) Cicereius was, how-
and retired into a convent, where he lived under ever, elected practor in the following year (B.
and retired into a convent, where he lived under ever, elected practor in the following year (B.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - a
]
value were added by Maria Theresa), and that of CHTHO'NIUS (XBovios) has the same meaning
St. Mark at Venice.
[G. E. L. C. ) as Chthonia, and is therefore applied to the gods of
CHRYSOʻSTOMUS, DION. [Dion. ] the lower world, or the shades (Hom. Il. ix. 457 ;
CHRYSOʻTHEMIS (Xpuoóbeuis). There are Hesiod. Op. 435; Orph. Ilymn. 17. 3, 69. 2, Ar-
four mythical females of this name (Hygin. Fab. gon. 973), and to beings that are considered as
170, Poet. Astr. ii. 25; Diod. v. 22; Hom. I. ix. earth-born. (Apollod. iii. 4. § 1; Apollon. Rhod.
287), and one male, a son of Carmanor, the priest iv. 1398. ) It is also used in the sense of “ gods
of Apollo at Tarrha in Crete. He is said to have of the land,” or “native divinities. " (Apollon.
been a poet, and to have won the first victory in Rhod. iv. 1322. ) There are also several mythical
the Pythian games by a hymn on Apollo. (Paus. personages of the name of Chthonius. (Apollod. ii.
x. 7. § 2. )
(L. S. ) 1. § 5, m. 4. SS 1, 5; Ov. Met. xii. 441; Diod.
CHRYSOʻTHEMIS (Xpuoboeuis) and EUTE- v. 53 ; Paus. ix. 5. § 1; Hygin. Fab. 178. ) (L. S. )
LIDAS (Eutenidas), statuaries of Argos, made in CHUMNUS, GEORGIUS, a native of Can-
bronze the statues of Damaretus and his son Theo- dace or Chandace, in the island of Crete, lived
pompus, who were each twice victorious in the most probably during the later period of the Greek
Olympic games. The victories of Demaretus were empire. He wrote a history in verse, beginning
in the 65th and 66th Olympiads, and the artists with the creation of the world and going down to
of course lived at the same time (B. C. 520 and on- the reign of David and Solomon, kings of Judaea,
wards). Pausanias describes one of the statues, which is extant in MS. in the imperial library at
and quotes the inscription, which contained the Vienna, and was formerly in the library of John
names of the artists, and which described them as Suzzo (Susius) at Constantinople. (Fabric. Bibl.
τέχναν ειδότες εκ προτέρων, which appears to Graec. xii. p. 43; Cave, Hist. Lit. vol. ji. D. p.
mean that, like the early artists in general, they 13. )
(W. P. )
each belonged to a family in which art was here CHUMNUS, MICHAEL, a Graeco-Roman
ditary. (x. 6. & 2. )
[P. S. ) jurist and canonist, who was nomophylax, and
CHRYSUS (Xpvoós), the fourteenth (or thir. afterwards metropolitan of Thessalonică. He is
teenth) of the family of the Asclepiadae, was the said by Pohl (ad Suares. Nolit. Basil. p. 138, n.
youngest son of Nebrus, the brother of Gnosidicus, [2. ]) to have lived in the 13th century, in the
and the father of Elaphus; and lived in the sixth time of Nicephorus Blemmydas, patriarch of Con-
century B. c. in the island of Cos. During the stantinople, and to have been the author of va-
Crissaean war, while the Amphyctions were be- rious works. He is cited by Mat. Blastares
sieging the town of Crissa in Phocis, the plague (Leunc. J. G. R. i. pp. 482, 487), and is known
broke out among their army. Having consulted by a short treatise on the degrees of relation-
the oracle of Delphi in consequence, they were ship (περί των βαλσαμών [qu. βαθμών της συγ-
directed to fetch from Cos“ the young of a stag, yevelas), inserted in the collection of Leuncla-
together with gold,” which was interpreted to vius (i. p. 519). By Suarez (who erroneously
mean Nebrus and Chrysus. They accordingly identifies Chumnus and Domnus), Chumnus is
persuaded them both to join the camp, where mentioned among the scholiasts upon the Basilica
Chrysus was the first person to mount the wall at (Notit. Basil. $ 42), but this seems to be an error.
the time of the general assault, but was at the (Böcking, Institutionen, Bonn, 1843, i. p. 108, n.
same time mortally wounded, B. C. 591.
48; Heimbach, de Basil. Orio. p. 87. ) (J. T. G. ]
buried in the hippodrome at Delphi, and worship- CHUMNUS, NICE’PHORUS, renowned as
ped by the inhabitants as a hero (évayišw). (Thes- a statesman, a philosopher, and a divine, lived in
sali Oratio, in Hippocr. Operu, vol. i. p. 836, the latter part of the 13th and in the beginning of
&c. )
(W. A. G. ) the 14th century. He was probably a native of
CHTHO’NIA (XBovia), may mean the subter- Constantinople, and belonged undoubtedly to one
raneous, or the goddess of the earth, that is, the of the first families in the Greek empire. Enjoy-
protectress of the fields, whence it is used as a ing the confidence and friendship of the emperor
surname of infernal divinities, such as Hecate Andronicus Palaeologus the elder, he was succes-
(Apollon. Rhod. iv. 148 ; Orph. Hymn. 35. 9), sively appointed praefect of the Canicleus, keeper
Nyx (Orph. Hymn. 2. 8), and Melinoë (Orph. I of the imperial scal-ring, and magnus stratope-
He was
## p. 707 (#727) ############################################
CHUMNUS.
707
CICERO.
the younger.
darchn, and his merits were so great, that as early and a great number of letters on various subjects,
as 1295 Andronicus asked the hand of his daugh- several of which seem to be of great interest for
ter, Irene, for one of his sons, John Palneologus, history, while others, as well as the works cited
to whom she was married in the same year. above, appear to be of considerable importance for
During the unfortunate civil contest between An- | the history of Greek civilization in the middle
dronicus the elder and his grandson, Andronicus ages. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. vii. pp. 675, 676;
the younger, Chumnus remained faithful to his Cave, Hist. Liter. vol. ii. p. 494, ad an. 1320 ;
imperial patron, and for some time defended the Nicephorus Gregoras, lib. vii. p. 168, ed. Paris ;
town of Thessalonica, of which he was praefect, Cantacuzenus, lib. i. p. 45, ed. Paris. ) (W. P. ]
against the troops of Andronicus the younger, C. CICEREIUS, the secretary (scriba) of the
whom he compelled to raise the siege. It seems elder Scipio Africanus, was a candidate for the
that Chumnus had more influence and did more for praetorship in B. c. 174 along with Scipio's son,
the support of Andronicns the elder, than any but when he saw that he was obtaining more votes
other of the ministers of this unfortunate emperor. than the latter, he resigned in his favour. (Val.
Towards the end of his life Chumnus took orders Max. iv. 5. $ 3, in. 5. & 2.
) Cicereius was, how-
and retired into a convent, where he lived under ever, elected practor in the following year (B. C.
the name of Nathanael, and occupied himself with 173), and he obtained the province of Sardinia,
literary pursuits. The time of his death has not but was ordered by the senate to go to Corsica
been ascertained, but we must presume that he first, in order to conduct the war against the in-
died after 1330, during the reign of Andronicus habitants of that island. After defeating the
Corsicans in battle, he granted them peace on the
Nicephorus Chumnus is the author of numerous payment of 200,000 pounds of wax, and then
works and treatises on philosophical, religious, passed over to Sardinia. On his return to Rome
ecclesiastical, rhetorical, and legal subjects, none of next year (B. c. 172) he sued for a triumph on ac-
which have ever been printed; they are extant in count of his victory in Corsica, and when this was
MS. in the principal libraries of Rome, Venice, refused by the senate, he celebrated on his own
and Paris. We give the titles of some of them as authority a triumph on the Alban mount, a practice
they stand in Latin in the catalogues of those li- which had now become not unfrequent. In the
braries : “ Confutatio Dogmatis de Processione same year he was one of the three ambassadors
Spiritus Sancti ;” “Sermo in Christi Transfigura- sent to the Illyrian king, Gentius; and in B. C.
tionem;" "Symbuleuticus de Justitia ad Thessalo-167 he was again despatched on the same mission.
nicenses, et Urbis Encomium ;" * Ex Imperatoris In the year before (B. C. 168) he dedicated on the
Decreto, ut Judices jurejurando obligentur, ad Alban mount the temple to Juno Moneta, which
Munus sancte obeundum ; " " Encomium ad Impe- he had rowed in his battle with the Corsicans five
(Andronicum II. ); “Querela adversus years before. (Liv. xli. 33, xlii. 1, 7, 21, 26
Niphonem ob male administratam Patriarchatus xlv. 17, 15. )
sui Provinciam ;" “ Oratio funebris in Theoleptum CI'CERO, the name of a family, little distin-
Metropolitam Philadelphiae ;" " Ad Imperatorem guished in history, belonging to the plebeian Clau-
de Obitu Despotae et Filii ejus," a letter to Andro- dia gens, the only member of which mentioned
nicus II. the elder, on the death of his son, the is C. Claudius Cicero, tribune of the plebs in B. C.
despot John, who had married Irene, the daughter 454. (Lir. ii. 31. ) The word seems to be con-
of Chumnus ; " De Charitate, erga Proximum, et nected with cicer, and may have been originally
omnia reliquenda ut Christum sequamur, &c. ;" applied by way of distinction to some individual
" De Mundi Natura ;” “ De Primis et Simplicibus celebrated for his skill in raising that kind of
Corporibus ;” “ Quod Terra quum in Medio sit, pulse, by whom the epithet would be transmitted
infra se nihil habeat ;" “ Quod neque Materia ante to his descendants. Thus the designation will
Corpora, neque Formae seorsim, sed haec ipsa be precisely analogous to Bulbus, Fabius, Lentulus,
simul constent;" “Contra Plotinum de Anima Piso, Tubero, and the like.
(W. R. ]
rationali Quaestiones variae, ubi de Metempsychosi, CI'CERO, the name of a family of the Tullii.
de Belluis, utrum Intellectu praeditae sint, nec ne, The Tullii Cicerones had from time immemorial
de Corporum Resurrectione, et aliis disseritur ;" been settled at Arpinum, which received the full
“ De Anima sensitiva et vegetiva ;" “Quod non franchise in B. c. 188; but they never aspired
impossibile sit, etiam secundum physices Rationes, to any political distinction until the stock was
collocatam esse Aquam in Firmamento, tum, quum raised by the great orator from that obscurity
Orbis Terrarum creatus sit, eamque ibi esse et into which it quickly relapsed after his death.
perpetuo manere,” &c. There are also extant | His genealogy, so far as it can be traced, is repre-
“Oratio in Laudem Imperaturis Andronici Senioris," sented in the following table.
1. M. Tullius Cicero. Married Gratidia.
1
ratorem
3
79
3. L. Tullius Cicero.
2. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married Helvia.
4. L. Tullius Cicero.
6. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Married Pomponia.
6. M. Tullius Cicero,
the orator.
Married. 1. Terentia.
2. Publilia.
2 2 2
## p. 708 (#728) ############################################
708
CICERO.
CICERO
a
8. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Tullia.
7. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married, 1. C. Piso Frugi.
2. Furius Crassipes.
3. P. Cornelius Dolabella.
country town.
Lentulus.
1. M. TULLIUS Cicero, grandfather of the 5. M. Tullius Cicero, the orator, eldest son of
orator, appears to have taken a lead in his own No. 2. In what follows we do not intend to enter
community, and vigorously opposed the projects of deeply into the complicated political transactions of
his fellow-townsman and brother-in-law, M. Grati- the era during which this great man flourished,
dius, who had raised a great commotion at Arpi- except in so far as he was directly and personally
num by agitating in favour of a law for voting by interested and concerned in the events.
The com-
ballot. The matter was referred to the consul plete history of that momentous crisis must be ob-
M. Aemilius Scaurus (B. c. 115), who complimented tained by comparing this article with the biogm-
Cicero on his conduct, declaring that he would phies of ANTONIUS, AUGUSTUS, BRUTUS, CAESAR,
gladly see a person of such spirit and integrity Catilina, Cato, Clodius Pulcher (CLAUDIUS),
exerting his powers on the great field of the metro- CHASSUS, LEPIDU's, Pompeius, and the other
polis, instead of remaining in the seclusion of a great characters of the day.
The old man was still alive at the
1. BIOGRAPHY OF CICERO.
birth of his eldest grandson (B. c. 106), whom he
little resembled in his tastes, for he was no friend M. Tullius Cicero was born on the 3rd of Jannary,
to foreign literature, and was wont to say, that his B. c. 106, according to the Roman calendar, at that
contemporaries were like Syrian slaves, the more epoch nearly three months in advance of the true
Greek 'they knew, the greater scoundrels they time, at the family residence in the vicinity of
were. (Cic. de Leg. ii. 1, iii. 16, de Orat. ii. 66. ) | Arpinum. No trustworthy anecdotes have been
2. M. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing, preserved with regard to his childhood, for little
and father of the orator. He was a member of the faith can be reposed in the gossiping stories col-
equestrian order, and lived upon his hereditary lected by Plutarch of the crowds who were wont
estate, in the neighbourhood of Arpinum, near the to flock to the school where he received the first
junction of the Fibrenus with the Liris, devoted to rudiments of knowledge, for the purpose of seeing
literary pursuits, till far advanced in life, when he and hearing the young prodigy ; but we cannot
removed to Rome for the purpose of educating his doubt that the aptitude for learning displayed by
two boys, Marcus and Quintus, and became the pro himself and his brother Quintus induced their fa-
prietor of a house in the Carinae. His reputation ther to remove to Rome, where he conducted their
as a man of learning procured for him the society elementary education according to the adrice of
and friendship of the most distinguished charac- L. Crassus, who pointed out both the subjects to
ters of the day, especially the orators M. Antonius which their attention ought chiefly to be devoted,
and L. Crassus, and the jurists Q. Scaevola and and also the teachers by whom the information
C. Aculeo, the latter of whom was his brother-in- sought might be best imparted. These instructors
law, being married to the sister of his wife Helvia. were, with the exception perhaps of Q. Aelius, the
Although naturally of a delicate constitution, by grammarian (Brut. 56), all Greeks, and among the
care and moderation he attained to a good old age, number was the renowned Archias of Antioch,
and died in the year B. c. 64, while his son, whose who had been living at Rome under the protection
rapid rise he had had the happiness of witnessing, of Lucullus ever since B. c. 102, and seems to have
was canrassing for the consulship with every pros- communicated a temporary enthusiasm for his own
pect of success. (De Leg. ii. 1, de Orat. ii. 1, de pursuits to his pupil, most of whose poetical at-
Off. iii. 19, ad Att. i. 6. )
tempts belong to his early youth. In his sixteenth
3. L. Tullius Cicero, brother of the foregoing. year (B. C. 91) Cicero received the manly gown,
He accompained M. Antonius the orator to Cilicia and entered the forum, where he listened with the
in B. c. 103 as a private friend, and remained with greatest avidity to the speakers at the bar and from
him in the province until his return the following the rostra, dedicating however a large portion of
year. He must have lived for a considerable time his time to reading, writing, and oratorical exer-
after this period, since he was in the habit of giving cises. At this period he was committed by his
his nephew many particulars with regard to the father to the care of the venerable Q. Mucius
pursuits of Antonius. (De Orat. ii. 1. )
Scaevola, the augur, whose side he scarcely crer
4. L. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing. quitted, acquiring from his lips that acquaintance
He was the constant companion and schoolfellow with the constitution of his country and the prin-
of the orator, travelled with him to Athens in B. c. ciples of jurisprudence, and those lessons of practical
79, and subsequently acted as his assistant in col- wisdom which proved of inestimable value in his
lecting evidence against Verres. On this occasion future career. During B. C. 89, in accordance with
the Syracusans paid him the compliment of voting the ancient practice not yet entirely obsolete which
him a public guest (hospes) of their city, and trans required every citizen to be a soldier, he served his
mitted to him a copy of the decree to this effect first and only campaign under Cn. Pompeius Strabo
engraved on a tablet of brass. Lucius died in B. c. (father of Pompeius Magnus), then enmiged in
68, much regretted by his cousin, who was deeply prosecuting with vigour the Social war, and was
atunched to him. (De Fin. v. I, c. Verr. iv. 11, present at the conference between his commander
61, 64. 65, ad Atl. i. 5. )
and P. Veitius Scato, general of the Marsi, by
## p. 709 (#729) ############################################
CICERO.
709
CICERO.
whom the Romans had been signally defeated, a | habitants of which in the recent troubles had been
few months before, and the consul P. Rutilius deprived of the rights of citizenship. But Cicero
Lupus slain.
denounced the act by which she and her fellow-citi-
For upwards of six years from the date of his brief zens had been stripped of their privileges as utterly
military career Cicero made no appearance as a public unconstitutional and therefore in itself null and
man. During the whole of the fierce struggle between void, and carried his point although opposed by the
Marius and Sulla he identified himself with neither eloquence and experience of Cotta.
It does not
party, but appears to have carefully kept aloof from appear probable, notwithstanding the assertion of
the scenes of strife and bloodshed by which he was Plutarch to the contrary, that Cicero experienced
surrounded, and to have given himself up with in- or dreaded any evil consequences from the dis-
defatigable perseverance to those studies which pleasure of Sulla, whose power was far too firmly
were essential to his success as a lawyer and ora- fixed to be shaken by the fiery harangues of a
tor, that being the only path open to distinction in young lawyer, although other circumstances com-
the absence of all taste or talent for martial achieve- pelled him for a while to abandon the field upon
ments. Accordingly, during the above period he which he had entered so auspiciously. He had
first imbibed a love for philosophy from the dis- now attained the age of twenty-seven, but his
courses of Phaedrus the Epicurean, whose lectures, constitution was far from being vigorous or his
however, he soon deserted for the more congenial health robust. Thin almost to emaciation, with a
doctrines instilled by Philo, the chief of the New long scraggy neck, his general appearance and
Academy, who with several men of learning had habit of body were such as to excite serious alarm
fled from Athens when Greece was invaded by the among his relations, especially since in addition to
troops of Mithridates. From Diodotus the Stoic, his close application to business, he was wont to
who lived and died in his house, he acquired a exert his voice, when pleading, to the uttermost
scientific knowledge of logic. The principles of without remission, and employed incessantly the
rhetoric were deeply impressed upon his mind by most violent action. Persuaded in some degree
Molo the Rhodian, whose reputation as a forensic by the earnest representations of friends and phy-
speaker was not inferior to his skill as a teacher; sicians, but influenced still more strongly by
while not a day passed in which he did not apply the conviction that there was great room for im-
the precepts inculcated by these various masters in provement in his style of composition and in his
declaiming with his friends and companions, some mode of delivery, both of which required to be
times in Latin, sometimes in Greek, but more fre softened and tempered, he determined to quit Italy
quently in the latter language. Nor did he omit for a season, and to visit the great fountains of arts
to practise composition, for he drew up the treatise and eloquence. Accordingly (B. c. 79) he repaired
commonly entitled De Inventione Rhetorica, wrote in the first instance to Athens, where he remained
his poem Marius, and translated Aratus together for six months, diligently revising and extending
with the Oeconomics of Xenophon.
value were added by Maria Theresa), and that of CHTHO'NIUS (XBovios) has the same meaning
St. Mark at Venice.
[G. E. L. C. ) as Chthonia, and is therefore applied to the gods of
CHRYSOʻSTOMUS, DION. [Dion. ] the lower world, or the shades (Hom. Il. ix. 457 ;
CHRYSOʻTHEMIS (Xpuoóbeuis). There are Hesiod. Op. 435; Orph. Ilymn. 17. 3, 69. 2, Ar-
four mythical females of this name (Hygin. Fab. gon. 973), and to beings that are considered as
170, Poet. Astr. ii. 25; Diod. v. 22; Hom. I. ix. earth-born. (Apollod. iii. 4. § 1; Apollon. Rhod.
287), and one male, a son of Carmanor, the priest iv. 1398. ) It is also used in the sense of “ gods
of Apollo at Tarrha in Crete. He is said to have of the land,” or “native divinities. " (Apollon.
been a poet, and to have won the first victory in Rhod. iv. 1322. ) There are also several mythical
the Pythian games by a hymn on Apollo. (Paus. personages of the name of Chthonius. (Apollod. ii.
x. 7. § 2. )
(L. S. ) 1. § 5, m. 4. SS 1, 5; Ov. Met. xii. 441; Diod.
CHRYSOʻTHEMIS (Xpuoboeuis) and EUTE- v. 53 ; Paus. ix. 5. § 1; Hygin. Fab. 178. ) (L. S. )
LIDAS (Eutenidas), statuaries of Argos, made in CHUMNUS, GEORGIUS, a native of Can-
bronze the statues of Damaretus and his son Theo- dace or Chandace, in the island of Crete, lived
pompus, who were each twice victorious in the most probably during the later period of the Greek
Olympic games. The victories of Demaretus were empire. He wrote a history in verse, beginning
in the 65th and 66th Olympiads, and the artists with the creation of the world and going down to
of course lived at the same time (B. C. 520 and on- the reign of David and Solomon, kings of Judaea,
wards). Pausanias describes one of the statues, which is extant in MS. in the imperial library at
and quotes the inscription, which contained the Vienna, and was formerly in the library of John
names of the artists, and which described them as Suzzo (Susius) at Constantinople. (Fabric. Bibl.
τέχναν ειδότες εκ προτέρων, which appears to Graec. xii. p. 43; Cave, Hist. Lit. vol. ji. D. p.
mean that, like the early artists in general, they 13. )
(W. P. )
each belonged to a family in which art was here CHUMNUS, MICHAEL, a Graeco-Roman
ditary. (x. 6. & 2. )
[P. S. ) jurist and canonist, who was nomophylax, and
CHRYSUS (Xpvoós), the fourteenth (or thir. afterwards metropolitan of Thessalonică. He is
teenth) of the family of the Asclepiadae, was the said by Pohl (ad Suares. Nolit. Basil. p. 138, n.
youngest son of Nebrus, the brother of Gnosidicus, [2. ]) to have lived in the 13th century, in the
and the father of Elaphus; and lived in the sixth time of Nicephorus Blemmydas, patriarch of Con-
century B. c. in the island of Cos. During the stantinople, and to have been the author of va-
Crissaean war, while the Amphyctions were be- rious works. He is cited by Mat. Blastares
sieging the town of Crissa in Phocis, the plague (Leunc. J. G. R. i. pp. 482, 487), and is known
broke out among their army. Having consulted by a short treatise on the degrees of relation-
the oracle of Delphi in consequence, they were ship (περί των βαλσαμών [qu. βαθμών της συγ-
directed to fetch from Cos“ the young of a stag, yevelas), inserted in the collection of Leuncla-
together with gold,” which was interpreted to vius (i. p. 519). By Suarez (who erroneously
mean Nebrus and Chrysus. They accordingly identifies Chumnus and Domnus), Chumnus is
persuaded them both to join the camp, where mentioned among the scholiasts upon the Basilica
Chrysus was the first person to mount the wall at (Notit. Basil. $ 42), but this seems to be an error.
the time of the general assault, but was at the (Böcking, Institutionen, Bonn, 1843, i. p. 108, n.
same time mortally wounded, B. C. 591.
48; Heimbach, de Basil. Orio. p. 87. ) (J. T. G. ]
buried in the hippodrome at Delphi, and worship- CHUMNUS, NICE’PHORUS, renowned as
ped by the inhabitants as a hero (évayišw). (Thes- a statesman, a philosopher, and a divine, lived in
sali Oratio, in Hippocr. Operu, vol. i. p. 836, the latter part of the 13th and in the beginning of
&c. )
(W. A. G. ) the 14th century. He was probably a native of
CHTHO’NIA (XBovia), may mean the subter- Constantinople, and belonged undoubtedly to one
raneous, or the goddess of the earth, that is, the of the first families in the Greek empire. Enjoy-
protectress of the fields, whence it is used as a ing the confidence and friendship of the emperor
surname of infernal divinities, such as Hecate Andronicus Palaeologus the elder, he was succes-
(Apollon. Rhod. iv. 148 ; Orph. Hymn. 35. 9), sively appointed praefect of the Canicleus, keeper
Nyx (Orph. Hymn. 2. 8), and Melinoë (Orph. I of the imperial scal-ring, and magnus stratope-
He was
## p. 707 (#727) ############################################
CHUMNUS.
707
CICERO.
the younger.
darchn, and his merits were so great, that as early and a great number of letters on various subjects,
as 1295 Andronicus asked the hand of his daugh- several of which seem to be of great interest for
ter, Irene, for one of his sons, John Palneologus, history, while others, as well as the works cited
to whom she was married in the same year. above, appear to be of considerable importance for
During the unfortunate civil contest between An- | the history of Greek civilization in the middle
dronicus the elder and his grandson, Andronicus ages. (Fabric. Bibl. Graec. vol. vii. pp. 675, 676;
the younger, Chumnus remained faithful to his Cave, Hist. Liter. vol. ii. p. 494, ad an. 1320 ;
imperial patron, and for some time defended the Nicephorus Gregoras, lib. vii. p. 168, ed. Paris ;
town of Thessalonica, of which he was praefect, Cantacuzenus, lib. i. p. 45, ed. Paris. ) (W. P. ]
against the troops of Andronicus the younger, C. CICEREIUS, the secretary (scriba) of the
whom he compelled to raise the siege. It seems elder Scipio Africanus, was a candidate for the
that Chumnus had more influence and did more for praetorship in B. c. 174 along with Scipio's son,
the support of Andronicns the elder, than any but when he saw that he was obtaining more votes
other of the ministers of this unfortunate emperor. than the latter, he resigned in his favour. (Val.
Towards the end of his life Chumnus took orders Max. iv. 5. $ 3, in. 5. & 2.
) Cicereius was, how-
and retired into a convent, where he lived under ever, elected practor in the following year (B. C.
the name of Nathanael, and occupied himself with 173), and he obtained the province of Sardinia,
literary pursuits. The time of his death has not but was ordered by the senate to go to Corsica
been ascertained, but we must presume that he first, in order to conduct the war against the in-
died after 1330, during the reign of Andronicus habitants of that island. After defeating the
Corsicans in battle, he granted them peace on the
Nicephorus Chumnus is the author of numerous payment of 200,000 pounds of wax, and then
works and treatises on philosophical, religious, passed over to Sardinia. On his return to Rome
ecclesiastical, rhetorical, and legal subjects, none of next year (B. c. 172) he sued for a triumph on ac-
which have ever been printed; they are extant in count of his victory in Corsica, and when this was
MS. in the principal libraries of Rome, Venice, refused by the senate, he celebrated on his own
and Paris. We give the titles of some of them as authority a triumph on the Alban mount, a practice
they stand in Latin in the catalogues of those li- which had now become not unfrequent. In the
braries : “ Confutatio Dogmatis de Processione same year he was one of the three ambassadors
Spiritus Sancti ;” “Sermo in Christi Transfigura- sent to the Illyrian king, Gentius; and in B. C.
tionem;" "Symbuleuticus de Justitia ad Thessalo-167 he was again despatched on the same mission.
nicenses, et Urbis Encomium ;" * Ex Imperatoris In the year before (B. C. 168) he dedicated on the
Decreto, ut Judices jurejurando obligentur, ad Alban mount the temple to Juno Moneta, which
Munus sancte obeundum ; " " Encomium ad Impe- he had rowed in his battle with the Corsicans five
(Andronicum II. ); “Querela adversus years before. (Liv. xli. 33, xlii. 1, 7, 21, 26
Niphonem ob male administratam Patriarchatus xlv. 17, 15. )
sui Provinciam ;" “ Oratio funebris in Theoleptum CI'CERO, the name of a family, little distin-
Metropolitam Philadelphiae ;" " Ad Imperatorem guished in history, belonging to the plebeian Clau-
de Obitu Despotae et Filii ejus," a letter to Andro- dia gens, the only member of which mentioned
nicus II. the elder, on the death of his son, the is C. Claudius Cicero, tribune of the plebs in B. C.
despot John, who had married Irene, the daughter 454. (Lir. ii. 31. ) The word seems to be con-
of Chumnus ; " De Charitate, erga Proximum, et nected with cicer, and may have been originally
omnia reliquenda ut Christum sequamur, &c. ;" applied by way of distinction to some individual
" De Mundi Natura ;” “ De Primis et Simplicibus celebrated for his skill in raising that kind of
Corporibus ;” “ Quod Terra quum in Medio sit, pulse, by whom the epithet would be transmitted
infra se nihil habeat ;" “ Quod neque Materia ante to his descendants. Thus the designation will
Corpora, neque Formae seorsim, sed haec ipsa be precisely analogous to Bulbus, Fabius, Lentulus,
simul constent;" “Contra Plotinum de Anima Piso, Tubero, and the like.
(W. R. ]
rationali Quaestiones variae, ubi de Metempsychosi, CI'CERO, the name of a family of the Tullii.
de Belluis, utrum Intellectu praeditae sint, nec ne, The Tullii Cicerones had from time immemorial
de Corporum Resurrectione, et aliis disseritur ;" been settled at Arpinum, which received the full
“ De Anima sensitiva et vegetiva ;" “Quod non franchise in B. c. 188; but they never aspired
impossibile sit, etiam secundum physices Rationes, to any political distinction until the stock was
collocatam esse Aquam in Firmamento, tum, quum raised by the great orator from that obscurity
Orbis Terrarum creatus sit, eamque ibi esse et into which it quickly relapsed after his death.
perpetuo manere,” &c. There are also extant | His genealogy, so far as it can be traced, is repre-
“Oratio in Laudem Imperaturis Andronici Senioris," sented in the following table.
1. M. Tullius Cicero. Married Gratidia.
1
ratorem
3
79
3. L. Tullius Cicero.
2. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married Helvia.
4. L. Tullius Cicero.
6. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Married Pomponia.
6. M. Tullius Cicero,
the orator.
Married. 1. Terentia.
2. Publilia.
2 2 2
## p. 708 (#728) ############################################
708
CICERO.
CICERO
a
8. Q. Tullius Cicero.
Tullia.
7. M. Tullius Cicero.
Married, 1. C. Piso Frugi.
2. Furius Crassipes.
3. P. Cornelius Dolabella.
country town.
Lentulus.
1. M. TULLIUS Cicero, grandfather of the 5. M. Tullius Cicero, the orator, eldest son of
orator, appears to have taken a lead in his own No. 2. In what follows we do not intend to enter
community, and vigorously opposed the projects of deeply into the complicated political transactions of
his fellow-townsman and brother-in-law, M. Grati- the era during which this great man flourished,
dius, who had raised a great commotion at Arpi- except in so far as he was directly and personally
num by agitating in favour of a law for voting by interested and concerned in the events.
The com-
ballot. The matter was referred to the consul plete history of that momentous crisis must be ob-
M. Aemilius Scaurus (B. c. 115), who complimented tained by comparing this article with the biogm-
Cicero on his conduct, declaring that he would phies of ANTONIUS, AUGUSTUS, BRUTUS, CAESAR,
gladly see a person of such spirit and integrity Catilina, Cato, Clodius Pulcher (CLAUDIUS),
exerting his powers on the great field of the metro- CHASSUS, LEPIDU's, Pompeius, and the other
polis, instead of remaining in the seclusion of a great characters of the day.
The old man was still alive at the
1. BIOGRAPHY OF CICERO.
birth of his eldest grandson (B. c. 106), whom he
little resembled in his tastes, for he was no friend M. Tullius Cicero was born on the 3rd of Jannary,
to foreign literature, and was wont to say, that his B. c. 106, according to the Roman calendar, at that
contemporaries were like Syrian slaves, the more epoch nearly three months in advance of the true
Greek 'they knew, the greater scoundrels they time, at the family residence in the vicinity of
were. (Cic. de Leg. ii. 1, iii. 16, de Orat. ii. 66. ) | Arpinum. No trustworthy anecdotes have been
2. M. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing, preserved with regard to his childhood, for little
and father of the orator. He was a member of the faith can be reposed in the gossiping stories col-
equestrian order, and lived upon his hereditary lected by Plutarch of the crowds who were wont
estate, in the neighbourhood of Arpinum, near the to flock to the school where he received the first
junction of the Fibrenus with the Liris, devoted to rudiments of knowledge, for the purpose of seeing
literary pursuits, till far advanced in life, when he and hearing the young prodigy ; but we cannot
removed to Rome for the purpose of educating his doubt that the aptitude for learning displayed by
two boys, Marcus and Quintus, and became the pro himself and his brother Quintus induced their fa-
prietor of a house in the Carinae. His reputation ther to remove to Rome, where he conducted their
as a man of learning procured for him the society elementary education according to the adrice of
and friendship of the most distinguished charac- L. Crassus, who pointed out both the subjects to
ters of the day, especially the orators M. Antonius which their attention ought chiefly to be devoted,
and L. Crassus, and the jurists Q. Scaevola and and also the teachers by whom the information
C. Aculeo, the latter of whom was his brother-in- sought might be best imparted. These instructors
law, being married to the sister of his wife Helvia. were, with the exception perhaps of Q. Aelius, the
Although naturally of a delicate constitution, by grammarian (Brut. 56), all Greeks, and among the
care and moderation he attained to a good old age, number was the renowned Archias of Antioch,
and died in the year B. c. 64, while his son, whose who had been living at Rome under the protection
rapid rise he had had the happiness of witnessing, of Lucullus ever since B. c. 102, and seems to have
was canrassing for the consulship with every pros- communicated a temporary enthusiasm for his own
pect of success. (De Leg. ii. 1, de Orat. ii. 1, de pursuits to his pupil, most of whose poetical at-
Off. iii. 19, ad Att. i. 6. )
tempts belong to his early youth. In his sixteenth
3. L. Tullius Cicero, brother of the foregoing. year (B. C. 91) Cicero received the manly gown,
He accompained M. Antonius the orator to Cilicia and entered the forum, where he listened with the
in B. c. 103 as a private friend, and remained with greatest avidity to the speakers at the bar and from
him in the province until his return the following the rostra, dedicating however a large portion of
year. He must have lived for a considerable time his time to reading, writing, and oratorical exer-
after this period, since he was in the habit of giving cises. At this period he was committed by his
his nephew many particulars with regard to the father to the care of the venerable Q. Mucius
pursuits of Antonius. (De Orat. ii. 1. )
Scaevola, the augur, whose side he scarcely crer
4. L. Tullius Cicero, son of the foregoing. quitted, acquiring from his lips that acquaintance
He was the constant companion and schoolfellow with the constitution of his country and the prin-
of the orator, travelled with him to Athens in B. c. ciples of jurisprudence, and those lessons of practical
79, and subsequently acted as his assistant in col- wisdom which proved of inestimable value in his
lecting evidence against Verres. On this occasion future career. During B. C. 89, in accordance with
the Syracusans paid him the compliment of voting the ancient practice not yet entirely obsolete which
him a public guest (hospes) of their city, and trans required every citizen to be a soldier, he served his
mitted to him a copy of the decree to this effect first and only campaign under Cn. Pompeius Strabo
engraved on a tablet of brass. Lucius died in B. c. (father of Pompeius Magnus), then enmiged in
68, much regretted by his cousin, who was deeply prosecuting with vigour the Social war, and was
atunched to him. (De Fin. v. I, c. Verr. iv. 11, present at the conference between his commander
61, 64. 65, ad Atl. i. 5. )
and P. Veitius Scato, general of the Marsi, by
## p. 709 (#729) ############################################
CICERO.
709
CICERO.
whom the Romans had been signally defeated, a | habitants of which in the recent troubles had been
few months before, and the consul P. Rutilius deprived of the rights of citizenship. But Cicero
Lupus slain.
denounced the act by which she and her fellow-citi-
For upwards of six years from the date of his brief zens had been stripped of their privileges as utterly
military career Cicero made no appearance as a public unconstitutional and therefore in itself null and
man. During the whole of the fierce struggle between void, and carried his point although opposed by the
Marius and Sulla he identified himself with neither eloquence and experience of Cotta.
It does not
party, but appears to have carefully kept aloof from appear probable, notwithstanding the assertion of
the scenes of strife and bloodshed by which he was Plutarch to the contrary, that Cicero experienced
surrounded, and to have given himself up with in- or dreaded any evil consequences from the dis-
defatigable perseverance to those studies which pleasure of Sulla, whose power was far too firmly
were essential to his success as a lawyer and ora- fixed to be shaken by the fiery harangues of a
tor, that being the only path open to distinction in young lawyer, although other circumstances com-
the absence of all taste or talent for martial achieve- pelled him for a while to abandon the field upon
ments. Accordingly, during the above period he which he had entered so auspiciously. He had
first imbibed a love for philosophy from the dis- now attained the age of twenty-seven, but his
courses of Phaedrus the Epicurean, whose lectures, constitution was far from being vigorous or his
however, he soon deserted for the more congenial health robust. Thin almost to emaciation, with a
doctrines instilled by Philo, the chief of the New long scraggy neck, his general appearance and
Academy, who with several men of learning had habit of body were such as to excite serious alarm
fled from Athens when Greece was invaded by the among his relations, especially since in addition to
troops of Mithridates. From Diodotus the Stoic, his close application to business, he was wont to
who lived and died in his house, he acquired a exert his voice, when pleading, to the uttermost
scientific knowledge of logic. The principles of without remission, and employed incessantly the
rhetoric were deeply impressed upon his mind by most violent action. Persuaded in some degree
Molo the Rhodian, whose reputation as a forensic by the earnest representations of friends and phy-
speaker was not inferior to his skill as a teacher; sicians, but influenced still more strongly by
while not a day passed in which he did not apply the conviction that there was great room for im-
the precepts inculcated by these various masters in provement in his style of composition and in his
declaiming with his friends and companions, some mode of delivery, both of which required to be
times in Latin, sometimes in Greek, but more fre softened and tempered, he determined to quit Italy
quently in the latter language. Nor did he omit for a season, and to visit the great fountains of arts
to practise composition, for he drew up the treatise and eloquence. Accordingly (B. c. 79) he repaired
commonly entitled De Inventione Rhetorica, wrote in the first instance to Athens, where he remained
his poem Marius, and translated Aratus together for six months, diligently revising and extending
with the Oeconomics of Xenophon.
