No More Learning

8; and see, as to Urquhart, vol. YII, pp. 253 ff. As to Butler
and Rabelais, see ante, chap. II.


## p. 373 (#395) ############################################

Later French Influence. Boileau 373
6
Corneille, the details of which have been given in a previous
chapter? The psychological tragedies of Racine were less to the
taste of English audiences, and it was not till nearly the close of
queen Anne's reign that they secured a footing on the English
stage with Ambrose Philips's Distrest Mother (Andromaque).
The unparalleled debt to Molière has been pointed out in an
earlier chapter? It need only be said here that, of all his thirty-
one plays, only about half-a-dozen escaped the general pillages.
La Fontaine was not translated into English till the next century;
but he was read and admired by the English wits, and it was
only his growing infirmities which, towards the end of his life,
prevented him from accepting an invitation sent by some of his
English admirers, who 'engaged to find him an honourable sub-
sistence' in London.
To Boileau, the remaining member of this illustrious group of
friends, Dryden refers in 1677, three years after the publication
of L'Art Poétique, as one of the chief critics of his age; while, in
the Discourse concerning the Original and Progress of Satire
(1693), he pays a splendid tribute to him, as 'the admirable
Boileau, whose numbers are excellent, whose expressions are
noble, whose thoughts are just, whose language is pure, whose
satire is pointed and whose sense is close. ' His Lutrin appeared
in English in 1682; his Art Poétique, translated by Sir William
Soames and revised by Dryden, in 1683; and, about the same
time, Oldham imitated two of his satires, the fifth and the
-eighth. The second had been already translated by Butler, and
the third by Buckingham and Rochester. Bossuet is represented
by some of his controversial writings, such as his Exposition de la
Doctrine de l Église catholique and Conférence avec M. Claude,
and by his great Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle, which was
translated in 1686. Malebranche's Recherche de la Vérité and La
Rochefoucauld's Maximes both appeared in English in 1694, and,
of the latter, there had been an earlier translation by Mrs Aphra
Behn. Pascal's Pensées and La Bruyère's Caractères, which Dryden
couples together as two of the most entertaining books that modern
French can boast of,' were translated in 1688 and 1699 respectively;
in 1688, too, appeared an English version of Mme de la Fayette's
Princesse de Cleves. But a mere record of translations from a
1 See ante, chap. VII. Le Menteur was acted and printed in London under the title
The Lyer in 1671. It was rptd with the first title The Mistaken Beuuty in 1685.
? See ante, chap. v.
3 See Jacob, Giles, Poetical Register, vol. I, p. 292; Ward, A. W. , History of
English Dramatic Literature, vol. II, p. 315 8.
9


## p. 374 (#396) ############################################

374 The Essay and Modern English Prose
- foreign literature is far from constituting a measure of its influence.
The real influence which French literature exercised upon our own
between the restoration and the close of the seventeenth century
may be classified under four heads: that of Corneille and the
heroic romances upon tragedy, that of Molière upon comedy, that
of Montaigne upon the essay and that of French criticism upon
English criticism. Neither the first nor the second of these in-
fluences is really important: for the fashion of the riming heroic
play soon passed away; and, though our comedy borrowed its
materials from Molière, it took over little of his form, and nothing
of his spirit. The influence of Montaigne upon the essay will be
discussed later. But it may be well, in the first instance, to con-
sider the influence which is the most important of all, because it
affected our whole literature and not merely some special depart-
ment of it.
The debt of English literature to French criticism begins with
D'Avenant's laboured and longwinded preface to Gondibert, written
in Paris and there published, with an answer by Hobbes, in 1650.
It was, no doubt, suggested by Chapelain's turgid and obscure
preface to Marino's Adone (1623). "In 1650, Chapelain was at the
height of his authority as a critic, and the whole tone of this piece
of writing, with the talk about nature and the insistence on the
need of criticism as well as inspiration in poetry, is thoroughly
French. Dryden, in his Essay of Dramatick Poesie, is perfectly
independent in his views; but he must have written it with a copy
of the 1660 edition of Corneille's plays, which contain his Examens
and Discours, by his side'. Among the French critics of the next
generation, Boileau stands out prominent, but his authority in
England during the last quarter of the seventeenth century was
balanced by that of Rapin, whose Réflexions sur la poétique
d'Aristote was translated by Rymer in the same year in which
it appeared in French (1674), and of whom Dryden says that he 'is
alone sufficient, were all other critics lost, to teach anew the rules
of writing? ' Le Bossu and Dacier were also highly esteemed.
Dryden speaks of Le Bossu as 'the best of modern critics,' and the
greater part of his Discourse concerning the Original and Progress
of Satire (1693) is little more than an adaptation of Dacier's Essai
sur la Satire. A translation of this treatise, which consists of
only a few pages, was printed in an appendix to one of Le Bossu's,
Du poème épique, in 1695. 'I presume your Ladyship has read
1 Cf. ante, p. 23.
? Apology for Heroick Poetry (1677) (Essays, ed. Ker, W. P. , vol. I, p. 181).


## p. 375 (#397) ############################################

Le Bossu and Rymer
375
Bossu,' says Brisk to lady Froth, in Congreve's Double-Dealer
(1693)'. 'O Yes, and Rapin and Dacier upon Aristotle and
Horace'; and, in Dennis's The Impartial Critic, produced in the
same year as Congreve's play, frequent appeals are made to
Dacier's translation of Aristotle's Poetics, which he had published,
avec des Remarques, in the previous year.
j
Of these three Frenchmen, all of whom have now passed into
oblivion, it may be said that, like Boileau, they express in their
literary criticism the absolutist ideas of their age. But their
outlook is narrower, and their attitude towards the ancients less
independent, than Boileau's. Conform to the Precepts of Aristotle
and Horace and to the Practice of Homer and Virgil,' is the sum-
mary of Le Bossu's longwinded treatise. Rapin says that 'to
.
please against the rules is a bad principle,' and he defines art as
'good sense reduced to method. ' In Thomas Rymer, who prefixed
to his translation a characteristic preface, he found an interpreter
who, with equal respect for Aristotle, laid even greater emphasis
on commonsense. He aspired to be “the Plain Dealer' of criticism,
and, having examined modern epic poems in the preface to Rapin,
proceeded, four years later (1678), to 'handle' The Tragedies of
the Last Age 'with the same liberty. He was answered in verse by
Butler (Upon Critics who judge of modern plays by the rules of
the Ancients), and in prose by Dryden, who, in his preface to All
for Love, the play in which he renounced rime, rebels against the
authority of our Chedreux critics,' and, while he admits that the
Ancients as Mr Rymer has judiciously observed, are and ought to
be our masters,' qualifies his admission with the remark that,
'though their models are regular, they are too little for English
tragedy. ' The earl of Mulgrave (afterwards marquis of Normanby
and duke of Buckinghamshire), in his much admired Essay upon
Poetry (1682), drew largely from Boileau's 'Art Poétique; and, in
1684, the authority of the rules' was reinforced by a translation
of the abbé d'Aubignac's Pratique du théâtre:
Then, 'tis the mode of France; without whose rules
None must presume to set up here as fools.
Rymer's Short view of Tragedy (1693), with its famous criticism of
Othello, roused Dryden to another spirited defence of English
tragedy? But the authority of Rymer continued to stand high,
1 Act II, sc. 2.
2 Dryden, Prologue to Albion and Albanius (1685).
3 Dedication of Examen Poeticum (vol. 111 of Miscellany Poems) (1693). As to
Rymer, cf. ante, chaps. vi and vii.
6
6


## p. 376 (#398) ############################################

376 The Essay and Modern English Prose
J even with Dryden. It was well, therefore, for English literature
that there were critics in France who paid little or no respect to
the rules, and who believed that individual taste was a better
criterion than Rymer's 'common-sense of all ages. ' Such were the
chevalier (afterwards marquis) de Méré, whose letters, containing
a good deal of scattered criticism, were published in 1687 ; the père
Bouhours, whose Manière de penser sur les ouvrages de l'esprit
appeared in the same year; and La Bruyère, whose Caractères,
with the admirable opening chapter Des Ouvrages de l'esprit,
followed at the beginning of the next. All these three writers,
of whom the second and third were known in England before the
close of the century, may be said to belong to the school of taste,
when taste was still a matter of individual judgment, and had not
yet stiffened into the narrow code of an oligarchy.
But there was another critic of the same school who exercised
a far greater influence on writers, for he was living in our midst.
This was Saint-Évremond, who, exiled from his own country, made
England his home from 1662 to 1665 and, again, from 1670 to his
death in 1703. He was on intimate terms with the English wits
and courtiers, with Hobbes, Waller and Cowley, with Buckingham,
Arlington and St Albans, and his conversational powers were
highly appreciated at Wills and other places of resort. His
occasional writings were translated from time to time into English,
the first to appear being a small volume of essays on the drama,
including one on English comedy (1685). Regarded as an oracle
on both sides of the Channel, he had a marked influence on
English literary criticism. But, though he had a real critical gift,
he was neither catholic nor profound. He clung to the favourites
of his youth, to Montaigne, Malherbe, Corneille, Voiture, and,
having been exiled from France at the close of la bonne Régence,
he had little sympathy for the age of Louis XIV. Molière and La
Fontaine barely found favour in his eyes; he was unjust to Racine,
and he detested Boileau. Yet much should be pardoned in a man
who ventured to say, in the year 1672, that there is nothing so
perfect in the Poetics of Aristotle that it should be a rule to all
nations and all ages. '
It was possibly owing to Saint-Évremond that Montaigne's
popularity in this country, which had lain dormant for a season,
blossomed afresh after the restoration, and gave a new stimulus to
the literary essay, which owed to him its name and original in-
spiration. For, after 1625, the year in which Bacon's Essays
received their final form, the essay began to lose its popularity.


## p. 377 (#399) ############################################

Abraham Cowley
377
Then, at the beginning of the commonwealth, a versatile writer,
named Thomas Forde, produced a volume of essays, Luisus For-
tunae (1649), the common topic of which, the mutability of man
and human affairs, strongly suggests Montaigne; and, on the eve
of the restoration, Francis Osborne published A Miscellany of
Sundry Essayes Paradoxes and Problematical Discourses,
Letters and Characters (1659), of which the style has all the
faults, and none of the virtues, of the older prose? The author,
who was master of the horse to Shakespeare's patron William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, is best known for his Advice to a Son,
which, first published in 1656, went through numerous editions.
It is a strange admixture of platitude and paradox, much of which
might have come straight from the lips of Polonius. The style,
when it is not terse and apophthegmatic, as of one trying to
imitate Bacon, is stiff with conceits and longwinded sentences.
It was Abraham Cowley, a friend of Saint-Évremond, who
gave a new turn to the essay. Cowley has often been called a
transitional writer; but he is one in the sense, not that he dallied
in a halfway house, but that, both in prose and verse, he made a
complete transit from the old school to the new. It is particularly
interesting to trace this progress in his prose writings. In the
earliest of these, the preface to the 1656 edition of his poems, his
sentences are at first cumbrous and involved, and though, when he
warms to his work, they become shorter and better balanced, there
remains a certain stiffness in the style quite unlike the con-
versational ease of his later essays. It is nearer to Jeremy Taylor
(who was only five years Cowley's senior, and who died in the
same year) than to Dryden. To the older school also belongs the
Discourse by way of Vision concerning the Government of Oliver
Cromwell (1661), of which the latter part is a fine example of
rhetorical prose. Even in the preface to Cutter of Coleman-
Street? (1663), though the sentences, as a rule, are short and
well coordinated, Cowley has by no means shaken himself free
from the old mannerism. The essays proper, eleven in number,
were all written during the last four or five years of his life, and,
to most of them, a more approximate date can be assigned.
In 1663, having been disappointed of the mastership of the Savoy
hospital, he accomplished his design of withdrawing himself from
all tumults and business of the world,' by retiring to Barn Elms
on the Thames, then a favourite resort of Londoners. Before this,
6
1 Cf. ante, vol. VII, chap. VIII.
? As to Cowley's poetry, see ante, vol. vii, chap. II, pp. 61 ff.


## p. 378 (#400) ############################################

378 The Essay and Modern English Prose
I
he must have written the essay entitled The danger of Procrasti-
nation, in which he refers to his design'as only in contemplation.
It is not without charm, but long sentences still occur. Transitional
in style, also, is the essay Of Agriculture, in which he proposes
that‘one college in each University should be erected and appro-
priated to this Study,' and the short essay entitled The Garden,
dedicated to his friend Evelyn, which was written in 1664, between
the publication of Evelyn's Kalendarium Hortense and that of his
Gardening. Cowley speaks of himself as 'sticking still in the inn
of a hired house and a garden. ' In April 1665, he moved to the
Porch House, Chertsey, and there he died two, years later.
To these last two years of his life belong the essays Of Obscurity,
Of My Self and that entitled The dangers of an Honest man in
such Company; and to the same period we may with all probability
assign Of Solitude, of Greatness and The Shortness of Life and un-
certainty of Riches. In these six essays, Cowley has found his style
and his method. The influence of Montaigne is unmistakable. In the
two essays in which he is mentioned by name, Of Solitude and Of.
Greatness, not only the titles, but some of the contents, are borrowed
from him. Of those chief characteristics which mark the essai of
Montaigne in its final phase of development—the examples from
classical and other authors, the personal element and the artistic
workmanship—none is wanting in Cowley. Yet he is no mere
satellite of Montaigne. He is saved from this by the personal
element in his writings. In the words of his biographer, his essays
are a real chronicler of his own thoughts upon the point of his
retirement. ' In spite of The Spectator's sneer that 'he praised
solitude when he despaired of shining in a court,' there is no reason
to doubt his earnest affection for obscurity and retirement. We
can see, too, in his essays, the other qualities ascribed to him by
Sprat—his lack of affectation, his modesty and humility, and, above
all, the pleasant gravity of his speech. The essay Of Greatness may
be taken as an example of his method. Here we find, not the
solitary self-communing of a Burton or a Browne, but a friendly
interchange of confidence between author and reader—an anecdote
freely translated from the elder Seneca, a few examples from
Suetonius of the foibles of the Roman emperors; a pointed
reference to the late giant of our nation'; a quotation or two
from the Latin poets; and a few lines of the author's own. There
is no disdain of commonplaces; but they are dressed up as
' ridiculous paradoxes,' before being stripped and presented to
the reader as brand-new truths. - As for the style, it is neither stiff


## p. 379 (#401) ############################################

Cowley. Sprat. Sir William
Temple 379
」
nor slovenly; neither a court suit, nor a dressing gown and slippers.
The choice of words is fastidious, without being affected; the use
of metaphor is restrained; sentences are well turned, but not all
cut to the same pattern. The artist, in short, has concealed his art.
Cowley, we are told, intended to publish a discourse upon style,
It would have been agreeable reading; but it would doubtless
have revealed as little of his secret as have similar treatises by
later masters of the art of prose.
Cowley's essays were first printed, under the title Several
Discourses, by way of Essays, in Verse and Prose, in 1668, the year
after his death. In the same year, his friend Thomas Sprat (after-
wards bishop of Rochester) wrote an elegant'account of his life
and writings, which, unfortunately, is as sparing of facts as the same
writer's History of the Royal Society. Worse than this, having
told us that Cowley excelled in his letters to his private friends-
as we can well believe from the one letter of this sort which has
escaped destruction:-Sprat declines to publish them on the ground
that 'in such letters the souls of men should appear undressed;
and in that negligent habit, they may be fit to be seen by one or
two in a chamber, but not to go abroad into the street. '
Happily, one collection of private letters of this period has
been preserved, which reveals a‘native tenderness and innocent
gaiety of mind' equal to Cowley's. These are the letters of
Dorothy Osborne, niece of Francis Osborne, written to her future
husband, Sir William Temple, between the autumn of 1652 and
that of 1654. She not only writes delightful letters, full of good
sense, penetration and humour, but she has views of her own
about the epistolary style. 'All letters, methinks, should be free
and easy as one's discourse: not studied as an oration, not made
up of hard words like a charm. ' This criticism she does not
consider applicable to the letters of her lover.
Nothing is more pleasant than to trace through the records of
Temple's political life the services rendered to him, and, through
him, to the public interest, by this most devoted of women, though
the title has been held to be disputable on behalf of Temple's
sister, lady Giffard, whom he commemorated with his wife and
himself on his tombstone. Lady Giffard gave up the whole of
her long widowhood to the companionship and service of her
beloved brother, and wrote anonymously the brief Life and
1 A letter to Sprat is printed in Johnson's Life of Cowley. The letters written to
Henry Bennet (afterwards earl of Arlington), from Paris, in 1650, which are printed
in Miscellanea Aulica, contain only public news.


## p. 380 (#402) ############################################

380 The Essay and Modern English Prose
admirable character of him, afterwards prefixed to the folio edition
of his works (1750). But, although, at times, it was more convenient
for lady Giffard to be the companion of her brother's journeys
than it was for his wife, the latter was by no means, as has been
suggested, thrown into the shade by her, and a complete harmony
of purpose and feeling seems to have existed among the trio.
Lady Temple was taken into her husband's confidence as com-
pletely in his public, as in his private, business, except when he
was under obligations of absolute secrecy; when left behind at
the Hague, she was able to give him trustworthy information as to
Buckingham's negotiations with France; and she had the principal
share in the confidential enquiries as to what 'concern'd the
Person, Humour and Dispositions' of the young princess Mary of
York whose hand William of Orange thereupon made up his mind
to ask in marriage? . Lady Giffard's own letters, which have been
recently published, lack the rare charm which attaches to those of
her sister-in-law, after, as well as before, marriage, even at seasons
when, according to lady Temple's own description, she felt ‘as weary
as a dog without his Master. ' The greatest tragedy of her life, the
death by his own hand of the son of whom, in his babyhood, she
had written as 'the quietest best little boy that ever was borne,'
seems to school her into a calm solemnity of expression which has
a pathos of its own, unlike that which mingles with the humour
of her earlier writing.
Temple's own letters-not including those to Dorothy-were
published after his death by his quondam secretary Swift (whose
reverence for his patron certainly did not go deep), the first two
volumes appearing in 1700, and the third in 17033. This corre-
spondence, which includes many letters from Arlington, lord keeper
Bridgeman, and others (with Clifford, notwithstanding their con-
nection through lady Temple, her husband was quite out of touch
1 See Temple's Memoirs (ed. 1692), p. 155; and cf. the volume cited in the next
note, pp. 129–130.
? By Miss Julia Longe (1911). The collection includes, besides a few letters from
lady Temple to her husband, several letters by lady Giffard and her correspondents,
extending over the long period of years from 1664 to 1722. Among these correspondents
are Mrs Katherine Philips ('the Matchless Orinda') in a rather longwinded letter,
Sir William Godolphin (an admirer of Sacharissa), the mad lord Lincoln, lady Berkeley
(afterwards countess of Portland), the duchess of Somerset and Edward Young (author
of Night Thoughts). The length of time covered by this correspondence deprives it of
value as characteristic of any particular period; but the collection, as a whole, s an
interesting supplement to the Dorothy Osborne series.
The volume of letters of 1668 and 1669, published in 1699 by Jones, D. , was
unauthorised; but there is no reason for doubting the authenticity of its contents.
See Courtenay, T. P. , The Life of Sir William Temple, vol. II, p. 142.


## p. 381 (#403) ############################################

Temple's Letters
381
from the first), fails to warrant the statement of its title-page, that it
contains 'an account of the most Important Transactions that pass'd
in Christendom' during the period which the earlier volumes cover
(1665—72)'; but it furnishes a lucid survey of unusual interest.
In his Letters, even more conspicuously than in his Memoirs,
Temple's style is wholly unaffected and unambitious, and the
early letter to his father in Ireland, giving an account of his visit
to the slippery bishop of Münster, is an admirable specimen of
lively narrative. It is worth noticing that not only Temple but
most of the men of affairs who correspond with him write in the
same straightforward and simple style—it was a period when much
importance had begun to be attached in France to the clearness
and readableness of diplomatic despatches, and it was natural that
the same habit should have become more common in English diplo-
matic correspondence. In 1666, Temple was, as he says, “Young and
Very New in Business’; but it was not long before he was engaged
in the negotiations of which the result was a diplomatic master-
piece, the famous Triple Alliance of 1668, and in those which
accompanied its break-up. A considerable number of Temple’s
letters and other papers are in French, Latin or Spanish, in all of
which tongues he was a proficient; but he naturally finds few
opportunities for a display of literary taste as well as of linguistic
ability. The personal interest of some of his letters is, however,
considerable; not only his trust in his wife, but his modest and
unaffected estimate of the value of his own public services, even
in so exceptional an instance as the carrying through of the Triple
Alliance, and bringing "Things drawn out of their Center' back
'to their Center again,' cannot fail to engage the sympathy of the
reader.
The distinctive qualities of Temple as a writer of clear and
agreeable prose are even more distinctive of his Memoirs, which
are concerned with the later years of his career-from 1674,
when the conclusion of peace with the Dutch and the general
i Swift makes & similar criticism of the title originally given to Temple's Memoirs
when published without his authority. See Preface to part ti (ed. 1709).
? In a letter dated August 1667 (vol. I, p. 117), Temple expresses a wish that Cowley
could sing the heroio death of captain Douglas in his burning ship at Chatham, and,
generally, that something could be done 'to turn the Vein of Wits,' and 'to raise up
the Esteem of some Qualities, above their real value, rather than bring everything,'
even the poetry of Mr Waller, 'to Burlesque. ' As it is, he says, in offering this curious
though unconscious contribution to the 'heroio' tendency in contemporary literature,
we 'neither act Things worth Relating, nor relate Things worth the Reading. ' It would
almost seem as if Temple’s absence from home had left him in ignorance of the
appearance, in this very year 1667, of Annus Mirabilis.


## p. 382 (#404) ############################################

382 The Essay and Modern English Prose
desire of inducing the French government to follow the example
of the English brought him again to the front, to the con-
clusion of the peace of Nymegen, in 1678, and thence to his final
withdrawal, at the very height of political agitation at home,
from all further open share in public affairs. The second part
professes to begin in 1672 (though it cannot really be said to go
back beyond 1674), and was preceded by a first part beginning
with 1665, which, at some unknown period of his life, and for reasons
which can only be conjectured', was destroyed by the author himself.
Thus, only the second part, published without authority in 1691
and republished by Swift in 1692, and the third part, published by
him on his own motion, remain to us. But they are among the
1
best examples of a class of literature which was as yet new in
England-memoirs of affairs, as well as of personal experiences,
conveying the information and instruction which they are designed
to impart in a thoroughly readable and often highly attractive
style. It would not be easy to find a more lucid account of the
political results of the declaration of war by England against the
Dutch, with which the narrative opens, or of the impasse to
which the selfishness of party purposes and personal interests had
reduced English politics when Temple bade them a long farewell.
On the other hand, few memoirs or diaries of the time succeed
better in suggesting a lifelike, and, at the same time, reasonable,
conception of both the ways of talking and the ways of thinking
of two princes so different from one another as were Charles II
and William III (before his accession to the English throne). It is
not a little to Temple's credit as a diplomatist that he should have
been able, in a very uncommon degree, to gain the confidence
of both; it is hardly less to his credit as a writer that, especially
in the case of Charles II, to none of whose weaknesses he was
blind, he should have been able to show what there was in him
that fitted him for his destiny.
In the preface to part III of these Memoirs, Swift is at pains
to refute the objections taken against them 'first, as to the Matter;
that the Author speaks too much of himself; next, as to the Style;
that he affects the Use of French Words, as well as some Turns
of Expression peculiar to that Language. ' Temple's nature, no
doubt, was, in a sense, self-centred, but his Memoirs preserve a due
1 See Courtenay, 4. 6. vol. 11, p. 110; and ibid. pp. 242—3 as to the protest of lady
Giffard against the publication of part in and Swift's angry rejoinder. The whole
story of Swift's relations with the Temple family, and, more especially, with lady
Giffard, whom he hated, is discussed by Miss Longe, u. s. pp. 179 ff. , but belongs to
the history of Swift rather than to that of his patron.


## p. 383 (#405) ############################################

Temple's Memoirs and Observations 383
balance between egotism and a reticence about himself which would
have detracted from the impression of veracity conveyed by them,
besides depriving them of much of the human interest without
which many valuable political memoirs have become virtually closed
> books. - Temple's Gallicisms of vocabulary and expression Swift
seeks to excuse by more or less ingenious pleas; but, to modern
English readers, Temple's style will not seem to stand in need of
defence, whether or not there were many French words which he
blotted out, as Swift states, in order to put English in their place.
On the other hand, if we may ourselves be guilty of the fault
imputed to him, he was an excellent raconteur; and his good
stories are all the better because they are neither too long nor too
numerous. They often point a characteristic trait in princes or
statesmen or, like the anecdote of Richelieu's wrathful outburst
against Charles I, illustrate the genesis of a whole Iliad of truths;
a
occasionally, they are merely amusing 'problems, like the story of
the old count of Nassau and the parrot. But the writer is at
his best in the lighthanded analysis of character and conduct
(including his own) which shows the influence of French example
far more notably than does his choice of words or phrases. Yet,
even when speaking of himself, he could write with force, when it
seemed in place:
I have had in Twenty Years Experience, enough of the Uncertainty of
Princes, the Caprices of Fortune, the Corruption of Ministers, the Violence
of Factions, the Unsteddyness of Counsels, and the Infidelity of Friends;
Nor do I think the rest of my Life enough to make any new Experiments.
Temple's general judgment of the political and social cha-
racteristics of a people whom he learnt to know well, not only by
long sojourns among them, but because, as he relates with pardon-
able pride, his visits were welcomed by them as are those of the
swallow in the spring, is laid down in his sympathetic but unpre-
judiced Observations upon the United Provinces of the Nether-
lands (1672). They present themselves as the expansion of a
summary of the condition of the country, sent in, according to
custom, at the close of an ambassador's stay there; but they are
put together under the impression of the great and, as it seemed
to Temple, decisive catastrophe, which had suddenly brought to the
brink of destruction a state, 'the Envy of some, the Fear of others,
and the Wonder of all’ its neighbours. It is the growth of that
polity's greatness, due to moral, as well as physical, causes-to the
principle of tolerance as well as the control of the sea—which this
admirable essay demonstrates with equal lucidity and conviction,


## p. 384 (#406) ############################################

384 The Essay and Modern English Prose
During the same period of leisure, he produced, in 1667 or 1668,
An Essay upon the present State and Settlement of Ireland,
which, though censuring the process of the late settlement, advises
no remedy for existing results beyond that which had been
commended by Spenser. In 1673, Temple published An Essay
upon the Advancement of Trade in Ireland, which asserts 'the
true and natural ground of Trade and Riches' to be the ‘Number
of People in proportion to the Ground they inherit,' but proposes
some useful developments of the export trade suggested to him by
his own residence in Leinster.
Part 1 of the Miscellanea contains A Survey of the Consti-
tution and Interests of the Empire and other principal European
countries, with their Relations to England in the Year 1671,
presented in that year to Arlington: a clear exposition of the
political situation and of the reasons for and against England's
joining France against the Dutch, with a specially luminous account
of the general history of Spanish politics and of the rise of the
United Provinces to the rank of a firstrate power. It will be
noted that this diplomatic summary, clear as it is, opens with
sentences of almost Clarendonian length. To a later period seems
to belong An Introduction to the History of England (published
in 1695), which may possibly have been intended as an intro-
duction to Kennett's History, the editors of which, however,
proposed to use Milton for the period before the Norman conquest.
Temple shows a characteristic contempt for mythology, and treats
no part of his subject very assiduously till he comes to the reign
of William the Conqueror, whom he holds to have been unjustly
censured by ecclesiastical writers. Like all Temple's writings, this
abridgment is very readable, though, unlike most of them, the work
of a dilettante. Of much greater interest is his Essay upon the
Original and Nature of Government (written about 1672), which
is noticeable as arguing, in direct contravention of the theory of
a social contract elaborated by Hobbes and Locke, that state
government arose out of an extension of paternal and patriarchal
authority. It is not too much to say that, in this argument,
Temple was before his times; Locke takes no notice of his
speculations?
Temple’s essays, or, as they were called, Miscellanea, appeared
in three parts; the first in 1680 the second in 1690 and the third,
two years after the author's death, in 1701. The most widely read
1 See Herriott, F. I. , Sir William Temple on the Origin and Nature of Government
(Johns Hopkins University Diss. ), Baltimore, n. d.


## p. 385 (#407) ############################################

Temple's Essays
385
of these essays, Upon Ancient and Modern Learning (1690), was
inspired by that quarrel between the ancients and the moderns
which, for more than two years, had divided the literary world of
Paris, and was, in its turn, the origin of the celebrated contro-
versy on the Letters of Phalaris between Bentley and Charles
Boyle. But neither in this nor in the companion essay, Upon
Poetry, does Temple show to much advantage. His knowledge is
too superficial for his task. He has a bowing acquaintance with
many authors, but he is not on intimate terms with any. He has
sauntered through the outer courts of literature, but he has never
penetrated to the sanctuary. It is interesting, however, to note
his opinions on French literature. In poetry, he only mentions
two names, Ronsard for the past and Boileau for the present.
For prose, he names Rabelais, Montaigne, and, among the moderns,
Voiture, La Rochefoucauld and Bussy-Rabutin, whose Histoire
Amoureuse de Gaule (1665) had a succès de scandale in this country
as well as in France? Of the French language, Temple justly
observes that, as it ‘has much more Finess and Smoothness at
this time, so I take it to have had much more Force, Spirit, and
Compass in Montaigne's Age'; while, of Rabelais, he says that
he seems to have been Father of the Ridicule, a man of uni-
versal learning as well as wit. ' Was it this praise which led to
the publication, in the following year (1693), thirty-three years
after the author's death, of Sir Thomas Urquhart's translation of
the third book of Pantagruel? , followed, in 1708, by that of the
fourth and fifth books from the pen of Pierre-Antonius Motteux,
one of the 84,000 refugees whom the revocation of the edict of
Nantes sent to this country? The most agreeable of Temple's
essays are those Upon the Cure of the Gout (part 1), Upon the
Gardens of Epicurus, or Of Gardening (part II) and Upon Health
and Long Life (part III). The latter is especially interesting for
the light that it throws upon the notions of the age as to health
and longevity, and the specifics in use for the cure of ordinary
ailments. Thus, we learn that alehoof or ground-ivy is ‘most
sovereign for the eyes' and 'admirable in Frenzies' and that the
constant use of alehoof ale is a 'specifick Remedy or Prevention
of the Stone'; that 'the Spirit of Elder is sovereign in Cholicks,
and the use of it in general very beneficial in Scurvies and
2
· Pepys read it in 1666.
2 Urquhart's translation of books I and a was first printed in 1653; it was again
published, with his translation of book II and a life of Rabelais by the editor, Motteux,
in 1693–4, and with books rv and v translated by Motteux, in 1708.
E. L. VIII. CH. XVI.
25


## p. 386 (#408) ############################################

386 The Essay and Modern English Prose
6
Dropsies'; and that 'for Rheums in the Eyes and the Head a leaf
of Tobacco put into the Nostrils for an Hour each Morning is
a Specifick Medicine. '
In the essay Of Gardening, written in 1685, Temple gives an
agreeable account of his own garden at Sheen, which was renowned
for its fruit trees, discoursing of his grapes and figs, his peaches
and apricots, with that complacent sense of superiority which is
the foible of most gardeners. The essay entitled Gout, written in
1677, gives much information as to various cures for that malady
of statesmen, and, incidentally, introduces us to several of Temples
diplomatic colleagues in a new and entertaining light. Temple's
style was highly thought of in his own day. “It is generally
believed,' said Swift, 'that this author has advanced our English
tongue to as great perfection as it can well bear. ' But this is the
exaggerated praise of an editor. Lamb's 'plain, natural, chit-chat'
is nearer the mark. Temple writes like a fine gentleman at his
ease, without any affectation, but with considerable negligence.
His syntax is sometimes faulty, and his expression does not always
fit his thought. Though his sentences are kept, as a rule, within
convenient bounds, they straggle occasionally and leave trailing
ends. To agree wholly with Johnson that ‘Temple was the first
writer who gave cadence to English prose,' is to forget Browne and
Taylor; but Temple has a true feeling for cadence; in this alone
he is Cowley's superior. It is largely through this quality that he
rises at times beyond the level of natural chit-chat,' as in the fine
passage in praise of poetry and music which concludes the essay
Upon Poetry and ends with the often quoted comparison between
human life and a froward child.
Like Cowley, Temple came under the spell of Montaigne. In
the essay Of Gardening, he borrows from him the story of
Heraclitus playing with the boys in the porch of the Temple, and
he refers to him in two later essays, Upon Popular Discontents
and Upon Health and Long Life. Moreover, two essays, heads for
which were found among his papers, Upon the different conditions
of life and fortune and Upon Conversation, suggest, not only in
the titles, but in the subjects themselves, frequent intercourse with
the father of the essay. There were other Englishmen of letters,
too, who kept the same excellent company. Dryden quotes from
Honest Montaigne' in the preface to All for Love', while, accord-
ing to Pope, Montaigne and La Rochefoucauld were among the
livres de chevet with which Wycherley was wont to read himself
1 Of. ante, chap. I, p. 28.
6


## p. 387 (#409) ############################################

Influence of Montaigne. Halifax 387
to sleep. ' In 1685, Montaigne was popular enough in England to
warrant the publication of a new translation of his essays from the
pen of Charles Cotton. Cotton sometimes misses his author's
meaning, but he does not write sheer nonsense, as Florio sometimes
does. On the other hand, his style lacks the glamour and quaint
individuality of the Elizabethan translation, and, though sound
on the whole, is somewhat unequal. His work is dedicated to
George Savile, marquis of Halifax, who, in acknowledging the
dedication, says that it is the book in the world I am best
entertained with. '
Halifax's own Miscellanies, first collected in 1700, are, for the
most part, political pamphlets, but a few words concerning them
may, perhaps not inappropriately, find a place here. – For his finest
piece of writing is his praise of truth in The Character of
Trimmer-a passage worthy of Montaigne, whom Halifax also
resembles in his bold and happy use of metaphor. Although this
famous pamphlet, which, notwithstanding its substantial length,
must have circulated largely between the date of its composition
(early in 1685) and that of its first publication (April 1688), was
then ascribed on the title-page to Sir William Coventry, there can
be no doubt that it was by Halifax, who owned it to his friends? . '
The title was suggested to him by a paper by his subsequent adver-
sary L'Estrange; but the use made of the term 'trimmer,' and the
lesson read to the nation on the ever old and ever new truth that
there are times when the ship of state has to be steadied against
the excesses of each of the two extremes,' must alike be placed
to the credit of Halifax himself. Few publications of the kind,
intended to allay, not to heighten or inflame, the changes of an
important crisis, have exercised a more direct effect.
The death of Charles II put an end to the trimmer's plan of
inducing the king to free himself from an overbearing influence
which had now become sovereign authority. Halifax appears to
have consoled himself by composing his admirable Character of
King Charles the Second, which was not published, with an
appendix of Political, Moral and Miscellaneous Thoughts and
Reflections, till 1750. The literature of characters, which the
circumstances of the times and the art of both historians and
satirists had brought to a great height of perfection, received
a notable addition in this admirable portrait, by a man of the
world, of a prince whom he thoroughly understood and for whom
1 See quotation from Saviliana ap. Foxcroft, H. C. , The Life and Letters of Sir
George Savile, Bart. , first Marquis of Halifax (1898), vol. II, p. 277.
2542


## p. 388 (#410) ############################################

388
The Essay and Modern English Prose
he did not care to conceal a liking which was not all loyalty. "The
thing called Sauntering is a stronger Temptation to Princes than
it is to others. ' In this vein of easy philosophy, he delivered a
judgment far nearer the truth than many more incisive censures?
Halifax's second political pamphlet of importance, A Letter
to a Dissenter Upon Occasion of His Majesties late Gracious
Declaration of Indulgence, was first printed, with the signature
'J. W. ,' in 1687. It is much shorter than the Character of a
Trimmer, but not less notable; for it may unhesitatingly be
described as one of the pithiest and most straightforward pro-
ductions of its kind, abounding in homethrusts and exhibiting
throughout the clear candour of a writer sure of his ground and
convinced of the necessity of his conclusions. It is wholly directed
against the dangerous, indeed suicidal, policy of an alliance between
nonconformity and an unlawful strain of the prerogative, and, on
the face of it, is written by a loyal patriot possessed by complete
distrust of Rome? The Anatomy of an Equivalent (probably
printed without an author's name in 1688, certainly in 1689) is a
tract of considerable subtlety of argument on a cognate subjects.
Of the collection of aphoristic Thoughts and Reflections, pub-
lished with the Character of King Charles the Second, the political
section is characterised by much wit, at times thoroughly cynical,
as is shown by the trimmer's assertion that 'the best Party is but
a kind of a Conspiracy against the rest of the Nation, and by
several of the aphorisms under the head 'Religion. But not a little
wisdom as well as wit is to be found both in these, and in the 'Moral'
and "Miscellaneous' sayings; and, on the whole, there is no un-
fairness, though there is some severity, in the 'reprisals' made by
this shrewd philosopher upon the generation which had grown up
under his observant eye.
More in the nature of an essay than any of his other produc-
tions, was Halifax's A Lady's Gift, or Advice to a Daughter (by
which latter name it is generally known). First printed in 1688, it
went through many editions. This little book, addressed to his own
daughter (mother of lord Chesterfield, author of perhaps the most
a
1 It must be remembered that the Character was written immediately after the
king's decease. "He had Sicknesses before his Death, in which he did not trouble any
Protestant Divines; those who saw him upon his Death, saw a great deal. ' Halifax
possessed in perfection the art of hinting.
? Roger L'Estrange published An Answer to a Letter to a Dissenter, etc. in the same
year, which is clever in its way and rightly makes good use of the ‘Popish plot'frenzy.
3 'Equivalent' was the current political term for a government offer of something
as valuable as the 'Oaths and Tests,' if these were abolished.


## p. 389 (#411) ############################################

Halifax's Advice.
Clarendon's Essays 389
celebrated Letters ever addressed to a son), shows much knowledge
of the human, especially of the feminine, heart, and much of it is still
so appropriate that one may wonder why it has not been reprinted
in modern times. Aphorisms like 'Love is a passion that hath
friends in the garrison,' and 'You may love your children without
living in the nursery,' and, of an 'empty' woman, 'such an one is
seldom serious but with her tailor,' have lost none of their force.
The chapter on vanity and affectation contains a character of
a vain woman quite in the manner of La Bruyère. The chapter
on a husband is full of worldly wisdom, and good sense, and is
based on a frank recognition of the 'inequality in the sexes,' and
the imperfection of husbands. The treatment of religion is just
what you might expect from a man who, in religion as well as in
politics, had ‘his dwelling in the middle between the two extremes. '
If it is a little cold and unspiritual, it is tolerant, cheerful and
reasonable; it breathes the temper of his contemporaries Barrow
and Tillotson. "Halifax's style is thoroughly individual. It is the
style not of an essayist communing with his readers for his own
pleasure in the seclusion of his study, but of a man of the world
who takes up the pen for the practical purpose of convincing
others. He had a great reputation as an orator, and this is easy
to believe, for, in his written speech, he often rises to real
eloquence.
There is no trace of Montaigne in the Reflections upon several
Christian Duties, Divine and Moral, by way of Essays, which
Clarendon wrote, for the most part, at Montpellier, during the
years 1669 and 16701. It is true that, in at least six of them,
notably those Of Contempt of Death, Of Friendship and Of
Repentance, he deals with themes also treated by Montaigne. But
the treatment is quite independent; indeed, the essay Of Repent-
ance, with its definitely Christian doctrine, forms a striking
contrast to Montaigne's famous essay on the same subject. The
style is that of the History, diffuse and unequal—pregnant phrases
of high imaginative beauty alternating with sentences a page long-
but always that of a sincere and serious thinker, of one who is
learned, high-minded and conversant with affairs. Alike in thought
and in style, Clarendon's essays belong to the Caroline age.
Thus, the essay, with its near allies, the literary preface and
the political pamphlet, played a large part in the formation of the
new prose. We have seen that it was in the same year (1665)
that Cowley and Dryden achieved independently the mastery of
1 Cf. ante, vol. vi, chap. IX.


## p. 390 (#412) ############################################

390 The Essay and Modern English Prose
6
their instruments. Cowley only played on his for a brief moment,
but Dryden's mastery became more and more perfect, till, in the
last year of the century, he produced his masterpiece in the
other harmony of prose’; the Preface to the Fables. In its
numerous digressions-'the nature of a Preface,' he says, 'is
rambling'-and in the pleasant intrusion of his own personality,
it reminds one happily of Montaigne? But the style is all
Dryden's own-short and well balanced sentences, restraint, lu-
cidity and precision, a tone of friendly intercourse with the reader,
an ease which never becomes familiarity, and a dignity which
never stiffens into pomposity. When, nine years later, Steele
wrote the first number of The Tatler, he found an instrument
ready to his hand. Steele's style suggests Dryden, just as Addi-
son's model in the first paper which he contributed to the same
journal is, obviously, Cowley. Steele and Addison addressed
themselves to a wider audience than Dryden, not only to scholars
and wits and courtiers, but to ordinary middle-class citizens; they
made the essay lighter, and introduced into it humour and a spice
of malice. But they were not the creators either of the essay or of
modern prose. The foundations of most of the literature of the
first half of the eighteenth century were already laid down in the
seventeenth. Dryden not only dominates his own age, but throws
his shadow over the next.
1 Cf. ante, chap. 1, p. 52.


## p. 391 (#413) ############################################

BIBLIOGRAPHIES
CHAPTER I
DRYDEN
The bibliography of Dryden's works has been much neglected by
bibliographers and the entries under his name in Lowndes's Bibliographer's
Manual are meagre in the extreme. Much has been done to remedy
this defect in some catalogues of great book collectors. Americans have
taken greater interest in the subject than Englishmen, and the important
Catalogue of an Exhibition of First and other editions of the Works of
John Dryden, 1631-1700, published by the Grolier Club of New York, 1900,
is of great value.
COLLECTED EDITIONS OF WORKS AND MISCELLANIES
The Works of Mr John Dryden. 1695.
The First volume. . . containing
Essay on Dramatick Poetry 1693. The Wild Gallant 1694. The
Rival-Ladies 1693. The Indian Emperour 1694. The Maiden Queen
1691. Sir Martin Marr-all 1691. The Tempest 1690. An Evening's
Love 1691. The Royal Martyr 1695. The Conquest of Granada 1695.
The Second volume. . . containing
Marriage À-la-Mode 1691. Love in a Nunnery 1692. Amboyna
1691. The State of Innocence 1695. Aureng-zebe 1694. All for Love
1696. Limberham 1690. Oedipus 1696. Troilus and Cressida 1695.
The Spanish Fryar 1695.
The Third volume. . . containing
The Duke of Guise 1687. Vindication of the Duke of Guise 1683.