No More Learning

According to the wish expressed by Alexander on his death-bed, a
Council of Regency was appointed to govern the Empire. At the head
of it was the Patriarch Nicholas, with one man of great weight, but
only one, to second or counter his efforts, John Eladas. Returning as he
did in triumph, the Patriarch, naturally enough, had only one idea, to
maintain his own judgment as to the unlawfulness of Leo's fourth marriage.
He consented, however, to wait for the death of Euthymius, which occurred
on 5 April 917, before publishing his Tomus Unionis. Meanwhile, other
events took place. His first care was to drive out Zoë, who on Alex-
ander's death had returned to the palace, and his next was to open
negotiations with all those ambitious men who were already in fancy as-
suming the crown, such as Constantine Ducas, Lecapenus,and Leo Phocas.
The threatening aspect of foreign affairs gave these aspirants an oppor-
tunity of thrusting their services upon the State. One of them, Con-
stantine Ducas, had narrowly failed of success. But he died just as he
was about to assault the palace. The domestic situation was thus very
serious, and anarchy reigned. Happily John Eladas was there to supply
a remedy. Taking advantage of the unpopularity incurred by the Regents,
especially through the bloody revenge which they exacted for the abortive
attempt of Ducas, he skilfully contrived, with the help of one of the
members of the council, to exclude the Patriarch and to recall Zoë
(October 913). All the partisans of Alexander were now in their turn
disgraced and banished. Nicholas received orders to confine himself
henceforward to his ecclesiastical administration.
The Empire was, in fact, divided into two camps. Two hostile parties


## p. 61 (#103) #############################################

Romanus I Lecapenus
61
confronted each other in the army, the court, and the city. Both were
military, and each was struggling to put its own leader at the head of
affairs; one was for Phocas and the other for Romanus Lecapenus. Zoë
had embraced the interests of Phocas, but among her entourage a certain
Theodore, the influential tutor of Constantine, was negotiating with
Romanus Lecapenus. It was the latter who prevailed. Thanks to the
favour and skilful exertions of Theodore, Romanus obtained a footing in
the palace, married his daughter Helena to Constantine, filled all the offices
with his partisans, and himself assumed the title of Basileopator. Leo
Phocas, indeed, tried the chances of a revolt. It was in vain. Being
promptly abandoned by his fellow-conspirators, he was taken prisoner
and suffered mutilation.
was
Romanus I Lecapenus (919–944).
In this manner Romanus on 25 March 919 made himself sole Regent
of the Empire. He was merely a poor soldier of the Armeniac theme, a
plebeian', as Basil had been. Leo VI had become attached to him and
had thrown open the path to honours to his favourite. When the
Emperor died Lecapenus was Drungarius of the fleet. He did not allow
himself to be hampered by gratitude. As soon as he was left master of
the situation by the exile of his opponent Phocas, he shewed himself as
he really was, a hardy upstart and insatiably ambitious but a capital
administrator.
He promptly seized upon the supreme power and shewed every inten-
tion of keeping it. Zoë found herself relegated to her convent, Theodore
exiled, and Constantine VII abandoned. Romanus' friend, the
Patriarch Nicholas, regained his influence and governed under the name
of the Regent. As early as September 919 Lecapenus had himself crowned
Caesar, then on 17 December Emperor. Thenceforward his position
Seemed to him secure. He had, indeed, made himself master of the
throne and was soon to become master of the Church.
It was with this object and in the hope of founding a new dynasty to
own advantage, that in 921, imitating the course taken by Basil, he
had his wife Theodora crowned Empress and his eldest son Christopher
Emperor. Feeling his power daily increasing despite the conspiracies
incessantly woven around him, in 923 he set the imperial crown on
the head of his daughter-in-law, and in 924 crowned his other two sons,
Stephen and Constantine. From 922, besides, the coinage and official
documents shew that he already took precedence of the rightful sovereign.
In political matters Romanus was unquestioned master, and it
1 “The Lord Emperor Romanus was a man without breeding or education, who
had not been brought up in the Palace, was ignorant of Roman law and custom, was
not of noble and imperial birth, and was all the more rash and audacious in his
actions. ” He is thus described by Constantine VII.
his
CH. II.


## p. 62 (#104) #############################################

62
Lecapenus' policy
must be acknowledged that his government was not wanting in
greatness. Shrewd and clever, he received in magnificent fashion in
923 Ashot II, King of Armenia, Adernesih, the Curopalates of Iberia
(at this time a vassal of the Empire), and the princes of the family of
Taron. We find him (as well as the Patriarch Nicholas) keeping up
continuous relations with most of the rulers of these distant lands, re-
ceiving them hospitably, giving them help against the Arabs, and above
all making treaties with them through his diplomatists, greatly to the
advantage of Byzantium, which thus acquired considerable influence in
their countries. On another frontier of the Empire, the Bulgarians, during
the Tsar Simeon's reign, had caused him much anxiety and serious injury.
All his diplomatic skill had been useless before the arms of the Tsar. But
on Simeon's death more amicable relations were resumed with his son
Peter, and Romanus, imitating earlier Emperors, bestowed his grand-
daughter Mary in marriage upon the young king on 8 September 927, and
signed a peace with Bulgaria. In this manner he very adroitly detached
the Bulgarian Church from the Papacy and bound it to Constantinople,
which, both in ecclesiastical and political matters, was obtaining an evident
preponderance.
In home politics, Romanus' attention, like that of his predecessors,
was drawn to social problems. The provincial aristocracy were nothing
short of a scourge. By their wealth and their grinding of the poor the
“powerful” ruined the peasantry and the government with them. Again
it became imperative to retrace the steps that had been taken. This was
the object of the numerous Novels which the government of Lecapenus
put forth. In 922 and 934 two laws were enacted forbidding the rich to
acquire land belonging to the poor or to the military class. Those
who were injured in this way received a preferential right of re-
purchase for their protection. Two other Novels allowed the seller a
right of re-entry, on repayment, in case of a sale forced by famine, and
pronounced a sale null and void if effected to the prejudice of the right
of re-purchase. All these Novels had as their object the protection of
the small holdings, the basis of general prosperity. No doubt the occasion
that called them forth was the suffering caused by the terrible winter of
933, when famine brought about the ruin and death of large numbers of
the population.
In the domain of religion, the influence of the Patriarch Nicholas
Mysticus remained predominant up to his death on 15 May 925. His
correspondence shews him busying himself with political and foreign
affairs. He is in touch with Simeon, Tsar of Bulgaria, and with the Pope
at Rome. Nor is it strange that he should have sought to impose his
opinion on the vexed question of fourth marriages. In June 920 a
Council met at Constantinople to deal with the subject, and it was on
this occasion that he published the Tópos rñs évárews, the decree of
union which condemned fourth and cast blame on third marriages.


## p. 63 (#105) #############################################

End of the house of Lecapenus
63
יל
Nevertheless, something had been gained. The Council had restored
harmony among all Byzantines.
The authority of Romanus, so long as Nicholas lived, was exercised
mainly upon political matters. Religious concerns were felt to be in safe
hands. But, on the death of the Patriarch, the Emperor, carrying on the
system of Basil I, wished to put the government of the Church in the hands
of his youngest son, Theophylact. Unfortunately, though already syncellus
(patriarchal secretary), Theophylact was only a child of eight or ten years
old. It was necessary to wait. Two Patriarchs appointed ad interim,
Stephen and Tryphon, filled the post until 931. In 933, after a vacancy of
eighteen months, Theophylact was at last elected and John XI ratified
the choice. The new Patriarch, to the great scandal of Constantinople,
was to remain in office up to his death on 27 February 956. It was during
this wretched patriarchate, in 942, that the famous "Image of Edessa
was brought to Constantinople. It was a linen cloth on which, it was
said, our Lord had left the trace of His features, and which He had sent
to Abgar as a token of friendship. Curcuas, the general, had acquired it
in exchange for a prisoner and had sent it to Constantinople, where it was
received with great solemnity.
This acquisition of a famous relic was the last triumph of Lecapenus.
In spite of the charity which he shewed towards the inhabitants of
his capital during the famine of 927 and the severe winter of 933, in
spite of the substantial sums which he distributed to the poor, the hos-
pitals which he erected, and the public works of all kinds which he
undertook, Romanus was not in the least beloved at Constantinople.
Constantine VII still had supporters and friends. He was both pitied
and respected. “He who should have been first found himself made
fifth,” and this excited great displeasure. Deprived of everything, of
Power and of the appearance of power, it was said that he was even
obliged to work as an artist in order to maintain himself. On the other
hand, Romanus Lecapenus had implacable enemies, even in his own sons,
who were jealous of his authority and eager to seize upon it for them-
Selves. Perhaps these domestic broils were fomented by the influence of
Constantine's friends; possibly it was these faithful servants of the real
Emperor who counselled the “Lecapenides” to rebel. No one knows.
Only one thing is certain, that, after the death of Christopher, the sons of
Romanus on 16 December 944 carried off their father, banished him to
a convent in the Island of Proti, and forced him to take the monastic
habit. They counted upon succeeding to his place. But they only met
with the just punishment of their guilt. At the very hour when they
Were to have dethroned Constantine, the Emperor had them seized and
despatched them to join their father on 27 January 945. Romanus Leca-
Penus died, a few years after his fall, in 948.
CH. III.


## p. 64 (#106) #############################################

64
Constantine VII and his entourage
Constantine's Personal Government (944-959).
The family of Romanus Lecapenus before long survived only in the
female line. Stephen was deported to Rhodes and Lesbos, where he was
poisoned in 963; Constantine was relegated to Samothrace and assas-
sinated by his guard; while of the other Lecapenides whose fate is known,
Romanus, Michael, and Basil only suffered mutilation, and thus survived
to reappear later in political life. Alone of his family, the despised
Theophylact remained at Constantinople.
The first steps taken by Constantine naturally began a reaction. He
dismissed the relations, friends, and partisans of Romanus Lecapenus, and
surrounded himself with members of the rival faction of Phocas, which,
thanks to Constantine's patronage, we shall soon find in possession of the
imperial throne. This violent reaction did not fail of the usual result, in
the shape of numerous conspiracies. Both in 945 and in 947 the supporters
of Romanus made a move. But it was in vain, and cruel punishments and
mutilations followed. Constantine, who thus at the age of thirty-nine
took the reins of government into his own hands, was much more of a
student than a man of action. Though usually of a mild and even timid
disposition, he was subject to terrible fits of anger, when he became violent
and even cruel. For the rest, although an accomplished judge of wine and
cookery, he was evidently not the man destined to restore the Empire's
former glories. The government at once fell into the hands of his wife
Helena, and a favourite, Basil, known as the Bird (TTETELvós). Apparently
neither of them accomplished anything of importance, and they confined
themselves to selling public offices to the highest bidders. Scandals took
place which the Emperor, buried as he was in his books, had not the resolu-
tion to punish and put down. Such, for example, was the conduct of that
Prefect of the City who was “a notorious robber" but nevertheless ad-
ministered the police of Constantinople, loaded with favours conferred by
the Emperor.
It must, however, be acknowledged that Constantine's family circle
was a singular one. His wife, the Empress Helena, was by no means
above reproach, but she compares favourably with others of his con-
nexions. In 939 a son had been born to him, Romanus II, who from
his early days gave promise of utter worthlessness, in spite of the affection
which his father shewed for him and the care which he bestowed or: his
education. In the reign of Lecapenus, in 944, the Regent had arranged
a marriage for him with Bertha, the illegitimate daughter of Hugh of
Provence and Pezola. This unequal connexion was an insult to the
Macedonian House, but worse was in store. The poor Provençale lived
only five years at Constantinople, and is said to have died a virgin.
But after her death not merely disparity but shame and crime entered
the palace in the person of Romanus' second wife, a courtesan, the


## p. 65 (#107) #############################################

Religious affairs
65
daughter of a tavern-keeper, whom he married at the end of 956.
She had been known as Anastaso at the Hippodrome; as Empress she
took the name of Theophano. According to the majority of the
chroniclers, she was the Brinvilliers of her age. Before practising as a
poisoner herself, she induced her husband to poison Constantine VII, and
with partial success, for the Emperor died, if not immediately, still in
the end from the effects of the drug administered to him. This was but
her first step in the path of crime, as was tragically shewn in the suc-
ceeding reigns. As to the rest of the court dignitaries whose names have
come down to us, they were little more to be respected. The only sound
portion of the governing body was to be found in the army.
The Church, as represented by the Patriarch Theophylact, kept pace
with the court. Doubtless among the occupants of monasteries and
bishoprics it would not be difficult to find shining examples of holy living.
But the patriarchate was given up to disorder, license, and impiety. So
great was the scandal caused by Theophylact's conduct that the Emperor,
who tolerated it, was involved in the discredit. Consequently, when the
Patriarch was killed by a fall from his horse in February 956, Constantine
was compelled, in order to repair the mischief that had been done, to
seek out an austere monk of Proti whose fame was widespread, named
Polyeuctes. The new Patriarch was a reformer, and fully resolved to
impose on all alike a discipline which had become a necessity. In his
solitary life he had acquired great spiritual exaltation and a resolute will;
he was, in the full sense of the word, a man of faith. At first he was
joyfully received on all hands. The Emperor fully expected that this
poor monk, bred at a distance from worldly intrigues, could be held in
the hollow of his hand; pious folk looked forward to the reforms which
the Patriarch desired to carry out; and the court bishops promised them-
selves that they could always bring about Polyeuctes' resignation should
he prove disposed to interfere too much with their habits. This seemed
all the more feasible, inasmuch as Polyeuctes' consecration had not been
performed according to the customary rules. He was, in fact, consecrated
on 3 April 956 by Basil, Metropolitan of Caesarea. This was quite con-
trary to precedent, for according to law the right belonged to Nicephorus,
Bishop of Heraclea; but as the latter was in bad odour at court, his services
were refused by Constantine, who deliberately set him aside. Nothing
more was needed, it was supposed, to quash the appointment of Polyeuctes
and send him back to his convent. And in fact, from the very outset of
his patriarchate, cabals were formed against him, of which Theodore,
Bishop of Cyzicus, was the moving spirit. His rigour was at once made
a reproach to him, as also was his narrowness of view and his action in
restoring the name of the Patriarch Euthymius, formerly struck out of
the diptychs by Nicholas. Efforts were made to ruin him. But Polyeuctes
was not the man to yield. Far from cringing before his adversaries, he
attacked the Emperor himself, and on one occasion openly demanded
C. MED. H. VOL. IV. CH. III.
5


## p. 66 (#108) #############################################

66
Administration
that he should make good all the injuries inflicted on the Church by his
family and by the preceding patriarchate. To put forward such a claim
was to make a public declaration of his independence. Constantine so
well understood this that he was preparing to have the election of
Polyeuctes quashed when he died.
From the administrative and political point of view the personal govern-
ment of Constantine Porphyrogenitus is undeniably of small importance.
Some of the chroniclers even represent the Emperor as an idler and a
do-nothing. But this is a grotesque exaggeration. On the other hand, we
cannot place entire confidence in the flatterers who depict Constantine as
an administrator ever on the alert to lessen the evils afflicting his people,
to give orders to his provincial governors, to keep himself well informed
of all that was happening, to give brilliant receptions to ambassadors,
and to keep in touch with the rulers of East and West. It is never-
theless certain that Constantine endeavoured on the one hand to do the
work of an administrator, and on the other shewed himself throughout
his life by his intellectual activity and his numerous writings not to be
the indolent trifler of the chronicler Cedrenus. In the first place, we
have nine Novels of his to prove that he too paid attention to the
juridical and social questions which had caused such constant anxiety to
his predecessors. Like them, he forbids the wealthy nobles to acquire
lands belonging to the poor or the military class; like them, he legislates
on certain points of civil law, such as wills, inheritance, the salaries
payable to notaries, the right of sanctuary, and so forth. But he did
more than this. Towards the end of his reign he issued an alphabetical
abridgment of the Basilics intended to be of service to lawyers. Finally,
during the time of his personal government he granted a chrysobull in
favour of the monastery of St John the Baptist at Thessalonica, and
another to the convent of the Iberians on Mount Athos.
Apart from these beneficent laws, Constantine, who piqued himself
on his knowledge of the rules of etiquette, and was fond of holding
himself up as an example to the splendid and stately court which sur-
rounded him, seems to have taken special pleasure in the reception and
despatch of great numbers of ambassadors. In 945 and 949 we find him
sending diplomatic missions to Otto I in Germany; in May and in August
946 he received the ambassadors of the Caliph and the Emir of Amida
with great magnificence; in October it was the turn of the ambassadors
from Spain; in 948 that of Liudprand, Berengar's envoy; and finally in
957 he gave a brilliant welcome to the Russian Princess Olga and the
splendid cortège which accompanied her, including both men and women.
All the indications point to this visit to Constantinople as the time when
the baptism of Olga took place?
But the true glory of Constantine VII is the share which he had in
the intellectual movement of his day. Like Bardas under Michael III, he
? See, however, infra, Chapter vil(a), p. 207, for another view.


## p. 67 (#109) #############################################

Intellectual movement
67
made great efforts to revive education, which, outside Constantinople,
was hardly to be obtained; he appointed to the university chairs savants
of reputation, historians, writers, philosophers, men of science, juris-
consults; like Basil I he gave a new impetus to all the arts, architecture,
painting, sculpture, and music; while, more than any of his predecessors,
he interested himself in students, receiving them, helping them, and
when their studies were finished promoting them to great civil and
ecclesiastical posts. He himself helped forward this general literary re-
naissance by working at painting, music, and the industrial arts, as also
by publishing, especially for his
son's use, several works, some of which
are lost, though others have come down to us. About 934 or 935 he
wrote the Book of the Themes or provinces of the Empire; in 952 or 953
he published the Book of the Administration of the Empire, and com-
posed the first eighty-three chapters of the Book of Court Ceremonies
which bears his name; finally in 958 or 959 he gave to the public the
Life of Basil. Thus it is not strange that under his government literary
and artistic production should have been abundant. Thanks to him,
numberless religious and secular buildings were erected, restored, and
embellished; such works as the Continuation of Theophanes, the Discourse
upon the Image of Edessa, and other compositions of literary and religious
importance were begun and finished, so that it is in fact almost solely to
the learned labours of an Emperor, so often decried, that we owe such
knowledge as we possess of the period in which he lived and reigned.
Either in the summer or in the autumn of 959, Constantine, feeling
himself near to death, went, in search of some measure of physical and
mental repose, to the slopes of Mount Olympus in Bithynia, then cele-
brated for the medicinal waters of Sotiriopolis, and for its monasteries and
hermits. He was to find there nothing but gloomy presages of his speedy
end. He returned to Constantinople only to die, expiring on 9 November
959 at the age of fifty-four.
ROMANUS II (959-963).
The new ruler, Romanus II, was twenty years old when his father
died, probably as the result of the poison which he and his wife ad-
ministered to him. Despite his youth and his bodily and mental advan-
tages, despite his excellent education, Romanus II was to make but a
transitory appearance as Emperor, and to leave a most unworthy reputation
behind him. At his accession he was surrounded by his mother Helena,
his wife Theophano, his five sisters, and his son Basil II. He had been
crowned and had received a share of the imperial power, in accordance
with the Basilian tradition, in 945, and he now at once took possession
of the government, or rather handed it over to his wife Theophano. We
have already seen who this wife was. The daughter of Craterus, a poor
CH. III.
542


## p. 68 (#110) #############################################

68
Romanus II
tavern-keeper of Laconian origin, she owed the unhoped-for honour of
ascending the throne solely to her beauty and her vices. While her husband
eagerly pursued, surrounded by unworthy companions, the life of debau-
chery and dissipation which was destined to lead him to an early grave,
she for her part took upon herself the task of government with the help
of a noble eunuch, Joseph Bringas, whom Constantine on his death-bed
had recommended to Romanus.
This reign would be utterly insignificant were it not lighted up by
the eventful military triumphs of Nicephorus Phocas and his brother.
Indeed, within the imperial circle things immediately began to take a
mischievous turn: Helena and her daughters, by order of Theophano and
with the consent of Romanus II, were forced to quit the palace for a
convent. Helena, it is true, obtained leave to remain in the palace, where
she died on 19 September 961, but her daughters, Zoë, Theodora,
Theophano, Anne, and Agatha were sent first to the convent of Canicleum,
and soon after to separate houses. It was probably the harsh treatment
dealt out to Constantine's family which, in March 961, brought about the
conspiracy, formed, with the help of other lords, by that Basil the Bird
who had been the favourite, perhaps the lover, of Helena in the preceding
reign. Knowing that Romanus was about to visit the Hippodrome, Basil
resolved on his assassination, but being informed against by a converted
Saracen named Johannicius, he was seized, tortured, and finally died insane
in Proconnesus.
Though dying young, Romanus was to leave a large family to the
Empire. In addition to Basil II, he had a second son by Theophano in
961, the future Constantine VIII whom the Patriarch Polyeuctes crowned
in April the same year.
He had, besides, two daughters, of whom one,
Theophano, born perhaps as early as 956, became the wife of Otto II of
Germany, and the other, Anne, was married to Vladímir of Russia. The
two sons of Romanus II were to reign in Constantinople between
Tzimisces and the daughters of Constantine VII.
Historians and chroniclers record no event of importance in the
internal administration of the Empire during the years from 959 to 963.
The government under Romanus gave its whole attention to events beyond
the frontiers. And in this field it unquestionably acted with judgment
and ability. Immediately upon the death of Constantine, Theophano and
Bringas shewed themselves desirous of maintaining or creating advan-
tageous relations with the rulers of the East and the West. They sent
ambassadors to every court. Then on 22 April 960 they had the little
Basil II crowned. But it was above all by planning the campaign of
Nicephorus against the Saracens that they gave proof of political dis-
cernment. They felt the need of making an end once for all with these
enemies, who were ever increasing in aggressiveness, and in Nicephorus
Phocas they had a man great enough to engage these perennial foes at an
advantage. In spite of unending court intrigues, the government in July


## p. 69 (#111) #############################################

Foreign affairs
69
960 laid upon this general, though he was suspected by many, the task
of attacking the Arabs of Crete, supported him energetically, supplied
him with reinforcements, and thus prepared the way for the great victory
which Nicephorus won on 7 March 961 resulting in the conquest of
Chandax (now Candia) in Crete. Accordingly when the general returned
to Constantinople he received in the Circus the honour of a pedestrian
ovation, a foretaste of the triumphs which later were to be his. Both
concentration on foreign affairs and skilful diplomacy were displayed by
Theophano's government on the morrow of Nicephorus' victory. He
returned covered with glory and accompanied by the defeated emir,
‘Abd-al-“Azīz. This chief was well treated and splendidly lodged, and
Constantinople had no reason to regret her generosity, for his son, having
become a Christian, won renown in 972 in the Byzantine army.
It appears that, during the short time that he remained at the head
of affairs, Bringas also paid attention to the material interests of the
population. In October 961 there was a great dearth, and corn was at
an extravagant price. He brought into the capital ship-loads of corn and
barley, which, despite his reputation for avarice, he sold at half-price.
Then came a check. The Byzantine armies were winning brilliant
successes in Asia, due entirely to the two Phocas brothers, when Nice-
phorus suddenly learned that Romanus had died at the palace on
15 March 963. Though the end was sudden it was not unforeseen, for
the Emperor's health had been declining all the winter. Theophano was
nevertheless accused of having rid herself of her husband by poison in
order to marry Nicephorus. The crime was never proved, but the sequel
was just what had been prophesied. With Romanus II the glory of the
Macedonian House and the intellectual renaissance which it had initiated
departed for a time. Government by women and successful soldiers was
about to begin.
NICEPHORUS PHocas (963-969).
At the moment when Romanus II was gathered to his fathers in the
church of the Holy Apostles, leaving the Empire in the hands of
Theophano, Bringas, and two crowned children, the already illustrious
name of Phocas had, in the course of four years from 960 to 963, reached
the highest pitch of glory. This was owing to the achievements of Leo
and even more of Nicephorus, who was at that time the chief personage
of the Empire. The Phocas family, which originated in Cappadocia, was
indeed well known to fame. It was, with the families of Curcuas and
Tzimisces, among the noblest in Asia Minor. In the days of Basil I, a
Nicephorus Phocas, grandfather of the future Emperor, had won renown
by his warlike exploits in Italy and Sicily, and since then all of the family,
from father to son, had been soldiers, and successful soldiers. The uncle
and father of Nicephorus had been specially distinguished by their
CU. III.


## p. 70 (#112) #############################################

70
Early career of Nicephorus Phocas
valour—the former, Leo, by his share in the war with the Bulgarians,
and the latter, Bardas, by his victories in Asia Minor. The man who now,
by his marriage with Theophano, was about to ascend the throne of
Constantinople had, with his brother Leo, followed the glorious path
marked out for him. Magister, and generalissimo of the armies of the
East, under Constantine VII, he had long warred successfully in Asia
Minor, and had since covered himself with glory by the siege of Chandax.
He was born probably about 913, and was thus nearly fifty when the death
of Romanus II took place. At this period, monk and soldier were united
in him. Having lost his wife and his only son a little before 963, he had
often thought of going to join his friend St Athanasius, the founder of
the Great Laura, on Mount Athos. It was through his interest and his
gifts that the first convent on the “Holy Mountain" had been built, and
a cell there had long awaited him. A man of iron temper, mystical to
the highest degree, and yet none the less a man of passions, he had de-
voted himself to his army and his men, and at the same time to prayer and
the severest mortifications. He was reported to be unbendingly stern,
uncompromisingly just, and rigidly pious, but he was also considered
miserly. In spite of his failings, his shining qualities won for him general
love and deep respect, above all in the camp. On the other hand he was
dreaded by many, and especially by Bringas, on account of his military
fame and the brilliant campaign with which his name was inseparably
joined. After the conquest of Crete, he had, however, returned to Asia
Minor and to his brother, conquering Cilicia between 961 and 963. He
had then flung himself upon Syria, and had just taken Aleppo when the
news of the death of Romanus forced him to pause.
Theophano (16 March–14 August 963).
At Constantinople the death of Romanus had created a most difficult
situation. Theophano, at twenty years of age, naturally desired to retain
power and to act as Regent, as she was authorised to do by her husband's
last dispositions. But Bringas had to be reckoned with, and his projects,
it would appear, tended in quite another direction. He, with his partisans,
counted upon seizing sole power at the first favourable moment and
governing the Empire. Thus, though he had supported Nicephorus at
the time of the Cretan expedition, yet out of dread of his popularity and
perhaps also from other motives he had made haste to send him back to
Asia Minor. This, however, had not prevented Nicephorus, doubtless
without Bringas' knowledge, from being kept informed by the Empress
herself of all that went on. It was, indeed, of importance to Theophano,
if she was to make herself safe in all contingencies, to be able to make
use of Nicephorus, before whom she had held out the hope of supreme
power and even of something more. As the general was on his way
through Constantinople she had, with great skill, contrived to plant in


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The regency of Theophano
71
the austere soldier's heart the germs of a passion which she intended to
turn to account, and which was to drive from his mind any pious
aspirations after the monastic life and permanently to deflect the current
of his existence. It was this, probably, which had so greatly excited the
alarm of Bringas.
Nevertheless, for the moment, the expressed wishes of Romanus were
respected. The Patriarch Polyeuctes proclaimed Theophano Regent,
with Bringas as her minister. Immediately afterwards, however, Theophano
secretly called back Nicephorus, who reached Constantinople as early as
April. Officially he came to receive the reward of his conquests, a
military triumph and the confirmation of his authority. In reality he
came to measure himself against the head of the government. So well did
Bringas understand this that he at once attempted to rid himself of his
formidable adversary. He proposed that he should be forbidden to enter
Constantinople, that a triumph should be refused him, and even that his
eyes should be put out. All these attempts failed before the universal
popularity of Nicephorus, probably helped by the intrigues of Theophano.
The people welcomed Nicephorus with all possible honour and mag-
nificence. But on the morrow of this ceremonial reception, which so
greatly increased his prestige, being alone and without his army, he felt
himself in danger and took refuge in St Sophia. There he obtained
from the Patriarch and his clergy the protection of which he stood in
need. Thanks to his reputation for piety, his valuable connexion with
the monks, his services, and the animosities which divided the three most
powerful forces in Constantinople— Theophano, Bringas, and Polyeuctes-
Nicephorus found a steadfast supporter in the Patriarch. In spite of
Bringas, and thanks to Polyeuctes, the Senate fully confirmed the
authority of Nicephorus, and promised that nothing should be done
without his being consulted. Nicephorus, in return, swore to engage in
no design injurious to the rights of the young princes. The Patriarch's
eloquence had saved Nicephorus, who, as soon as Easter was over, lost no
time in returning to Asia Minor at the head of his army. Bringas had
been outwitted. The Patriarch had no suspicion of what his own future
would be under Nicephorus.
The chief minister, however, did not acknowledge himself defeated.
At any cost, whether Nicephorus were present or absent, he sought his
life. For this he manoeuvred, but clumsily enough. Through a con-
fidential agent he made splendid offers to two of Nicephorus' generals,
Curcuas and Tzimisces, if they would betray their chief to him. They,
however, far from lending an ear to such proposals, revealed the intrigue
to Nicephorus, and in order to cut matters short, prevailed on him
without difficulty to hasten the realisation of his plans, to assume the
crown, and to march upon Constantinople. Accordingly on 3 July 963
the army, instigated by the two generals, proclaimed Nicephorus Emperor
at Caesarea. The next day, the troops set out to accompany him to St
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72
Usurpation of Nicephorus Phocas
Sophia and there to have him crowned. As soon as the news was known
at Constantinople the mutterings of revolt began. Bringas tried to make
head against it, and to organise the defence. His partisans were numerous,
even among the troops in the capital, and he had valuable hostages in
his hands in the persons of the father and brother of Nicephorus. The
new sovereign reached Chrysopolis on 9 August and there awaited events.
After three days of furious revolution had dyed the streets of Constanti-
nople with blood, the supporters of Bringas were defeated. Nicephorus’
father was saved by Polyeuctes, and on 14 August 963, under the aegis
of Basil, the illegitimate son of Romanus Lecapenus and a bitter enemy
of Bringas, Nicephorus entered Constantinople. On 16 August he was
crowned in St Sophia, declaring himself the guardian of the imperial
children.
Government of Nicephorus.
The revolution to which Nicephorus had just put the finishing touch
was the culmination of hypocrisy, for everyone knew, by the recent
example of Romanus Lecapenus, the real meaning of the title of guardian,
or joint sovereign, in connexion with Emperors who were still minors.
Whatever fictions might adorn official documents, it was Nicephorus who
became Emperor, and sole Emperor. The monks, his former friends, were
scandalised. St Athanasius, quite in vain, reminded the Emperor of his
former vocation for the religious life. And it soon appeared that still more
ruthless disillusionments were in store. Apart from this, the action of
Nicephorus was, politically speaking, of great gravity. Once again he
severed the dynastic chain. And this time the breach in the succession was
made not merely in his own name and for his personal benefit, or out of
family ambition, but in the name and with the support of the army,
which was now to re-learn the lesson of thrusting its weighty sword into
the scale in which the internal destinies of the Empire were balanced. It
is true that for all this Nicephorus paid a heavy penalty, and it is no less
true that the course he took was to have the most disastrous influence on
the fortunes of Constantinople.
At the very outset, as soon as he was master of the palace and
the city, Nicephorus hastened to deal out titles and rewards to those who
had aided him. His father was declared Caesar, his brother Leo magister
and curopalates, while in the East John Tzimisces succeeded to the post,
rank, and honours which Nicephorus had held. Basil received the title
and appointment of Proedros or President of the Senate. As to Bringas,
he was of course dismissed, and was detained at a distance from Con-
stantinople in a monastery, where he died in 971. These arrangements
made, Nicephorus turned his thoughts towards a marriage with Theophano,
both from personal and from political considerations. The matter, how-
ever, was not quite so simple as at first it looked. Both the Church and


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His marriage with Theophano
73
lay society might have something to say on the subject. It was probably
in order to gain time to reconcile the public mind to the idea, as well as
to observe the proprieties, that Nicephorus, acting in accord with the
Empress, sent her away to the palace of Petrion on the Golden Horn
until the day fixed for the wedding. It took place on 20 September, six
months almost to a day after the death of Romanus. As might have
been expected, it aroused great displeasure among the clergy. St Atha-
nasius was much incensed against his old friend, and Polyeuctes,
finding himself tricked, steadily refused communion to Nicephorus for a
whole year. For, on the one hand, there was to the monks, of whom the
Patriarch was one, something distinctly scandalous in the spectacle of
this man of fifty marrying a woman in the twenties; this austere general,
ascetic almost to a fault, who had vowed to end his days as a celibate in
a monastery, now, having by the help of the Church attained to supreme
power, suddenly uniting himself to Theophano, one of the most ill-famed
and vicious of women, utterly repulsive in the eyes of the religious world.
On the other hand, the newly-wedded couple, having both been widowed,
could not, without doing penance, enter upon a second marriage. The
determined refusal of Polyeuctes was, however, very offensive both to
Nicephorus and Theophano. We are told that Nicephorus never forgave
the Patriarch. This Polyeuctes was soon to learn, and not only he but
the whole body of the clergy was to suffer in consequence.
The ecclesiastical struggle, thus inauspiciously begun on the marriage-
day of Nicephorus, ended only with his death. If the chroniclers are
to be trusted, it was further envenomed by the rumours set afloat
by a court chaplain named Stylianus. He claimed, indeed, that the
Emperor's marriage with Theophano was unlawful and void, because
Nicephorus had stood godfather to one, if not two, of the Empress'
children. The canons were absolutely conclusive against such unions,
which were forbidden by "spiritual affinity. ” It is not very easy to
determine how much foundation there was for the statement. It is
certainly strange if Polyeuctes were ignorant of a circumstance so serious
and notorious, and if Nicephorus and Theophano on their side took no
notice of this ecclesiastical impediment. Was the allegation of Stylianus
made before or after the marriage ceremony? Even on this point the
chroniclers give us no answer. However this may be, one thing is plain,
that Polyeuctes was roused, and he demanded of Nicephorus under the
heaviest canonical penalties the repudiation of Theophano. Naturally the
Emperor refused, and at once gathered together an assembly, half
ecclesiastical and half lay, to discuss the question. This miniature council,
composed of court bishops and officials devoted to the royal family, made
no difficulty about coming to the decision which Nicephorus would be
likely to desire. The regulation on which Polyeuctes relied was, it was
decided, invalid, although its meaning was unmistakable, because it had
been put forth in the name of a heretical Emperor, Constantine
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74
Nicephorus' hostility to the monks
Copronymus. Further, to bolster up this rather pitiful decision, Stylianus
came forward to declare solemnly that Nicephorus had never been
godfather to any one of the imperial children, and that he himself had
never spoken the incriminating words. It is not known whether Polyeuctes
was convinced, but it is probable, for, averse from compromise as he was,
he yet admitted the Emperor to the Holy Communion. But what after
all do these stories amount to? Nothing can be positively known. It is
plain that they fit in badly with what knowledge we have of the manners
of the age and the characters of its chief personages. It would appear
that, if the struggle had been as heated and as much founded in reason
on the part of the Patriarch as is represented, the latter would not
then have hesitated to maintain his condemnation and Nicephorus would
probably have deposed him. If both consented to an apparent reconcilia-
tion, we must believe that the chroniclers either exaggerated, or what is
more likely, misunderstood the nature of the dispute. It is not impossible
that at bottom the whole affair was merely a quarrel got up by the
monks, who were indignant at the conduct of Nicephorus and at his
marriage.
This explanation of these events is supported by the fact that
at once, in 964, Nicephorus, as though to take his revenge, published
a Novel as strange as it was revolutionary against the monks. He,
who had once so greatly loved the religious, turned suddenly to scoffing
at and sitting in judgment on his old friends. “The monks,” he says,
“possess none of the evangelical virtues; they think only of acquiring
worldly goods, of building, and of enriching themselves. Their life differs
in nothing from that of the thorough worldling. ” They were ordered to
leave the cities and go forth into the wilderness, abandoning all their
lands and goods. It was no doubt to help them along this path that he
forbade (though he had himself given large sums to St Athanasius when
he founded his convent on Mount Athos) that new monasteries should
be established or others enriched by new donations, or that lands, fields,
or villas should be left by will to convents, hospitals, or clergy.
This celebrated Novel had, it would seem, a double object. It
gave Nicephorus the means of avenging himself upon the monks for the
humiliations they had lately inflicted on him, and it enabled him also to
find the necessary supplies which he wanted to carry on the war. "The
revenues were intended indeed,” he said, “ to be distributed to the poor,
but in reality they profited none but the clergy, and this while the
soldiers, who were going forth to fight and die for God and the Emperor,
lacked even necessaries. ” The fact was that Nicephorus wished as Em-
peror to prosecute the expeditions which he had begun as a private
subject. From 964 to 966 the Empire resounded with the clash of arms.
While his generals were fighting the African Arabs in Sicily and Cyprus,
Nicephorus himself twice went forth to encounter the Asiatic Saracens
in Cilicia, Mesopotamia, and Syria. For these distant wars he needed
ור


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Ecclesiastical and military legislation
75
large sums of money, and it was the property of the clergy, which as long
as he lived he never spared, that supplied him with funds.
This doubled-edged policy was made clear and obvious during the
winter of 966-967, immediately upon the Emperor's return to Constan-
tinople. Thanks to the court bishops, in residence at the capital and
thus in the Emperor's power, he embodied in an edict a measure in the
highest degree injurious to the Church. For the future it was declared
unlawful to nominate any subject to a bishopric without the Emperor's
consent. In this way Nicephorus made sure of having bishops entirely
at his devotion, and at the same time he could seize upon the Church
revenues, whether during the vacancy of a see or after an appointment
had been made. There are many examples to prove this. It is not
known what attitude the clergy took up on this matter. In no quarter
do we hear of revolts or of coercive measures, but doubtless such a policy
must have powerfully furthered the rise of the popular movement which
thrust Nicephorus from power. In any case, the first demand of Poly-
euctes on the accession of Tzimisces was to be for the abrogation of these
anti-clerical measures.
The last fact which the chroniclers record in connexion with ecclesi-
astical matters in this reign, is the strange idea conceived by the Emperor
of constraining the Church to venerate as martyrs those who had fallen
in the warfare against the infidel. Naturally, nobody was found willing
to comply with this eccentric demand, and Nicephorus was compelled to
abandon a project opposed by Polyeuctes and the whole of the clergy.
Putting aside this perennial quarrel with the churchmen, which
itself had a military aim, Nicephorus seems during his short reign
to have had little attention to spare for anything but his soldiers and
the army. It was this, indeed, which before long predisposed the popu-
lace towards that movement of revolt which was to bring about his
speedy ruin. Quite early in the reign, after the example of his predeces-
sors, Nicephorus revived the laws favouring the small military holdings
and protecting them against the vexatious and extortionate purchase of
them by the great. He granted his soldiers the widest facilities for
regaining possession of their lands when they had been sold or stolen,
and this evidently with a view to retaining their services in the army.
Then, legislating in accordance with his own experience, he issued a
Novel dealing with the Armenian fundi, that is, the fiefs belonging to
those Armenian soldiers, mercenaries in the service of the Empire, who
had obtained military lands in return for their services but did not always
fulfil the obligations which their tenure imposed upon them. In 967 and
at another date not exactly known, Nicephorus issued two more Novels
touching landed property, and especially the property of the rich. The
Emperor required that each man should keep what he possessed, or at
least should acquire lands only from those set apart for his caste. A
noble might only possess noble fiefs; a commoner only commoners' fiefs ;
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76
General discontent
a soldier only military allotments. This was plainly to protect and
strengthen the very framework of Byzantine society. Unfortunately
these laws, the character of which was further emphasised by countless
instances, were too exclusively military in their scope. The exaggerated
importance attached to the army was shewn in every possible way, and
ended by irritating and exciting the public mind. About 966 and 967
the mutterings of revolt began to be heard on every side.
If the many excesses of the army, and the marks of exclusive favour
which Nicephorus lavished on it, were the chief causes of the Byzantine
revolution which swept away the Emperor, they were not the only ones.
The anti-clerical policy of Nicephorus had already alienated numbers
of his subjects. His military policy fostered the spread of this dis-
affection. But, above all, his fiscal measures provoked general discontent.
In consequence of the wars of the Empire, more and more money was
constantly being required by the government. Taxes increased at a pro-
digious rate, while in other directions retrenchments were made in habitual
expenditure, which estranged all classes, nobles and commoners. As if all
this had been insufficient, exceptional measures were now taken. Not
only did the tax-gatherers receive strict orders; to exact the taxes, but,
more serious still, the Emperor himself trafficked in corn, wine, and oil, of
which commodities the government had a monopoly, thus causing such a
rise in the cost of living that riots began to break out in almost every
direction. On Ascension Day (9 May 967), as Nicephorus was returning
from his devotions, he was stopped by crowds of people and insulted in
the heart of Constantinople, stones and tiles being thrown at him. He
would certainly have perished, but that his faithful bodyguard covered
his hasty retreat to the palace. This insurrection had no other effect than
to make Nicephorus aware of his danger. It did not avail to change his
line of policy. For his own defence, without reckoning with his recent
fresh expenditure, he had a strong high wall built to surround the Great
Palace completely, and within its circuit, close to the sea, he erected the
fortress of Bucoleon where he was to meet his death.
Like the earlier years of Nicephorus, his last two were entirely given
up to war on all sides. There were wars in Bulgaria and Italy, and in
Syria, where Antioch and Aleppo were taken. Among home events, two
only are worth recording. One was the arrival at Constantinople in 967
of the Bulgarian ambassadors, claiming the tribute which the Empire
had been accustomed to pay to the Tsar. Nicephorus, who was on the
watch for a pretext to declare war against his neighbour, received the
ambassadors roughly, insulted them before the whole court, and drove
them ignominiously away. Soon afterwards, he set out at the head of
his troops for Bulgaria.