathy with him. His heart was filled with dark This was the moment which the aristocratic
apprehensions and misgivings. He went about, party had been anxiously looking for. Scipio Na-
leading his little son by the hand, and imploring sica sprang up, and exclaimed, “ As the consul
the people not to desert him, and not to expose him betrays the republic, do you who wish to maintain
to the fury of his enemies, against whom he bad the constitution follow me. " The senators rushed
protected them. The tribes began to vote, and towards the assembly from the temple of Fides,
iwo had already declared in favour of Tiberius, where they had held their meeting. The people dis-
when the aristocrats, who were mingled among the persed all directions, and all who did not give
people, exclained that the election was illegal, and way to the senators, or ventured to oppose them,
that no man could be elected tribune for two suc- were knocked down with clubs and sticks. Tibe
cessive years. The presiding tribune, Rubrius, did rius, in endeavouring to escape, fell over the body
not know wbat to do; another tribune offered to of a man who was killed, and as he was attempting
take the presidency, but the rest maintained that to rise, he received a blow on his head, and was
this could be decided only by lot. Amid such dis- killed. He fell at the entrance of the temple of
putes the day passed away, and seeing that his Fides, in front of the statues of the kings. The
enemies were gaining the upper hand, Tiberius honour of being the murderer of Gracchus was dis-
proposed to defer the election till the next day. puted between P. Satureius, one of his own col-
He now went about with his child, and endeavoured leagues, and L. Rufus. Upwards of 300 persons
to rouse the people's sympathy. They were moved by were killed on that day by sticks and stones, but
his fear and danger; a large crowd gathered around none by the sword. In the night following their
him ; they conducted him home, urged him not to bodies were thrown into the Tiber, and the sur-
despair, and kept watch about his house all night, viving friends of Gracchus had to suffer imprison-
to protect him against any unforeseen attack. ment, exile, and death, at the hands of their infuri-
Cheered by this demonstration of the people's fa- ated and merciless opponents.
vour, he, in conjunction with his friends, devised These, and other calamities which afterwards re-
during the night a plan on which they were to act, sulted from the legislation of Tiberius, though it
if his enemies should use violence.
was by no means their cause, might perhaps have
At day break the auspices were consulted, but been avoided by a little more prudence on the part
the signs were unfavourable, and Tiberius was of Tiberius. We may indeed regret that he did
doubtful as to whether he should go to the assem- not all he might have done, but we cannot blame
bly or not ; but his friend Blossius urged him on him for what he did : his motives were the
not to give up his plans for things which perhaps purest, and he suffered the death of a martyr in
were merely accidental. The people were assem- the noblest cause that a statesman can enibrace-
bled in the area of the capitol, and many of them the protection of the poor and oppressed. All the
came down to invite him and conduct him thither. odium that has for many centuries been thrown
When he arrived he was received with loud cheers upon Tiberius and his brother Caius arose partly
and acclamations, and all promised well ; but when from party prejudice, and more especially from a
the voting began, the aristocrats did all they could misunderstanding of the nature of a Roman agrarian
to disturb the proceedings, and the noise and tu- law, which, although it had been pretty clearly
mult became so great that no one could be heard. explained by Sigonius, was yet never generally
At this moinent a senator, who was a friend of recognised till the time of Niebuhr. Velleius Pa.
Gracchus, made his way through the crowd up to terculus, who is otherwise biassed against the
him, and informed him that the senators were as- agrarian law of Gracchus, gives a noble testimony
sembled, and that, as they could not prevaił upon to his character, in these words, “ Vita innocentis-
the consuls to carry out their commands, they simus, ingenio florentissimus, proposito sanctissimus,
themselves were resolved to kill Tiberius, and had tantis denique adornatus virtutibus, quantas, per-
for this purpose armed many of their slaves and fecta et natura et industria, mortalis conditio
partisans. When Tiberius communicated this in- recipit. ” (Plut. Vita Tib. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C.
ielligence to those who stood nearest to him, they li. 9–17; Liv. Epit. 58 ; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3;
W
U 3
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GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
Dion Cass. Frugm. Peir. 86—88 ; Oros. v. 8, | the enemy, just towards his inferiors, princtual in
&c. ; Aur. Vict. de Vir. Illustr. 57; and the pas- the discharge of his duties, and in temperance and
sages of Cicero which are collected in Orelli's Ono- frugality he excelled even his elders. His popu-
masticon, vol. ii. p. 531, &c. ; comp. F. D. Gerlach, larity in the province is attested by two occurrences.
Tib. und C. Gracchus, pp. 1–30; Meyer, Fragm. As ihe winter in Sardinia had been very severe
Orat. Rom. p. 215, &c. 2d edit. ; Ahrens, Die drei and unhealthy, and as the soldiers were suffering
Volkstribunen Tib. Gracchus, Drusus und Sulpicius ; in consequence, the consul demanded clothing for
Niebuhr, Lectures on Rum. Hist. vol. i. p. 223, &c. , his men from the allied towns of the island. The
ed. Schmitz. )
towns sent a petition against this demand to the
8. C. SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the brother of senate at Rome, which thereupon directed the con-
No. 7, and son of No. 6, was, according to Plu- sul to get what he wanted by other means. But
tarch, nine years younger than his brother Tiberius, as he was unable to do this, Caius went round to
but he enjoyed the same careful education. He the towns, and prevailed upon them voluntarily to
was unquestionably a man of greater power and supply the army with clothing and other necessa-
talent than his brother, and had also more oppor- ries. About the same time ambassadors of king
tunity for displaying his abilities ; for, while the Micipsa arrived at Rome to inform the senate, that
career of Tiberius lasted scarcely seven months, out of regard for C. Gracchus, the king would send
that of Caius extends over a series of years. a supply of coru for the Roman army in Sardinia.
At the tiine of his brother's murder, in B. c. 133, These proofs of the great popularity and reputation
Caius was in Spain, where he received his first of Caius were the cause of fresh fear and uneasiness
military trnining in the army of P. Scipio Africa to the optimates. He had now been absent in
nus, who, although his wife was the sister of the Sardinia for two years, and his return was dreaded.
Gracchi, exclaimed, on receiving the intelligence of In order to prevent this, fresh troops were sent to
the murder of Tiberius, “ So perish all who do the Sardinia to replace the old ones ; and Orestes was
like again! " It was probably in the year after his ordered to remain in the island, it being intended
brother's murder, B. c. 132, that Caius returned by this measure to keep Caius there also, on ac-
with Scipio from Spain. The calamity which had count of his office. But he saw through their
befallen his brother had unnerved him, and an scheme, and thwarted it. It appears that during the
inner voice dissuaded him from taking any part in latter period of his stay in Sardinia he had altered
public affairs. The first time that he spoke in his mind, and that his vocation had become clear
public was on behalf of his friend Vettius, who was to him. It is reported that the shade of his brother
under persecution, and whom he defended. On appeared to him in his dreams, and said, " Caius,
that occasion he is said to have surpassed all the why dost thou linger? There is no escape, thou
other Roman orators. The people looked forward must die, like myself, in defending the rights of the
with great anticipations to his future career, but people. " It is attested by Cicero and Plutarch
the aristocracy watched him with jealousy, seeing that Caius was not a demagogue, and that he was
that he promised greater talent, energy, and passion drawn into his political career by a sort of fatality
than his brother, in whose footsteps it was pre- or necessity rather than by his own free will, and
sumed that he would follow. In B. C. 131, C. Pa- that had it not been for the exhortation of his
pirius Carbo, a friend of the Gracchi, brought brother's shade, he would never have sought any
forward a bill to enable a person to hold the office public office. But when he heard the call of
of tribune for two or more consecutive years. C. Tiberius, and was at the same time informed of
Gracchus supported the bill, but it was rejected. the command issued by the senate respecting Au-
The speech he delivered on that occasion appears relius Orestes, he at once embarked, and appeared
again to have made a deep impression upon both at Rome, to the surprise of all parties
. The opti-
parties ; but after this time Caius obeyed the mates were enraged at this conduct, and even his
calling of his inner voice, and for a number of years friends thought it a strange thing for a quaestor to
kept altogether aloof from public affairs. During quit the camp without a special leave of absence.
that period it was even rumoured that he disapproved He was taken to account before the censors, but he
of his brother's measures. Some circumstance or defended himself so ably, and proved so clearly
other, of which, however, we have no distinct that he had not violated any law or custom, that
record, seems again to have excited the fears of the he was declared perfectly innocent. But his ene-
optimates, and plans were devised for preventing mies, bent as they were upon destroying all his in-
Caius from obtaining the tribuneship. It is not fuence, annoyed him with various other accusations,
impossible that this fear of the aristocracy may one of which was, that he had participated in the
have been excited by Caius's speech against M. recent revolt of Fregellae. These prosecutions,
Pennus, which at any rate must have been de- however, were nothing but foul and ill-devised
livered shortly before his quaestorship, B. c. 126. schemes to deprive Gracchus of the popular favour :
(Cic. Brut. 28 ; Fest. s. v. respublicas. ) Chance none of the charges was substantiated by evidence,
seemed to favour the schemes of the optimates, for and all of them only served to place his innocence
in B. c. 126 the lot fell upon C. Gracchus to go in a more conspicuous light. C. Gracchus, who was
as quaestor to Sardinia, under the consul L. Aurelius thus irritated and provoked by acts of glaring in-
Orestes ; and since he was fond of military life, for justice, encouraged by the desire of the people to
which he was as well qualified and disciplined as come forward as their patron, filled with confidence
for speaking in public, he was pleased with the in his own powers and in the justice of the people's
opportunity of leaving Rome.
demands, and, above all, stimulated by the manes
For a time Caius was thus removed from the of his murdered brother, at once determined to be-
jealous and envious eyes of the nobles, but in his come a candidate for the tribuneship, and to carry
province he soon attracted the greatest attention ; out the plans of his brother. When his mother
he gained the approbation of his superiors and the heard of this resolution, she implored him in the
attachment of the soldiers. He was brave against most noving terms to desist from his scheme, and
3
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295
GRACCHUS.
not to deprive her of her last comfort and support | is visible. This measure, which may be regarded
in her old age. But it was too late; Caius had as a kind of poor-law, has been censured by writers
already gone too far; his hatred of his brothers of all ages, because, it is said, it drained the public
murderers, and the enthusiasm of the people, who treasury, because it led the people to idleness and
flocked to Rome from all parts to choose him as indolence, and because it paved the way for that
the defender of their rights, did not allow him to unruly democracy in which the republic perished.
retrace his steps. The whole of the aristocracy, But in the first place, it must be borne in mind,
without exception, opposed his election, but in
that C. Gracchus did not give away the grain for
vain ; and all they could effect was that Caius was nothing, but only sold it at so low a price that the
not elected first, as he had anticipated, but only poor, with some labour, might be enabled to sup-
fourth. Caius, however, as Plutarch remarks, soon port themselves and their children ; and secondly,
inade himself first, for he surpassed all his contem- that Rome was a republic with immense revenues,
poraries in eloquence; and his misfortunes gave which belonged to the sovereign, that is, to the
him ample scope for speaking frcely, when he people ; and a large class of this sovereign people
lamented the death of his brother, to which he re- was suffering from want and destitution.
There
curred as often as an opportunity was offered. was no other remedy ; the state was obliged to
He entered on his tribuneship on the 10th of De- support these poor; and it is, as Niebuhr justly
cember, B. c. 123. The first steps he took as a remarks, the duty of a free and proud nation to
legislator may be regarded as an expiatory sacrifice provide for those members of the community who
which he offered to the shade of his brother, for are unable to provide for themselves.
they were directed against his enemies and mur- The power of Caius's oratory was irresistible, and
derers. The first law he proposed was aimed carried victory with it in all he undertook ; and on
at the ex-tribune Octavius, and enacted that who the wings of popular favour he was carried from
ever had been deprived by the people of one office triumph to triumph. He now resolved to direct
should never be allowed to offer himself again as a the weapons he had hitherto wielded on behalf of
candidate for another; the second, which was di- the poor against the power of the senate, which had
rected against the murderers of his brother and excited his indignation by systematically opposing
friends, and more especially against Popillius and disturbing his proceedings with the people.
Laenas, enacted that whoever had put to death or Hitherto the judges in the case of judicia publica
banished a Roman citizen without a trial should be had been elected from and by the senators; and
liable to a public prosecution. The former of these these judges being generally men of the same class
bills, however, was withdrawn by Caius at the re- as those who were brought before them to be tried,
quest of his mother; and Laenas avoided the one they had outraged justice in every possible way; the
aimed at him by voluntary exile.
governors of provinces extorted money not only to
After these preliminary steps he renewed the enrich themselves, but also to bribe their judges,
agrarian law of his brother, which had not indeed who made their function a lucrative traffic. Caius
been repealed; but the proper way of carrying it now carried a law by which the judicia publica
into effect had been prevented and delayed by a were transferred from the senate to a court consist-
variety of disputes, which belong to the period being of 300 equites. We have three different de-
tween the death of Tiberius and the tribuneship of scriptions of the enactments of this law; but
Caius. The remaining part of his legislation had Manutius (de Ley. Rom. 15) has made it highly
two great and distinct objects: first to ameliorate probable that two of them refer only to two different
the condition of the poor, and secondly to weaken couciliatory proposals, and that as they were re-
the power of the senate, and with it that of the jected, the law, as stated above, was the final result.
aristocracy generally. His plan was most exten- | This law on the one hand inflicted a severe blow
sive, and embraced nearly every branch of the ad- upon the power of the senate, and on the other it
ministration ; but the details are very little known, raised the equites, who formed a wealthy class of
some of his laws being only slightly alluded to ; citizens between the nobility and the poor, as a
but if we may judge from those of which we have any powerful counterpoise to the senate. It may be
accounts, we are led to conclude that his legislation questioned whether the rivalry which was thus
was of the wisest and most salutary kind; and created between the senate and the equites was
that, if his plans had not been thwarted by the salutary in its consequences or not; but thus much
blind and greedy aristocracy, the Roman republic is certain, that the equites soon discovered as many
might have derived infinite blessings from it. He motives for a bad administration of justice as the
carried a law enacting that the soldiers should be senators had had before. It is said that in the
equipped at the expense of the republic, without discussions upon this law, Gracchus, while address-
any deduction being made on this account from ing the people, turned his face towards the forum,
their pay, as had heretofore been done ; another whereas all orators before that time bad turned
law ordained that no person under the age of seven- their faces towards the senate and the comitium.
teen should be drafted for the army. A third law Another constitutional measure was likewise die
enacted that every month corn should be sold at a rected against the arbitrary proceedings of the
low and fixed price to the poor. The republic had senate, though it was not felt as keenly as the
thus to purchase large supplies of grain ; and out former. Hitherto the senate had assigned the pro-
of the public granaries the people were to receive rinces to the consuls and praetors after their elec-
the bushel (modius) of corn at five-sixths of an as. tion, and thus had it in its power to gratify this or
To carry this law into proper effect, it was neces that person's wish, by assigning to him the province
sary to build extensive granaries, which Caius which he particularly desired, and from which he
superintended and conducted with the most minute hoped to derive most advantage or honour. Grac-
care and unwearied vigilance. The ruins of these chus remedied this evil by a law enacting that the
extensive public granaries existed at Rome through-provinces into which consuls or praetors were to be
out the middle ages, but at present no trace of them sent should be determined upon previous to the
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296
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
revenue.
election those magistrates. The province of the progress of his excellent legislation. The course
Asian, which had for many years been left unsettled, which the aristocrats now began to pursue shows
and had thus given to the govemors ample scope most clearly that the good of the republic was not
for plunder and extortion, received at length a the thing for which they were struguling, and that
regular organisation, for which it is indebted to C. they looked upon it merely as a contest for power
Gracchus. In all his measures relating to the ad- and wealth ; they cared little or nothing about the
ministration he took great care of the interests of demoralisation of the people, or the ruin of the re-
the republic; and although he acted with justice public, so long as they could but preserve their
towards the provincials and the people, to whom power undiminished.
lands were assigned, yet he always tried to secure Among the colleagues of C. Gracchus was M.
to the republic her revenues. For the purpose of Livius Drusus, a man of rank, wealth, and elo-
facilitating the commerce and intercourse between quence; he was gained over by the senatorial
the several parts of Italy, and at the same time pirty, and under their directions, and with their
giving assistance and employment to the poor, he sanction, he endeavoured to outbid Caius in the
made new rozuds in all directions, and repaired the proposal of popular measures. He acted the part
old ones; milestones also were erected throughout of a real demagogue, for the purpose of supplanting
Italy. Notwithstanding his great and numerous the sincere friend of the people ; and the people,
undertakings, he conducted and superintended who at all times prize momentary gain more than
everything himself, and each particular point was solid advantages, which work slowly and almost
managed with a care and strictness as if he had imperceptibly, allowed themselves to be duped by
nothing else to engage his attention. His skill and the treacherous agent of the aristocracy. Drusus
tact in his intercourse with persons of all classes proposed a series of measures which were of a far
with whom he was thus brought into connexion, more democratic nature than those of Caius. Caius
and his talent for winning their affections, excited had proposed the establishment of two colonies at
the admiration of every one. His favour with the Tarentum and Capua, consisting of citizens of good
people far and near, as well as with the equites, and respectable character; but Drusus proposed
thus rose to the utmost height.
the establishment of twelve colonies, each of which
While things were thus in the most prosperous was to consist of 3000 needy Roman citizens.
progress, and shortly before the election of the Caius had left the public land distributed among
consuls for the next year took place, he once told the poor, subject to a yearly payment to the trea-
the people that he was going to ask them a favour, sury: Drusus abolished even this payment, and
which he would value above every thing, if they thus deprived the state of a large portion of its
granted it ; but he added, that he would not com-
Gracchus contemplated granting the
plain if they refused it. The people gladly pro- franchise to the Latins, but Drusus brought for-
mised to do anything he might desire ; and every ward a measure that the Latins should be exempt
one believed that he was going to ask for the con- from corporal punishment even while they served
sulship: but on the day of the consular election, in the armies. The people thus imposed upon by
Gracchus conducted his friend C. Fannius into the Drusus, who assured them that the senate sanc-
assembly, and canvassed with his friends for him. tioned his measures from no other desire than that
Fannius was accordingly elected consul in prefer- of serving the poor citizens, gradually became re-
ence to Opimius, who had likewise offered himself conciled to the senate; and the recollection of past
as a candidate. C. Gracchus himself was elected sufferings was effaced by hypocritical assurances
tribune for the next year (B. C. 122) also, although he and demagogic tricks. Another means by which
had not asked for it. M. Fulvius Flaccus, a friend Drusus insinuated himself into the people's con-
of Caius, who had been consul in B. c. 125, had fidence was, that he asked no favour for himself,
caused himself to be elected tribune, for the purpose and took no part in carrying his laws into effect,
of being able to give his support to one important which he left entirely to others; while Caius, with
measure which Caius had in contemplation, viz. the most unwearied activity, superintended and
that of extending the Roman franchise. The plan conducted every thing in person. In proportion as
was to grant the Roman franchise to all the Latins, the ill feeling between the people and the senate
and to make the Italian allies step into the relation abated, the popularity of Caius decreased, and his
in which the Latins had stood until then. This position between the two became more and more
measure, thongh it was the wisest and most salu- perilous. Gracchus had proposed the establish-
tary that could have been devised, was looked for- ment of a colony on the ruins of Carthage, and he
ward to by the senate with the greatest uneasiness himself was appointed one of the triumvirs to con-
and alarm. The Latins and Italian allies had for duct the colonists. He settled every thing in
some time been aspiring to the privilege of the Africa with the utmost rapidity ; and after an ab-
Roman franchise; and Fregellae, being disappointed sence of seventy days, he returned to Rome, shortly
in its expectations, had revolted, but had been de before the time at which the consuls for the next
stroyed by the praetor Opinius. But it is uncertain year were to be elected. Drusus had availed him-
whether Gracchus did actually bring forward a bill self of the absence of Caius for making various
about the extension of the franchise, or wheiher he attacks on his party and his friends, especially on
merely contemplated to do so. The senate, instead Fulvius Flaccus, who began openly to stir up the
of endeavouring to allay the ill feelings of those Italian allies to demand the Roman franchise. It
who thought that a right was withheld from them, was in vain that Caius, after his return, endeavoured
provoked them still more by an edict forbidding to restore what his enemies and his sanguine and
any one who was not a Roman citizen to stay in passionate friend had destroyed. Fannius, who
the city or its vicinity so long as the discussions bad obtained the consulship through the influence
on the bills of C. Gracchus were going on. At the of Caius, had soon after treated him with indiffer.
same time the senate had recourse to the meanest ence, and in the end even made conimon cause
and most contemptible stratagem to check Caius in with his enemies. Opinius, who had never for
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GRACCHUS.
297
GRACCHUS.
given Crius for having procured the election of Fan- | Blew Antyllius on the spot. According to Plutarch,
nius to the consulship, which he himself had coveted, Antyllius was one of the attendants of the consul
now offered himself again as a candidate for that Opimius, and while carrying a sacrifice through
office; and it was generally reported that he was the arcade, insolently provoked the anger of the
determined to abolish the laws of C. Gracchus. bystanders by calling out, “ Make way for honest
The latter had endeavoured to obtain the tribune men, you mscals ! But however this may be,
ship for the third time, but in vain, either because Gracchus took no part in the proceedings on that
he had really lost the popular favour through the morning, and the murder of Antyllius was com-
intrigues of Drusus, or because his colleagues, whommitted wholly against his wish. it produced the
he had offended by some arrangements during the greatest alarm and consternation, and Caius was
public games in favour of the people, acted illegally deeply grieved, for he saw at once that it injured
and fraudulently in the proclamation and return his party, and served to promote the hostile schemes
of the votes. How much Caius had lost confi- of his enemies. He therefore immcdiately descended
dence in himself as well as in his supporters is to the forum, to allay the terror and explain the
clear from the following circumstance. By the unfortunate occurrence ; but nobody would listen
command of the senate, and in pursuance of the to him, and he was shunned by everybody as if he
above-mentioned edict, the consul Fannius drove had been an accursed man. The assembly broke
out of the city all those who were not Roman up, the people dispersed, and Gracchus and Fulvius
citizens ; and Caius, although he had promised Flaccus, lamenting the event, returned home, ac-
them his assistance, if they would defy the edict companied each by a number of friends. Opimius,
and remain at Rome, yet allowed persons of his on the other hand, who had now got the oppor-
own acquaintance to be dragged off before his eyes tunity he wanted, triumphed and urged the people
by the lictors of the consul, without venturing to to avenge the murder. The next day he convoked
help them. The object of Gracchus undoubtedly the senate, while large crowds of the people were
was to avoid violence and prevent civil bloodshed, assembled in the forum. He garrisoned the capitol,
in order that his enemies might not obtain any and with his suite he himself occupied the temple
just ground for attacking him, which was, in fact, of Castor and Pollux, which commanded the view
the very thing they were looking for. But the of the forum. At bis command the body of Antyl-
people, who were unable to appreciate such motives, lius was carried across the forum with loud wail-
looked upon his forbearance as an act of cowardice. ings and lamentations, and was deposited in front
The year of his second tribuneship, B. c. 122, of the senate-house. All this was only a tragic
thus came to its close. After Opimius had entered farce to excite the feelings of the people against
on his consulship, the senate, which had hitherto the murderer and his party. When Opimius
acted rather on the defensive, and opposed Grac- thought the minds of the people sufficiently excited,
chus with intrigues, contrived to lead Caius into he himself entered the senate, and by a declamatory
wrong steps, that he might thus prepare his own exposition of the fearful crime that had been com-
ruin. His enemies began to repeal several of his mitted, he prevailed upon the senate to confer on
The subject of the colony of Carthage himself unlimited power to act as he thought best
was discussed afresh merely to provoke Gracchus, for the good of the republic. By virtue of this
who, in establishing the colony, had disregarded power, Opimius ordered the senate to meet again
the curse pronounced by P. Scipio upon the site of the next day in arms, and each eques was com-
Carthage, and had increased the number of colo- manded to bring with him two armed slaves.
nists to 6000. This and various other annoyances, Civil war was thus declared. These decrees,
which still more estranged the people from him, he framed as they were with apparent calmness, for
endured for a time with forbearance and without the purpose of clothing the spirit of party vengeance
making any resistance, probably because he did in the forms of legal proceedings, completely para-
not believe that his legislation could be really lysed the mass of the people. That the equites,
upset. But as the movements of the hostile faction who as an order had been raised so much by
became more and more threatening, he could no Gracchus, deserted him in the hour of danger, is
longer resist the entreaties of Fulvius Flaccus, and accountable only by the cowardice which is always
once more he resolved to rally his friends around displayed on such occasions by capitalists. On the
him, and take an active part in the public assembly. second day Gracchus had been in the forum, but ho
A day was appointed to decide upon the colony of had left the assembly, and as he went hoine he
Carthage, or, according to Plutarch, to abolish the was seen stopping before the statue of his father ;
laws of Caius. A number of country people flocked he did not utter a word, but at last he sighed
to Rome to support Caius and his friends ; and it deeply, burst into tears, and then returned home.
was said that they had been sent by his mother, Cor- A large multitude of people, who seemed to feel the
nelia. Flaccus with his friends occupied the capitol silent reproach of their ingratitude and cowardia,
early in the morning, and was already haranguing followed bin to his house, and kept watch there
the people, when Caius arrived with his followers. all night.
But he was irresolute and desponding, and had a Fulvius Flaccus, who had been filled with rage
presentiment that blood would be shed. He took and indignation at the decree of the senate and the
no part in the proceedings, and in silence he walked conduct of Opimius, called on his friends to arm
up and down under an arcade, watching the course themselves, and with them he spent the night in
of events. A common man of the name of Antyl drinking and rioting. On the morning he was
lius there approached him, touched his shoulder, with difficulty roused from his drunken sleep to
and bade him spare his country. Caius, who was give the necessary orders, and organise his men for
taken by surprise, gazed at the man as if he had resistance. Amid shouts he and his band seized
suddenly been charged with a crime of which he on the Arentine, where they took up a strong
could not deny his guilt. Some one of Caius's position, in the hope of thus compelling the senate
friends took this look for a significant hint, and to yield. Caius refused to arm: he left his house
enactments.
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298
GRACCHUS.
GRACILIS.
in the morning, dressed in his toga, and without the work of Meyer, cited below. The people of
any weapon save a dagger, which he concealed Rome who had deserted him in the tour of danger
under his toga It was in vain that his wife, were soon seized by feelings of bitter remorse ;
Licinia, with her child in her arma, implored him statues were erected to the two brothers; the spots
to remain at home; he freed himself from her em- on which they had fallen were declared sacred
brace, and went away with his friends without ground, and sacrifices were offered there as in the
saying a word. When he arrived on the Aventine, temples of the gods. Both brothers had staked
he prevailed on Fulvius to send his younger son as their lives for the noblest object that a statesman
a deputy to the senate, to propose a reconciliation. can propose to himself-the rights of the people ;
The appearance of the beautiful boy and his inno- and so long as these rights are preferred to ibe
cent request moved many of the senators; but privileges of a few whom birth or wealth enable to
Opimius haughtily declared, that the rebels ought oppress and tyrannise over the many, so long will
not to attempt any thing through the medium of a the names of the Gracchi be hallowed in history.
messenger, but that they must lay down their There are, as we have already observed, one or
arms, and surrender at discretion. Gracchus him- two points in their conduct and legislation in which
self was ready to comply with this demand, but all we might wish that they had acted with more
his friends refused, and Fulvius sent his son a wisdom and circumspection, but errure humanum
second time to negotiate. Opimius, who longed to est, and the blaine falls not so much upon the
bring the matter to a decision by force, ordered the Gracchi, as upon those who irritated and provoked
boy to be thrown into prison, and forth with he ad- them with a bitterness and an insolence in the
vanced with a body of armed men towards the face of which it would have required an angel's
Aventine. An amnesty was at the same time pro forbearance to remain calm and prudent (Plut.
claimed for all those who would at once lay down Vit. C. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C. 1. 21-26; Liv.
their arms. This amnesty, the want of a regular Epit. lib. 59–61; Vel. Pat. ii. 6, &c. ; Dion Cass.
plan of action on the part of Fulvius, and the niis- Fragm. Peir. 90; Oros. v. 12; Aur. Vict. de l'ir.
siles of the enemy, soon dispersed the party of Illustr. 65; the passages of Cicero, collected in
Gracchus. Fulvius took to flight, and was mur-Orelli's Onomast. vol. ii
. p. 533, &c. ; comp. F. D.
dered with his elder son. Gracchus, who took no Gerlach, Til. und C. Gracchus, p. 33, &c. ; Meyer,
part in the struggle, and was altogether dissatisfied Fragm. Orat. Rom. p. 224, &c. , 2d edit
. ; Ahrens,
with the manner in which his friends had conducted Die drei Volkstribunen, &c. ; Niebuhr, Lectures on
the affair, withdrew into the temple of Diana, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 341, &c. , ed. Schmitz. )
with a view of making away with himself ; but he 9. (SEMPRONIUS) GRACCHUS, a run-away slave,
was prevented by two faithful friends, Pomponius who gave himself out as a son of Tib. Gracchus.
and Laetorius (others call him Licinius). Before His real name was L. Equitius. (EQUITIUS]
leaving the temple he is said to have sunk on his 10. SEMPRONICS GRACCHUS, & paramour of
knees, and to have pronounced a fearful curse upon Julia, the daughter of Augustus, while she was the
the ungrateful people who had deserted him and wife of M. Agrippa He continued his connection
joined his enemies. He then followed his friends with her after she was married to Tiberius, and
towards the Tiber; and as they arrived at the inflamed her hatred against her husband. On
wooden bridge leading to the Janiculus, he would Julia's banishment, Gracchus was also banished
have been overtaken by his pursuers and cut down, to Cercina, an island off the African coast. There
had not his friends resolutely opposed them, until he lived till the accession of Tiberius, who had him
they were killed. Caius, in the meantime, had put to death, A. D. 14 (Tac.
