No More Learning

179
The Mamlūks conquer Armenia. The Lusignans
180
Failure and exile of Leo VI.
181
Armenia under Muslim rule .
182
CHAPTER VII.
(A)
THE EMPIRE AND ITS NORTHERN NEIGHBOURS.
By Dr CHARLES KADLEC, Professor of Slavonic Law at
the Charles University of Prague.
Scythians and Sarmatians
Alans, Goths, and Huns
Bulgars, Avars, and Turks
The Avars in Europe
Chazars and Turks
183
184
185
186
187
.


## p. xxi (#27) #############################################

Contents
xxi
.
.
Growing power of the Chazars
Relations with the Empire . .
Chazar institutions
Religious tolerance
The Burdas
The White Bulgars
The Magyars
Admixture of races
Magyar customs
Patzinaks and Magyars .
The Magyars migrate to Hungary
Russia. The “Varangian" theory
The Eastern Slavs
Trade Routes
The vólosti
Settlement of the Varangians
Oleg and Igor of Kiev
Trade and tribute .
Beginnings of Christianity in Kiev
Reign of Svyatoslav
Vladímir the Great
Russia accepts Christianity
The Magyars in Hungary
The Magyar raids
The Magyars become a settled people
Christianisation of Hungary
St Stephen.
PAGE
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
.
.
(B)
CONVERSION OF THE SLAVS.
By Dr V. JAGIĆ, Member of the Jugoslav Academy of Science and
Art at Agram, Emeritus Professor of Slavonic Philology at
the University of Vienna.
Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius
215
Sources for their history
216
Constantine's youth at Constantinople
217
His disputations.
218
Relations with Photius: mission to the Chazars
219
Discovery of the relics of St Clement
220
The invitation to Moravia
221
The invention of the Slavonic alphabet .
222
Constantine and Methodius in Moravia.
223
Their journey to Rome .
224
Cyril's death: his literary achievements
225
Methodius in Pannonia .
226
His imprisonment and return to Moravia
227
His victory at Rome
228
Opposition of Svatopluk: death of Methodius
229
C. MED. H. VOL. IV.


## p. xxii (#28) ############################################

xxii
Contents
CHAPTER VIIJ.
THE RISE AND FALL OF THE FIRST BULGARIAN EMPIRE
(679—1018).
By WILLIAM MILLER, M. A. , Hertford College, Oxford, Hon.
LL. D. of the National University of Greece.
PAGE
Bulgarian settlement in Europe
230
Early Greco-Bulgarian Wars
231
Krum
232
Omurtag
234
First Serbo-Bulgarian War
235
Conversion of the Bulgarians
236
Simeon's love of learning
237
A Bulgarian Tsar and Patriarch
238
The Bogomile heresy
239
Fall of Eastern Bulgaria
240
Samuel and Basil II
241
Fall of Western Bulgaria
242
Bulgaria a Byzantine province
243
Bulgarian rising of 1040
244
Further risings
245
.
CHAPTER IX.
THE GREEK CHURCH: ITS RELATIONS WITH THE WEST
UP TO 1054.
By Louis BRÉHIER, Professor of History at the University of
Clermont-Ferrand.
.
The Greek Church and Rome
Ignatius and Photius
Conflict between Photius and Nicholas I
The schism of Photius
Deposition of Photius
Ecumenical Council (869—870)
Re-instatement of Photius
His disgrace and death .
Contemporary judgments on him
Restoration of communion with Rome (898)
Leo VI and Nicholas Mysticus
Concord of the two Churches
Lessened prestige of Rome
Independence of the Greek Church
Strained relations with Rome
Eustathius and the. autocephalia
The party of reform in the West
246
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263


## p. xxiii (#29) ###########################################

Contents
xxiii
The two Churches up to 1054
Michael Cerularius
The Eastern Empire, Leo IX, and the Normans
Michael Cerularius and Rome
Correspondence between the Pope and the Patriarch
The Roman legates at Constantinople (1054)
Excommunication of Michael Cerularius
The Synodal Edict of 1054
Definitive rupture (20 July 1054)
The results of the Schism
PAGE
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
CHAPTER X.
(A)
MUSLIM CIVILISATION DURING THE ABBASID PERIOD.
By Sir THOMAS W. ARNOLD, C. I. E. , Litt. D. , Hon. Fellow of
Magdalene College, Cambridge, Professor of Arabic at the
University of London.
The Abbasid Empire
Character of the Abbasid dynasty
Decline of the Abbasid Caliphate
Ascendancy of the Buwaihids
The Seljūq Empire
The Mongol conguests
Muslim political theory
Theory of the Caliphate
Organisation of administrative machinery
The postal system.
Censorship of morals: judiciary: army.
The Turkish guard
Slavery:
Toleration
Religious persecution
Position of Christians
Literature under the Abbasids
Exegesis: law
Dogmatic systems.
Mysticism. Historical literature
Belles lettres
The encyclopaedists and geographers
Philosophy
Medicine
Mathematics and Astronomy.
commerce
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
62


## p. xxiv (#30) ############################################

xxiv
Contents
(B)
THE SELJŪQS.
By HERBERT M. J. LOEWE, M. A. , Queens' College, Cambridge.
Importance of the Seljüqs
Decay of the Caliphate.
The Shi'ites.
Islám saved by the Seljüqs
The dynasty of Seljūq .
ľughril Beg
The Vizier Nizam-al-Mulk
-
Alp Arslan
Malik Shah
Intrigues of the Turkān Khātūn
Barkiyāruq: civil wars.
Muḥammad .
Sanjar, the last Great Seljūq.
Revolts of Atsiz of Khwārazm
The Ghuzz: death of Sanjar .
The Atābegs and local Seljūq dynasties
The Seljūqs of Rūm
Coming of the Crusaders
End of the Seljūq power
PAGE
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
CHAPTER XI.
THE EARLIER COMNENI.
By the late FERDINAND CHALANDON, Archiviste Paléographe.
First appearance of the Comneni
End of the Macedonian dynasty
Revolt of Isaac Comnenus
Fall of Michael VI
The reign of Isaac Comnenus
Michael Cerularius
Constantine Ducas
Situation of the Empire
Anna Dalassena
Accession of Alexius Comnenus
Alexius and the Ducas family
War with the Normans of Italy
The Patzinaks and Cumans
The Empire and the Turks in Asia Minor
Unpopularity of Alexius
The First Crusade
Alexius Comnenus and the crusaders
The first crusaders at Constantinople
Hugh of Vermandois. Godfrey of Bouillon
Bohemond and Alexius Comnenus
Siege of Antioch.
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
ib.
336
337
338
339


## p. xxv (#31) #############################################

Contents
XXV
Alexius and the crusaders of 1101
Bohemond Prince of Antioch
Bohemond's expedition against the Byzantine Empire
Peace with Bohemond
Alexius and the Turks
Alexius and the Papacy
Intrigues of Anna Comnena
The Byzantine army and navy
Financial administration
Alexius and the Church
Estimate of Alexius
PAGE
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
CHAPTER XII.
THE LATER COMNENI.
By the late FERDINAND CHALANDON.
John Comnenus
Expedition against the Turks
The Venetians
The Hungarians
The Serbs
John Comnenus in Asia Minor
Italian affairs
John in Syria and Cilicia
John and the Western Empire
John and the Principality of Antioch
Accession of Manuel Comnenus
His character
His administration
Turkish attacks
The Second Crusade
Conrad III and Louis VII
Manuel and Roger II
The Greeks in Italy
Manuel and Alexander III
Manuel, Venice, and Barbarossa
Manuel and Hungary
Manuel and Serbia
The Latin East
Manuel's marriage with Mary of Antioch
Amaury of Jerusalem
Wars with the Turks
Battle of Myriocephalum
Death of Manuel .
Alexius II
Andronicus I
His coup d'état
His administration
His death
351
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
.
The Angeli
ib.


## p. xxvi (#32) ############################################

xxvi
Contents
CHAPTER XIII.
.
VENICE.
By HORATIO F. Brown, Hon. LL. D. , New College, Oxford.
PAGE
Earlier history of Venice
385
Lombard invasion. The Tribuni
386
Growth of the community
387
The first Doge
388
Relations with the Lombards
389
Relations with Byzantium
390
The Franks
391
Olivolo. Charles the Great
392
Fortunatus of Grado
393
Pepin of Italy's attack
394
Rialto, the City of Venice
395
Commerce
396
Constitution. Dynastic tendencies
397
The pactum of Pavia
398
Secular versus ecclesiastical power
399
Pacta and praecepta
400
The Candiani
401
The Emperor Otto I
402
Peter Orseolo I
403
Peter Orseolo II
404
Relations with East and West
405
Duux Dalmatiae
406
New Venice.
407
The Normans
408
The First Crusade
409
The Levant
411
The Emperor Manuel
412
The Constitution
413
The Peace of Venice
414
CHAPTER XIV.
THE FOURTH CRUSADE AND THE LATIN EMPIRE.
By Professor CHARLES DIEHL.
The beginning of the Crusade
The Crusaders and Venice
The diversion of the Crusade to Constantinople
Arrival at Constantinople
Breach with the Byzantine Government
Sack of Constantinople .
Partition of the Empire
Assises of Romania
Weakness of the Latin Empire
Defeat and death of the Emperor Baldwin I.
Accession of Henry of Flanders: his early successes
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425


## p. xxvii (#33) ###########################################

Contents
xxyii
His internal government
Decline of the Empire after Henry's death
Wars with Greeks and Bulgarians
Reign of Baldwin II
Gradual advance of the Greeks
End of the Latin Empire
PAGE
426
427
428
429
430
431
CHAPTER XV.
GREECE AND THE AEGEAN UNDER FRANK AND
VENETIAN DOMINATION (1204–1571).
.
By WILLIAM MILLER, M. A.
Partition of the Greek lands in Europe.
Conquest of Athens and the Morea
Corfù and Crete
Euboea and the Archipelago .
The Despotat of Epirus.
Organisation of Achaia .
The Latin Church.
Prosperity of Achaia
Guy I of Athens
Battle of Karýdi
Battle of Pelagonía
The Ladies' Parliament.
The Angevins and Greece
Career of Licario
Nicholas II de St Omer.
The Theban Court
Philip of Taranto .
Walter of Brienne. The Catalans.
Battle of the Cephisus .
Catalan organisation of Athens
The Infant Ferdinand of Majorca .
The Duchy of Neopatras
Rise of the Acciajuoli
The Serbians in Northern Greece
The Navarrese Company
Florentine capture of Athens
Nerio Acciajuoli
Condition of Athens
Greek revival in the Morea
Turkish capture of Joánnina.
Constantine Palaeologus in Greece
Mahomet II in the Morea
Turkish capture of Athens
The Gattilusi of Lesbos .
The dynasty of Tocco
The Duchy of the Archipelago
Turkish capture of Naxos and Chios
History of Cyprus
432
133
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469


## p. xxviii (#34) ##########################################

xxviii
Contents
The Genoese in Cyprus.
Cyprus becomes a Venetian colony
Loss of the last Venetian colonies.
Frankish society
Frankish culture
Tables of Rulers
PAGE
470
471
472
473
474
ib.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE EMPIRE OF NICAEA AND THE RECOVERY
OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
.
By WILLIAM MILLER, M. A.
Theodore Lascaris.
Description of Nicaea
Partition of Asia Minor.
The Franks in Asia Minor
Theodore I proclaimed Emperor
Second Frankisb Invasion
Defeat and death of Kai-Khusrū I
Third Frankish Invasion
Theodore's death. His character
John III Vatatzes succeeds
Conspiracies against him
Greco-Bulgarian alliance
Triple League against Vatatzes
First attack on Salonica
Reconquest of Macedonia from the Bulgarians
Annexation of Salonica .
Recovery of Rhodes. Defeat of Michael II
Second marriage of Vatatzes .
Career of Constance of Hohenstaufen
Futile attempts at Union with Rome
Ecclesiastical policy. Material prosperity
Literature
Death and canonisation of Vatatzes
Theodore II Lascaris: his education and writings
His Bulgarian campaigns
Early career of Michael Palaeologus
War in Epirus
The Union of the Churches. Domestic policy
Illness and death of Theodore
Regency and murder of Muzalon
Michael VIII Palaeologus crowned Emperor .
First attack on Constantinople
Diplomatic manœuvres of Palaeologus
Treaty of Nymphaeum.
Capture of Constantinople
Nicaea merges in Byzantium.
History of Trebizond
Vitality of Hellenism
Table of Rulers
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
516
ib.


## p. xxix (#35) ############################################

Contents
xxix
CHAPTER XVII,
THE BALKAN STATES.
I. THE ZENITA OF BULGARIA AND SERBIA (1186—1355).
By WILLIAM MILLER, M. A.
1
C
The foundation of the Serbian monarchy
The Bogomile heresy
Second Bulgarian Empire
Kalojan's success
Stephen the "First-crowned
Zenith of Bulgaria
John Asên II
Decline of Bulgaria
Constantine Asên .
History of Bosnia .
Stephen Uroš I
Ivailo the Swineherd
The Dowager-Empress Maria
The Tartars in Bulgaria
Peaceful development of Serbia
Stephen Uroš II
His Greek marriage
Serbia and the Papacy
Policy of Stephen Uroš II
Stephen Dečanski and his court
Condition of Serbia
Battle of Velbužd, 1330
Accession of Stephen Dušan .
Foundation of Wallachia and Moldavia .
Dušan and Cantacuzene
Dušan crowned Emperor, 1346
Serbo-Greek treaty of 1350
First Turkish settlement in Europe
Dušan invades Bosnia
His death, 1355
Dušan's Code
His ecclesiastical policy.
Contemporary Slav culture
Character of Dušan's Empire
Its lack of unity
PAGE
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE BALKAN STATES.
II. THE TURKISH CONQUEST (1355—1483).
By WILLIAM MILLER, M. A.
Break-up of the Serbian Empire
Vukašin's usurpation
Battle on the Maritza, 1371
Hegemony of Bosnia
The Turkish advance
552
554
555
556
557


## p. xxx (#36) #############################################

XXX
Contents
.
Battle of Kossovo, 1389
Zenith of Tvrtko I
End of the Bulgarian Empire
Battle of Nicopolis, 1396
Battle of Angora, 1402 .
Reign of Stephen Lazarević
Venice in Albania .
The Bosnian King-maker
Civil war in Bosnia
Mirčea " the Great” of Wallachia
Condition of Moldavia and Serbia .
Branković at Semendria
The loss of the last Serbian ports
John Hunyadi
Battle of Varna,
1444
Third Battle of Kossovo, 1448
The “Duchy of St Sava”
Policy of Mahomet li
Siege of Belgrade, 1456
Death of George Branković, 1456 .
End of medieval Serbia.
Coronation of Stephen Tomašević.
Turkish conquest of Bosnia, 1463 .
Hungarian banats of Jajce and Srebrenik
Turkish conquest of the Herzegovina
Venice in Albania .
Career of Skanderbeg
Turkish conquest of Albania .
History of Montenegro .
End of the “Black Princes”
The Danubian Principalities .
Jealousies of the Powers
Tables of Rulers
PAGE
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
.
CHAPTER XIX.
ATTEMPTS AT REUNION OF THE GREEK AND LATIN
CHURCHES.
By Professor Louis BRÉHIER.
Hindrances to the Union
The different points of view
Last attempts at alliance against the Normans
Union and the danger from the Turks .
Union and the First Crusade .
The Papacy and the Germanic Empire
Manuel Comnenus and the Union.
Failure of Manuel's policy
Rupture between Byzantium and the West
The Fourth Crusade
The compulsory Union
Innocent III and the Greek Church
594
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
.


## p. xxxi (#37) ############################################

Contents
xxxi
.
Fall of the Latin Empire
John Vatatzes and attempts at union
Policy of Michael Palaeologus
Schemes of Charles of Anjou .
Gregory X and Michael Palaeologus
Union at the Council of Lyons
Breach of the Union
Policy of Andronicus II
Clement VI and the Union
John VI Cantacuzene
John V Palaeologus
Manuel Palaeologus in the West
The Battle of Angora, 1402
The Greeks and the Council of Basle
The Council at Ferrara, 1438
The Council at Florence, 1439
The Union of Florence .
Byzantine opposition to the Union
Fall of Constantinople.
Conclusion
PAGE
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
.
CHAPTER XX.
THE MONGOLS.
By HERBERT M. J. LOEWE, M. A.
Character of Mongol history.
Extent of the Mongol invasions
Unification of Asia
Mongol and Tartar
Other tribes in the Mongol Confederation
Jenghiz Khan
Conquest of Turkestan and Khwārazm
Empire of Jenghiz Khan
Conquest of Northern China .
Advance westward
Invasion of Europe
The recall of Bātu saves Europe
The Papacy and the Mongols
Ogdai and Kuyuk
Downfall of the Assassins
The fall of the Caliphate of Baghdad
Defeat of the Mongols by the Mamlūks, 1260
Hūlāgū and the Īl-khāns
Mangu
The reign of Kublai
Change in the Mongols.
Fall of the Mongols in China
The western Mongols: Tīmūr
Conquest of India: defeat of the Ottomans
The Golden Horde
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
612
643
644
645
646
618
619
650
651
652
.


## p. xxxii (#38) ###########################################

xxxii
Contents
CHAPTER XXI.
THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
By the late Sir Edwin PEARS, LL. B. London, President of the
European Bar at Constantinople.
PAGE
Infiltration of Turkish nomads into Asia Minor
653
Ertughril
655
Accession of Osman
656
The Catalan Grand Company
657
First entry of Turks into Europe, 1308 .
658
Progress of Osman
659
Capture of Brūsa
660
Capture of Nicaea .
661
Capture of Nicomedia
662
Orkhān styled Sultan
663
The Janissaries
ib.
Organisation of the army
664
Orkhān in alliance with Cantacuzene
665
Venetian versus Genoese influence.
666
The Ottomans in Europe
667
Murad I
668
European policy of the Ottomans
669
Defeat of the Serbs on the Maritza, 1371
670
Subservience of the Empire to Murad
671
Battle of Kossovo, 1389
672
Causes of Murād's success
673
Bāyazid the Thunderbolt
674
Western crusade against the Turks
675
Victory of Bāyazid at Nicopolis, 1396
676
Boucicaut at Constantinople .
677
The appearance of Tīmūr
679
His capture of Aleppo and Baghdad
680
Battle of Angora, 1402 .
682
Tīmūr's conquests in Asia Minor
683
Deaths of Timūr and Bāyazīd
684
Civil war among the Ottomans
685
Mahomet I
687
Character of his reign
688
Murad II
ib.
Increasing numbers of the Ottomans
689
European conquests of Murād
690
Crusade of Vladislav and Hunyadi
Murad's victories at Varna and Kossovo
692
Accession of Mahomet II
693
Preparations for the siege of Constantinople
694
Western assistance for the Emperor
695
The besieging force
696
The defences of Constantinople
697
The dispositions of the besieged
698
Defeat of Mahomet's fleet
699
The Turkish fleet in the Golden Horn
700
O
691


## p. xxxiii (#39) ##########################################

Contents
xxxiii
Preparations for a general assault .
Commencement of the assault, 29 May 1453 .
The Janissaries force the stockade.
Capture of Constantinople
Character of Mahomet II
PAGE
701.
702
703
704
705
CHAPTER XXII.
BYZANTINE LEGISLATION FROM THE DEATH
OF JUSTINIAN (565) TO 1453.
By Paul COLLINET, Professor of Roman Law at the
University of Paris.
Periods of legislation
Commentaries on Justinian's work
Novels of Justin II, Tiberius, and Heraclius .
The Ecloga
.
The Military, Maritime, and Rural Codes
Canon law of the sixth century
Legislation of Basil I
Legislation of Leo VI: the Basilics
T'he Novels of Leo VI
Novels from 911 to 1045
Legal education under Leo VI
Legal treatises based on the Ecloga and Basilics
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
ib.
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
The Ilcipa
Canonical collections
The law school of Constantinople (1045)
Novels from 1045 to 1453
Monographs of the eleventh century
Later legal works :
Later canonical collections
The Syntagma of Matthew Blastares
The diffusion of Byzantine legislation
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE
BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
By Professor CHARLES DIEHL.
The Basileus.
Limitations of imperial authority
The twofold hierarchy of rank and office
The ministers
Institution of the themes
The themes in the tenth century
Officials of the themes.
Importance of the bureaucracy
Hellenisation of the Empire .
Assistance of the Church
726
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
The army
The feet
741


## p. xxxiv (#40) ###########################################

xxxiv
Contents
CHAPTER XXIV.
BYZANTINE CIVILISATION.
By Professor CHARLES DIEHL.
.
.
Splendour of Constantinople.
Twofold aspect of Byzantine civilisation
Constantinople's extent and walls .
Its plan in the tenth century
The population of Coustantinople.
Religion
St Sophia
The power of Monasticism
The Sacred Palace
Imperial ceremonial
Court life: intrigues
Part played by women
Luxury of society.
The Hippodrome and the factions
The populace
Bazaars and gilds
Commerce
Culture
The University of Constantinople .
History.
Theology
Poetry :
Art
The provinces
The towns
The countryside
Power of the great nobles
The Byzantine character
Oriental, Greek, and Christian influences
Virtues and defects of the Byzantines
The inheritance of Europe from Byzantium
Byzantium and the Renaissance
PAGE
745
746
747
748
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
ib.
770
ib.
771
772
773
774
775
776
777


## p. xxxv (#41) ############################################

XXXV
LIST OF MAPS
VOLUME IV.
(See separate portfolio. )
38. The Break-up of the Caliphate.
39. Asia Minor, shewing the Themes of the Tenth Century, and
Armenia.
40. Northern neighbours of the Empire in the Tenth Century.
41. Bulgaria and the Balkans in the Tenth Century.
42. The Empire of the Comneni about 1130.
43. The Latin States in the East in 1214.
44. The Empires of the Palaeologi and Stephen Dušan.
45. The Turkish Sultanate in 1481.
46. The Mongol Empire about 1250.
47(a). The City of Constantinople.
47(b). The environs of Constantinople.


## p. xxxvi (#42) ###########################################



## p. 1 (#43) ###############################################

CHAPTER I.
LEO III AND THE ISAURIAN DYNASTY
(717-802).
The history of the Byzantine Empire under the rule of the Isaurian
dynasty is one of the periods in the prolonged evolution of the monarchy
least
easy of comprehension. The work of the sovereigns usually called
the Iconoclast Emperors has been, in fact, recorded for us practically
only by opponents or victims, and their impassioned reports have obviously
no claim to be considered strictly impartial. On the other hand, the
writings defending and justifying the policy of the Emperors have nearly
all disappeared in the fierce reaction which followed the defeat of the
Iconoclasts
, and we are thus but imperfectly acquainted with the real
objects which the Isaurian Emperors set before themselves. Further, the
true aspect of their rule has been completely obscured and distorted by
the hatred and prejudice excited against them. The nature of their
religious policy has been, and still is, frequently misconceived. In truth,
the controversy as to images was only a part of the great work of political,
social, and economic reconstruction undertaken by Leo III and Constan-
tine V on the emergence of the Empire from the serious dangers which
it had passed through in the seventh century. It would thus be a mis-
understanding of the meaning and scope of this religious strife to consider
apart from the vast aggregate of which it merely forms a portion, just
as it would be a wrong estimate of the Isaurian Emperors to find in them
mere sectaries and heretics. The striking testimony rendered them by
very detractors at the Council of 787 should not be forgotten by
any who undertake to relate their history. While severely condemning
the religious policy of a Leo III or a Constantine V, the bishops as-
sembled at Nicaea recall “ their great deeds, the victories gained over
enemies, the subjugation of barbarous nations," and further, “ the solici-
tude they showed for their subjects, the wise measures they took, the
constitutions they promulgated, their civil institutions, and the improve-
ments effected by them in the cities. ” “Such," the Fathers in Council add,
“is the true title of the dead Emperors to fame, that which secures to
them the gratitude of all their subjects. ”
1 Mansi, Concilia, xiii, 355,
it
their
C. MED. H. VOL. IV, CH, I,
1


## p. 2 (#44) ###############################################

2
Repulse of the Arabs from Constantinople
I.
When on 25 March 717 Leo III was crowned by the Patriarch
Germanus, the exterior circumstances of the monarchy were notably
difficult. For ten years, thanks to the anarchy laying waste the Empire,
the Arabs had been persistently advancing in Asia Minor; in 716 they
laid siege to Amorium, in 717 they took Pergamus; and Maslamah, the
most distinguished of their generals, who had pushed his way nearly into
the Opsician theme, was, with his lieutenant Sulaimān, making ready
for a great attack upon Constantinople itself. But the new Emperor was
equal to defending the Empire. Of Asiatic origin, an Isaurian, according
to Theophanes, but more probably descended from a family of Ger-
manicea in Commagene, he had, since the time of Justinian II, displayed
remarkable qualities in the shaping of his career. On a mission to the
Caucasus he had shewn himself a wary diplomatist, and had given proofs
also of energy, courage, presence of mind, and the power of disentangling
himself from the most embarrassing situations. As strategus of the Ana-
tolics since 713, he had held the Arabs in check with some success in
Asia Minor, proving himself at once a good general and a skilful diplo-
matist; he was well acquainted with the Musulman world and perhaps
even spoke Arabic. In short, eager as he was to vindicate the high
ambitions he cherished, he appreciated order and was desirous of re-
storing strength and security to the Empire; a good organiser, a man of
resolute will and autocratic temper, he had all the best qualities of a states-
man. In the course of his reign of twenty-three years (717–740) he was to
shew himself the renowned artificer of the re-organisation of the Empire.
Barely a few months from his accession the Arabs appeared before
Constantinople, attacking it by land and sea (15 August 717). During the
whole year which the siege lasted (August 717 to August 718) Leo III
dealt firmly with every difficulty. He was as successful in stimulating
the defection of a portion of the crews composed of Egyptian Christians
serving in the Arab fleet as he was in prevailing on the Bulgars to inter-
vene on behalf of the Byzantines. He shewed himself as well able to destroy
the Musulman ships with Greek fire as to defeat the Caliph's armies on
land and secure the re-victualling of the besieged city. When at last
Maslamah decided upon retreat, he had lost, it is said, nearly 150,000 men,
while from a storm which burst upon his fleet only ten vessels escaped.
For Leo III this was a glorious opening to his reign, for Islām it was a
disaster without precedent. The great onrush of Arab conquest was for
many years broken off short in the East as it was to be in the West by
the victory of Charles Martel at Poitiers (732). The founder of the
Isaurian dynasty stood out as the saviour of the Empire, and pious By-
zantines declared in the words of Theophanes “ that God and the most
blessed Virgin Theotokos ever protect the city of the Christian Empire,
and that God does not forsake such as call upon Him faithfully. "


## p. 3 (#45) ###############################################

Domestic administration: the themes
3
In spite of this great success, which contributed powerfully to establish
the new dynasty, the Arabs remained formidable. After some years
respite, they again took the offensive in Asia Minor (726), and the
struggle with them lasted until the end of the reign. However, the
victory of Leo III and his son Constantine at Acroïnon was a stern lesson
to the Musulmans. The successes of the reign of Constantine V, facili-
tated by the internal quarrels which at that time disturbed the Empire
of the Caliphs, were to crown these happy achievements, and to avert for
many years the Arab danger which in the seventh century had so seriously
threatened Constantinople?
The domestic administration of Leo III was no less fortunate in its
consequences to the Empire.
After twenty years of anarchy and revolution the monarchy was left
in a very distracted state. In 718, while the Arabs were besieging Con-
stantinople, the strategus of Sicily, Sergius, proclaimed an Emperor in
the West. In 720 the ex-Emperor Anastasius II, who was interned at
Thessalonica, attempted, with the support of the Bulgars and the com-
plicity of several high officials, to regain the throne. Both these move-
ments were firmly suppressed. Meanwhile, Leo III was planning how he
might give permanence to his dynasty. At the time of his accession,
having no sons of his own, he had married his daughter Anne to Arta-
vasdus, strategus of the Armeniac theme, and formerly his chief supporter
in his revolt against Theodosius III, conferring on him the high rank of
curopalates. When in December 718 a son, Constantine, was born to him,
an even better prospect of length of days was opened to his house. By
25 March 720 Leo had secured the throne to the child, having him
solemnly crowned by the Patriarch. Thus master of the situation, he
was able to give himself up wholly to the great task, so urgently neces-
sary, of reconstituting the State.
Above all things it was imperative to provide for the defence of the
frontiers. Leo III set about this by completing and extending the system
of themes. He cut off the Western part of the immense government of
the Anatolics to form the Thracesian theme. He likewise divided the
Maritime theme, in order to constitute the two governments of the
Cibyrrhaeots and the Dodecanese. The military reasons, which dictated
the creation of provinces less extensive and more easily defended, were
reinforced by political considerations. Leo III knew by his own ex-
perience how dangerous it was to leave too large stretches of territory in
the hands of all-powerful strategi, and what temptations were thus
offered them to revolt and lay claim to the Empire. For the same reasons
Constantine V pursued his father's policy, reducing the area of the
Opsician theme, and forming out of it the Bucellarian theme, and,
perhaps, the Optimatian. Thus under the Isaurian Emperors was com-
1 For the details of the Arab War, see infra, Chapter v(A), pp. 119–21.
CB. I.
1-2


## p. 4 (#46) ###############################################

4
The finances
1
pleted the administrative organisation sketched out in the seventh cen-
tury. Leo III and his son made a point of nominating to be governors
of these provinces men of worth, good generals and capable administrators,
and, above all, devoted to the person and the policy of their master.
The Military Code (vóuos otpatiwalkós), which probably dates from the
reign of Leo III, was designed to provide these rulers with well-disciplined
troops, and to secure the formation of an army with no care or interest
apart from its work, and strictly forbidden to concern itself with agri-
culture or commerce. Out of this force Constantine V, by throwing into
one body contingents drawn from every theme in the Empire, was to set
himself to create a truly national army, ever more and more removed
from the influence of local leaders and provincial patriotism.
If the administration and the army were to be re-organised, it was of
the first necessity to restore order to the finances. At all costs, money must
be found. To secure this, Leo III hit upon a highly ingenious expedient,
known as doubling the indiction. The fiscal year from 1 September 726
to 1 September 727 was the tenth in the period of fifteen years called the
indiction. The Emperor ordered that the following year, reckoning from
1 September 727 to 1 September 728, instead of being the eleventh year
of the indiction, should be the twelfth, and consequently in one year
he levied the taxes which should have been paid in two years'. The Ex-
chequer officials received orders to get in all contributions with rigorous
exactness; and the Popes complained bitterly of the tyranny of the
fiscal authority (725). In spite of this, new taxes were devised. In 732
Leo III increased the capitation tax, at least in the provinces of Sicily,
Calabria, and Crete, and seized the revenues of the pontifical patrimonies
in the south of Italy for the benefit of the treasury. Finally in 739,
after the destructive earthquake in Constantinople, in order to rebuild
the walls of the capital, he raised existing imposts by one twelfth (i. e.
two keratia upon the nomisma, or golden solidus, which was worth twenty-
four keratia, whence the name Dikeraton given to the new tax). Thus it
was that the chroniclers of the eighth century accused Leo III of an
unrestrained passion for money and a degrading appetite for gain. As a
fact, his careful, often harsh, administration of the finances supplied the
treasury with fresh resources.
Leo was at no less pains to restore economic prosperity to the
Empire. The Rural Code (vóuos yewpyłkós), which appears to date
from this period, was an endeavour to restrain the disquieting extension
of large estates, to put a stop to the disappearance of small free holdings,
and to make the lot of the peasant more satisfactory. The immigration
of numerous Slav tribes into the Balkan peninsula since the end of the
sixth century had brought about important changes in the methods of
land cultivation. The colonate, if it had not completely disappeared, at
1 For the confusion caused by this in the chronology of part of the eighth century,
see the note by Professor Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, 11, 425.


## p. 5 (#47) ###############################################

The Codes and the Ecloga
5
any rate had ceased to be the almost universal condition. Instead were to
be found peasants (the popritai) much less closely bound to the soil they
cultivated than the former adscriptitii, and paying a fixed rent (uoptń)
to the owner, or else communities of free peasants holding the land in
collective ownership, and at liberty to divide it up among the members
of the community in order to farm it profitably. The Rural Code gave
legal sanction to existing conditions which had been slowly evolved : it
witnesses to a genuine effort to revive agriculture and to restore se-
curity and prosperity to the husbandman; apparently this effort was by
no means wasted, and the moral and material condition of the agri-
cultural population was greatly improved. The Maritime Code (vóuos
vautikós), on the other hand, encouraged the development of the
mercantile marine by imposing part of the liability for unavoidable
losses on the passengers, thus diminishing the risk of freight-owner and
captain.
Finally, an important legislative reform brought the old laws of
Justinian up to date in relation to civil causes ; namely, the publica-
tion of the code promulgated in 739 and known as the Ecloga. In the
preface to the Ecloga Leo III has plainly pointed out the object aimed
at in his reform; he intended at once to give more precision and clearness
to the law, and to secure that justice should be better administered, but,
above all, he had at heart the introduction of a new spirit into the
law, more humane—the very title expressly mentions this development
(els tò pilavpw Tótepov)--and more in harmony with Christian con-
ceptions. These tendencies are very clearly marked in the provisions,
much more liberal than those in Justinian's code, of the laws dealing
with the family and with questions of marriage and inheritance. In
this code we are sensible that there is at once a desire to raise the in-
tellectual and moral standard of the people, and also a spirit of equal
justice, shewn by the fact that henceforth the law, alike for all, takes no
account of social categories? And there is no better proof than the
Ecloga of the vastness of the projects of reform contemplated by the
Iconoclast Emperors and of the high conception they had formed of their
duty as rulers.
Leo III's work of administrative re-organisation was crowned by a
bold
attempt at religious and social reform. Thence was to arise the
serious confict known as the Iconoclustic struggle, which for more than
a century and a half was profoundly to disturb the interior peace of
the Empire, and abroad was to involve the breach with Rome and the
loss of Italy.
The long struggle of the seventh century had brought about far-
reaching changes in the ideas and morals of Byzantine society. The
influence of religion, all-powerful in this community, had produced results
Cf. on the laws established by the Ecloga, infra, Chapter xxii, pp. 708–10.
CH, I,


## p. 6 (#48) ###############################################

6
Religion: the cult of images
יל
formidable from the moral point of view. Superstition had made alarming
progress. Everybody believed in the supernatural and the marvellous.
Cities looked for their safety much less to men's exertions than to the
miraculous intervention of the patron saint who watched over them, to
St Demetrius at Thessalonica, St Andrew at Patras, or the Mother of
God at Constantinople. Individuals put faith in the prophecies of
wizards, and Leo III himself, like Leontius or Philippicus, had been met
in the way by one who had said to him: “Thou shalt be King. ” Miracle
seemed so natural a thing that even the Councils used the possibility
of it as an argument. But, above all, the cultus offered to images, and
the belief in their miraculous virtues, had come to occupy a surprisingly
and scandalously large place in the minds of the Byzantines. Among the
populace, largely Greek by race, and in many cases only superficially
Christianised, it seemed as though a positive return to pagan customs
were in process.
From early times, Christianity in decorating its churches had made
great use of pictures, looking upon them as a means of teaching, and as
matter of edification for the faithful. And early too, with the encourage-
ment of the Church, the faithful had bestowed on pictures, especially on
those believed to have been “not made by human hands” (axelpotointoi),
veneration and worship. In the eighth century this devotion was more
general than ever. Everywhere, not merely in the churches and monas-
teries, but in houses and in shops, on furniture, on clothes, and on trinkets
were placed the images of Christ, the Blessed Virgin, and the Saints. On
these cherished icons the marks of respect and adoration were lavished:
the people prostrated themselves before them, they lighted lamps and
candles in front of them, they adorned them with ribbons and garlands,
burned incense, and kissed them devoutly. Oaths were taken upon images,
and hymns were sung in their honour; miracles, prodigies, and marvellous
cures were implored and expected of them; and so absolute was the trust
in their protection that they were sometimes chosen as sponsors for
children. It is true that, in justification of these aberrations, theologians
were accustomed to explain that the saint was mystically present in his
material image, and that the respect shewn to the image penetrated to
the original which it represented. The populace no longer drew this dis-
tinction. To them the images seemed real persons, and Byzantine history
is full of pious legends, in which images speak, act, and move about like
divine and supernatural beings. Everybody was convinced that by a
mystic virtue the all-powerful images brought healing to the soul as well as
to the body, that they stilled tempests, put evil spirits to fight, and warded
off diseases, and that to pay them the honour due to them was a sure means
of obtaining all blessings in this life and eternal glory in the next.
Many devout minds, however, were hurt and scandalised by the
excesses practised in the cult of images. As early as the fifth and sixth
centuries, Fathers of the Church and Bishops had seen with indignation


## p. 7 (#49) ###############################################

Religious origins of iconoclasm
7
the Divine Persons thus represented, and had not hesitated to urge the
destruction of these Christian idols. This iconoclastic tendency had
grown still more powerful towards the end of the seventh century,
especially in the Asiatic provinces of the Empire. The Paulicians, whose
heresy had spread rapidly in Asia Minor during the second half of the
seventh century, proscribed images, and were opposed to the adoration
of the Cross, to the cult of the Virgin and the Saints, and to everything
which was not “ worship in spirit and in truth. ” The Messalians of Ar-
menia also rejected image-worship, and the clergy of that province had
succeeded in gradually purifying popular religion there. It must by no
means be forgotten that the Jews, who were very numerous in Christen-
dom, and at this time shewed great zeal in proselytising, were naturally
hostile to images, and that the Musulmans condemned them no less
rigorously, seeing in the devotion paid to them an actual revival of
polytheism. Leo III himself, Asiatic in origin and subjected from child-
hood to the influence of an iconoclastic atmosphere, would as a matter of
course sympathise with this opposition to images. Like many Asiatics,
and like a section even of the superior clergy of the orthodox party, he
seems to have been alarmed by the increase of idolatry among the people,
and to have resolved on a serious effort to restore to Christianity its
primitive loftiness and purity.
Mistakes have often been made about the character of the religious
policy of the Isaurian Emperors, and its end and scope have been
somewhat imperfectly understood.