These
measures gave a final blow to the old worship of the
empire; and although the senators, who, for the most
f*<
measures gave a final blow to the old worship of the
empire; and although the senators, who, for the most
f*<
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
" (Plut.
,
Lacon. Apophth , p. 227. )--II. The capital of the
Chorastnii in Oactriana. It is supposed to correspond
to the modem Urghenz. (Bischojj und Mollcr, Wor-
terk. der Geogr. , p. 567. )
Gorgunks, three celebrated sisters, daughters of
Phorcys and Ceto, whose names were Stheno, Euryale,
and Medusa, and who were all immortal except Me-
dusa. According to the mycologists, their hairs were
entwined with serpents, they had wings of gold, their
Hands were of brass, their body was covered with im-
penetrable scales, their teeth were as long as the tusks
of a wild boar, and they turned to stone all those on
whom they fixed their eyes. (Apollod. , 2, 4, 2. --
Tzttz. , ad Lye , 838. )--Homer speaks of an object of
terror which he calls Gorgo, and the Gorgonian head.
He places tho former on the shield of Agamemnon (//. ,
11,36), and, when describing Hector eager for slaugh-
ter, he says that he had " the eyes of Gorgo and of
man-destroying Ares. " (11. , 8, 348. ) The Gorgeian
head was on the aegis of Jupiter (It. , 5, 741), and the
oeroof the Odyssey fears to remain in Erebus, lest Pro-
serpina should send out " the Gorgeian head of the dire
monster" against him. (Oil. , 11, 633. ) ^Eschylus
calls the Gorgons the "three sisters of the Grais,
winged, serpent-fleeced, hateful to man, whom no one
can look on and retain the breath of existence. "
{Prom. V. , 804, seqq. ) The Gorgons and Graiee are
always mentioned together; and it was while the Graia;
were handing to one another their single eye (Yid.
Phorcydes) that Perseus intercepted it; and, having
thus blinded the guards, was enabled to come on the
Gorgons unperceived. (For an account of the legend
of Perseus and Medusa, consult each of those articles. )
According lo R. P. Knight, the Gorgon, or Medusa,
in the centre of Minerva's sgis, appears to have been
a symbol of the Moon (Orph. in Clem. Alex , Strom. ,
lib. 5, p. 675); exhibited sometimes with the charac-
ter and expression of the destroying, and sometimes
with those of the generative or preserving, attribute;
the former of which is expressed by the title of Gorgo,
and the latter by that of Medusa. It is sometimes
represented with serpents, and sometimes with fish, in
the hair; and occasionally with almost every symbol
of the passive generative or productive power; it being
the female personification of the Disk, by which almost
all the nations of antiquity represented the sun; and
? ? this female personification was the symbol of the Moon.
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? O rtA
GRACCHUS.
Kbuux the middle of the third cenfiry of jiir era, the
Goths are recorded to have crossed the Dniester, and
to hai e devastated Dacia and Thrace. The Emperor
Decius lost bis life in opposing them in Mccsia (A. D.
251,. aftei which his successor Gallus induced them
by money lo withdraw again to their old dwellings on
the Dniester. They then seem lo have sptead cast-
ward, and to have occupied the country about the
Cimmerian Bosporus, whe. icc they sailed across the
Euxine, occupied Trebisond, and ravaged Bithynia.
In the year 269 they landed in Macedonia, but were
defeated by the Emperor Claudius II. Three years
after, Aurelian gave up Dacia to a tribe of Goths, who
are believed lo have been the Visigoths or Western
Goths, while those who ravaged Asia Minor were the
Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths. This distinction of the
race into two grand divisions appears about this time.
Under Constantine I. the Goths from Dacia invaded
Illyricum, but were repelled. Constantine II. after-
wa'd allowed a part of them to settle in Mccsia, who
. seem to have soon after embraced Christianity, as it
was for them that Ulphilas translated the Scriptures,
about the middle of the 4th century, into the dialect
called Maeso-Gothic. About the year 375, the Huns,
coming from the East, fell upon the Ostrogoths, and
drove them upon the Visigoths, who were living north
of the Danube. Tho latter, being hard pressed, im-
plored permission of the Roman commander to be al-
lowed to cross that river, and take shelter on the ter-
ritory of the empire. The Emperor Valens consented,
and a vast multitude of them were allowed to settle in
Mccsia, but soon afterward they quarrelled with the
Roman authorities, invaded Thrace, and defeated and
killed Valens, who came to oppose them. From that
time they exercised great influence over the Byzantine
court, either as allies and mercenaries, or as formida-
ble enemies. Towards the end of the 4th century,
Alaric, being chosen king of the Visigoths, invaded
Northern Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho near Ve-
rona. He came again, however, about two years af-
ter, and took and plundered Rome. His successor
Ataulphus made peace with the empire, and repaired
to tho south of Gaul, where the Visigoths founded a
kingdom, from which they afterward passed into Spain,
where a Visigothic dynasty reigned for more than two
centuries till it was conquered by the Moors. Mean-
while the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths, who had set-
tled in Pannonia, after the destruction of the kingdom
of the Huns, extended their dominion over Noricum,
Rhastia, and Illyricum, and about the year 489 they in-
vaded Italy, under their king Theodoric, and defeated
Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who had assumed the
title of King of Italy, a title which Theodoric then
took for himself, with the consent of the Eastern em-
peror. Theodoric was a great prince: his reign was
a period of rest for Italy, and his wise administration
did much towards healing the wounds of that country.
But his successors degenerated, and the Gothic do-
minion over Italy lasted only till 544, when it was
overthrown by Narsea, the general of Justinian. From
thin time the Goths figure no longer as a power in the
history -of Western Europe, except in Spain. We
find, however, their name perpetuated long after in
Scandinavia, where a kingdom of Gothia existed until
the 12th century, distinct from Sweden Proper, until
both crowns were united on the head of Charles Swerk-
erson, A. D. 1161, who assumed the title of King of
? ? the Swedes and the Goths, which his successors bear
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? GRACCHUS.
8m Roman people; and, to enhance his own populari-
ty, Gracchus proposed to divide the treasure among
the recipients of land under the new law, to enable
u>m to stock their farms; and to commit the man-
agement of the kingdom of Pergamus to 'he popular
assembly. This brought matters to a greater pitch of
distrust than ever. Gracchus was accused by one
aerator of aspiring to tyranny, and by another of hav-
ing violated the sanctity of the tribunitian office in de-
posing Octavius. On this point Gracchus strove to
|ustify himself before the people, but his opponent
seemed to have gained an advantage so great as to in-
duce him to postpone the assembly. When at last
he did make his defence, it rested, if Plutarch is cor-
rect, on false analogies, and on avoiding the question
of the inviolability of a public officer. At this juncture
Gracchus seems to have trembled for that popularity
wcich alone preserved him from impeachment; and,
est it should fail, endeavoured to secure his own re-
flection to the office of tribune. The other party had
demurred as to his eligibility to the office two years
in succession, and on the day of election this point
occupied the assembly till nightfall. Next morning,
accompanied by a crowd of partisans, he went to the
CapUol; and, on hearing that the senate had deter-
mined to oppose him by force, armed his followers
with staves, and prepared to clear the Capitol. At
this juncture, Scipio Nasica, having in vain called on
the consul to take measures for the safety of the state,
issued from the temple of Faith, where the senate had
assembled, followed by the whole nobility of Rome,
awed the mob into flight, seized their weapons, and at-
tacked all who fell in their way. About three hun-
dred fell, and among the slain was Gracchus, who
was killed by repeated blows on the head, B. C. 133.
(fttf. , Vit. Tib. Graech. )--III. Caius, was nine
years younger than his brother Tiberius, and at his
death was left with Appius Claudius as commissioner
lor carrying out the Agrarian law. By the death of
Apphis, and of Tiberius' successor, Licinius Crassus,
the commission became composed of Fulvius Flaccus,
Papirius Carbo, and himself; but he refrained Irom
iaking any part in public affairs for more than ten
Tears after the death of Tiberius. During this time
the provisions of his brother's law were being carried
out by Carbo and Flaccus; but he does not seem to
have begun his career as an independent political
leade'until the year 123 B. C. , when, on his return
from Sardinia, where he had been for two years, he
? vas elected tribune of the commons. His first act
*a; to propose two laws, one of which, directed
gainst the degraded tribune Octavius, disqualified all
vao had been thus dejrrai'. cd from holding any magis-
acy; and the ot'ner, having in view Pompilius, a
imminent opponent of the popular party, denounced
. he banishment of a Roman citizen without trial as a
violation of the Rom&n laws. The first wan never
carried through; to the latter was added a third, by
which Pompilius was banished from Italy, or, accord-
ing to technical phraseology, interdicted from fire and
*ater These measures of offence were followed by
others, by which he aimed at establishing his own
popnlarity. One of these was a poor-law, by which
l monthly distribution of corn was made to the people
? t an almost nominal price. The effect of this law
*as to make the population of Rome paupers, and to
attract all Italy to partake of the bounty. Next came
organic changes, as they would now be called; and
? ? of these the most important was the transference of
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? G RA
be drawn. He had left his house, it is said,
in his ordinary dress; he had been urgent with Ful-
vius to propose terms of accommodation to the senate;
and now, when the Aventine was attacked, he took
perso i;illv no part in the action. The contest, indeed,
was soon over; the rebels were presently dispersed;
Fulvvus was dragged from the place to which he had
fled for refuge, and was put to death; while Gracchus,
finding himself closely pursued, fled across the Tiber,
<<nd, taking shelter in a grove sacred to the Furies
more correctly, perhaps, to the goddess Furina), was
iiMril, at his own desire, by a single servant who had
accompanied his flight. His head, together with that
of Fulvius, was cut off and carried to the consul, in
order to obtain the price which had been set upon both
by a proclamation issued at the beginning of the en-
gagement; and the bodies, as well as those of all who
had perished on the same side, were thrown into the
river. In addition to this, the houses of Gracchus and
Fulvius were given up to plunder, their property was
confiscated, and even the wife of Gracchus was de-
prived of her own jointure. It is said that in this se-
dition there perished altogether of the partisans of the
popular leaders about 3000, partly in the action, and
partly by summary executions afterward, under the
consul's orders. --The career of the two Gracchi was,
in many respects, so similar, and the circumstances of
their death bore so much resemblance to each other,
that it is not wonderful if historians should have com-
prehended both the brothers under one common judg-
ment, and have pronounced in common their acquittal
or their condemnation. But the conduct of Caius ad-
mits of far less excuse than that of Tiberius; and his
death was the deserved punishment of rebellion, while
that of his brother was an unjustifiable murder. The
character of Caius is by no means as stainless as his
brother's; he was more of a popular leader, and much
less of a patriot than Tiberius; the one was injured
by power, but the other seems from the beginning to
have aimed at little else. The elder brother was head
af a party which owed its existence to his principles
is a politician. The younger took the lead in that
party when it had been regularly formed, and, in his
eagerness to obtain that post, he regulated his conduct
by his wishes. The death of Tiberius may, as we
have already remarked, be justly called a murder; that
of Caius, or that which he would have suffered had
not the slave prevented it, was nothing more than an
execution under martial law. (Plut. , Vil. C. Gracck.
--Encycl. Mctropol. , div. 3, vol. 2, p. 97, scqq. )--IV.
Sempronius, a Roman nobleman, banished to Cerci-
na, an island off the coast of Africa, for his adulterous
intercourse with Julia, the daughter of A'igustus.
After an exile of 14 years, he was put to death by a
party of soldiers sent for that purpose by Tiberius.
(Tacit. , Ann. , 1, 53. )
GRADIVUD, an appellation for Mars among the Ro-
mans, the etymology of which is quite uncertain.
The common derivation is from gradior, '? to ad-
vance," i. e. , against the foe. There appears to be
? nine, analogy in its formation to that of the Sanscrit
MiilMiln-u, i. e. , "magnus deus. " (Pott, Etymol.
Forsch. , p. Ivii. )
<li! ,-vi u, the country of Greece. (Vid. Hellas. )
GRJECIA MAONA. Vid. Magna Grecia.
GRAI/B. Vid. Phorcydes.
GPAMPIUS MONS, a mountain of Caledonia, forming
? ne of a large range of mountains extending from east
? ? to west through almost the whole breadth of modern
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? G RE
GREGORIUS.
empire during the minority of his brother Valentiaian,
called to him young Theodosius, who had distinguish-
ed himself in the Roman armies, but had retired into
Spain after his father's death. Gratianus appointed
him his colleague, a choice equally creditable to both
and fortunate for the empire, and gave him the prov-
inces of the East. Gratianus returned to Italy, and
resided for some time at Mediolanum (Milan), where
ne became intimate with St. Ambrose. He was
obliged, however, soon alter to hasten to Illyricum,
to the assistance of Theodosius, and he repelled the
Goths, who were threatening Thrace. Thence he was
obliged to hasten to the banks of the Rhine, to fight
the Alemanni and other barbarians. Having returned
to Mediolanum in the year 381, he had to defend the
fron. iers of Italy from other tribes, who were advan-
cing on the side of Rhrrtia. Gratianus enacted sev-
eral wise laws, by one of which he checked mendicity,
which had spread to an alarming extent in Italy. He
also showed himself stern and unyielding towards the
remains of the heathen worship. At Rome he over-
threw the altar of Victory, which had continued to
exist; he confiscated the property attached to it, as
well as all that which belonged to the other priests
and the vestals. He also refused to assume the title
ind-insignia of Pontifex Maximus. a dignity till then
considered as annexed to that of emperor.
These
measures gave a final blow to the old worship of the
empire; and although the senators, who, for the most
f*<
were still attached to it, sent him a deputation,
at the hod of which was Symmachus, they could not
obtain any mitigation of his decrees. In the year 383,
a certain Maximus revolted in Britain, and was pro-
chimed emperor by the soldiers, to whom he promised
to reestablish the temples and the old religion of the
empire. He invaded Gaul, where he found numerous
sartisans Gratianus, who was then, according to
>>me, on the Rhine, advanced to meet him, but was
farssker. by most of his troops, and obliged to hasten
towards Italy. Orosius and others, however, state
that the emperor received the news of the revolt while
in Italy, and that he hurried across the Alps with a
Jmall retinue as far as Lugdunum (Lyons). All, how-
ever, agree in saying that lie was seized at Lugdunum,
md put to death by the partisans of Maximus. He
was little more than 24 years of age, and had reigned
about eight years. Historians agree in praising him
for bis justice and kindness, and his zeal for the pub-
lic good; and Ammianus Marcellinus, who is not lia-
ble to the charge of partiality towards the Christians,
adds, that, had he lived longer, he would have rivalled
he best emperors of ancient Rome, (he Beau, Bas-
Empire, vol. 2, p. 492, xcqq. -- Encycl. Us. Knowl. ,
rol. 10, p. 365. )
Gkatius Faliscus, a Latin poet, contemporary with
Ovid, hy whom he is once mentioned (Ep. ex Panto,
I, ult. 33). He wrote a poem on hunting, entitled
Cynefrelica, of which we have 540 verses remaining.
Prom the silence, however, preserved respecting him
iy the writers after his time, we may fairly infer that
bis poem remained in gTeat obscurity, and was only
rarely copied: hence we have but one manuscript of
it remaining. The production in question is not with-
out merit; still however, it is somewhat dry. The
? trie is, in general, pure. The best edition is that jf
Wemsdorff, in the Poeta Latini Minores. (Bahr,
Gesch. Rim. Lit. , vol. 1, p. 204. )
? ? Gregorios, I. surnamed Tkaomatukoos, or Won-
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? . GREG0R. 1US.
wnpha He then pleads guilty to the charge of not
Keeping ip the splendour of his offico by a luxurious
table and a magnificent retinue, aaying that he was not
aware that the ministers of the sanctuary were to vie
in pomp with iho consuls and commanders of armies.
After rebuking the ambition and rivalry of his col-
iaagues, which he compares to the factions of the cir-
cus, he terminates by taking an affectionate leave ofl
>>! 1 those around him, and of the places dear to his
memory. This valedictory address is a touching spe-
cimen of the pathetic style, dignified and unmixed with
querulousness. The orator salutes for ta>> last time
the splendid temple in which he is speaking, and then
turns towards his humble but beloved chapel of Anas-
tasia, to the choirs of virgins and matrons, of widows
and orphans, so often gathered there to hear his voice;
and he mentions the short-hand writers who used to
note down his words. He next bids "farewell to
kings and their palaces, and to the courtiers and ser-
vants of kings; faithful, I trust, to your master, but
for the most part faithless towards God; farewell to
the sovereign city, the friend of Christ, but yet open
to correction and repentance; farewell to the Eastern
and Western world, for whose sake I have striven, and
for whose sake I am now slighted. " He concludes
with recommending his flock to the guardian angels of
peace, in hopes of hearing from the place of his retire-
ment that it is daily growing in wisdom and virtue.
S. Gregorii Naziameni, Opera, Oral. 32, ed. Billy. )
This oration was delivered in June, AD. 381, and a
few days after Gregory was on his way to his native
Cappadocia. Arrived at Cesarea, he delivered an im-
pressive funeral oration to the memory of his friend
Basilius, who had died there some time before, in
which he recalls to mind their juvenile studies at
Athens, their long intimacy, and the events of their
:heckered lives (Oral. 20). After paying this last
tribute to the memory of his friend, he withdrew to
his native Arianzus, where he spent the latter years
? f his life, far from the turmoil of courts and councils,
tusy in the cultivation of his garden and in writing
poetry, a favourite occupation with him from his youth.
Gregory died A. D. 389. Most of his poems are reli-
gious meditations. Occasionally the poet attempts to
Jive into the mysterious destiny of man, and some-
times appears lost in uncertainty and doubt as to the
object of human existence; but he recovers himself to
do homage to the Almighty wisdom whose secrets will
become revealed in another sphere. The adept in the
philosophy of ancient Greece is here seen striving with
the submissive Christian convert. St. Jerome and
Suidas say that Gregory wrote no less than thirty thou-
sand lines of poetry. Some of his poems were pub-
lished in the edition of his works by the Abbe de
Billy, Paris, 1609-11, which contains also his orations
and epistles; twenty more pooms, under the title of
'? Carmina Cygnea," were afterward published by Tol-
lius, in his " Insignia Itinerarii Italici," 4to, Utrecht,
1696; and Muratori discovered, and published in his
"Anecdota Graaca," Padua, 1709, a number of Grego-
ry's epigrams. Of his orations some lew turn upon
dogmas, especially on that of the Trinity, but most of
them are upon morality. He is a soberer writer than
his successor Chrysostom, and has more of the calm,
impressive eloquence of conviction. He and his friend
Basilius brought the oratorical arts of ancient Greece
into the service of Christian preaching, and one of
Gregory's greatest complaints against Julian is, that
? ? that emperor had forbidden Christians the study of
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? <<vo
GTN
jlitl ! ep. rt s them as having practised mining in Up-
jirr Ami. Hence, according to him, the gold of the
griffons is nothing more than the gold obtained from
mines. (Ertoeschr. ton Ost. , p. 488, scqq. ) Malte-
Brun remarks, that in the mountains where the Indus
rises, and where there are gold-mines, eagles-and
vultures of an enormous size are found, which may
fcive given rise to the fable respecting the griffons.
(>'<mw#. , Annul, des Voyag. , vol. 2, p. 380, scqq. )
Rhode seeks to identify the griffons with the Dews,
or evil genii of Persian mythology (Hcilige Sage, p.
W. wo), for which he is justly censured by Von
Hammer (Wien. Jahrb. , vol. 9, p. 53); and Wilford,
with as little probability, refers the account of the grif-
fons to that of the fabled bird of Vischnu, named Ga-
? timid. (Anal. Researches, vol. 14, p. 373. )--As re-
gards the name yptnp itself, it evidently comes from the
Persian gercifen, "to seize" (compare the German
preifen), the root of which, greif, has a strong analogy
to ypvf. (Tychsen. op. Heercn, Uecn, vol. 1, pt. 2,
p. 386-- Bakr, ad Herod. , 3, 116, Ercurs. , 5. )
Gtards, a small island of the Archipelago, classed
by Stephanus of Byzantium among the Sporades, but
belonging rather to the Cyclades. It lay southwest of
\ndros, off tiie coast of Attica. So wretched and poor
was this barren rock, being inhabited only by a few
fishermen, that they deputed one of their number to
wait upon Augustus, then at Corinth, after the battle
ol Actium, to petition that their taxes, which amount-
ed to 150 drachma? (about 25 dollars), might be dimin-
ished, as they were unable to raise more than 100.
(Strah. , 485. ) This island became subsequently no-
torious, as the spot to which criminals or suspected
persons were banished by order of the Roman em-
perors. (Juv. , Sat. , i,"3--Jd, Sat. , 10, 70. -- Tacit. ,
3, 68. ) The modern name is Ghioura. (Cramer's
Am. Greece, vol. 3, p. 413. )
Gyas, I. one of the companions of /Eneas, who dis-
tinguished himself at the games exhibited after the
death of Anchises in Sicily. (Virg. , JEn. , 5, 118. )--
II. A Rutulian, son of Melampus, killed by . -Eneas in
Italy. (Jo! . ,'10, 318. )
Grogs (r>>)T/c), more correctly Gtks (Tint), a son
of Castas and Terra, represented as having a hundred
bands. He, with his brothers, made war against the
gods, and was afterward punished in Tartarus. (Vid.
Cotlus. )
Gtgis, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of the
country, showed his wife with her person exposed.
The latter was so incensed, although she concealed
her anger at the time, that, calling Gygea afterward
into her presence, she gave him his choice either to
submit to instant death, or to slay her husband. Gyges
chose the latter alternative, married the queen, and as-
cended the vacant throne, about 718 years before the
Christian era. He was the first of the Mermnadse
who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 38 years, and dis-
tinguished himself by the presents which he made to
the oracle of Delphi. (Herodot. , I, 8, scqq. ) The
wife of Candaules above mentioned was called Nyssia
according to Hephaestion. --The story of Rosamund,
}uecn of the Lombards, as related by Gibbon, bears an
exact resemblance to this of Candaules. (Compare
Schlatter, Weltgcschichtc, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 82. )--Pla-
to relates a curious legend respecting this Gyges,
which differs essentially from the account given by
Herodotus. He makes him to have been originally
? ? one of the shepherds of Candaules, and to have de-
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? HAD
HADRIANUS
llvTiiSta, the port of Sparta, about 40 stadia from
I-as (I'aiuan. , 3, 24), and 240 from Sparta itself.
(Slraiio, 363. ) Pliny says it was the nearest point to
embark from for the island of Crete (4, 5). Gytheum
was taken by the Athenians under Tolmidas, who
burnt the docks before the Peloponnesian war. {Di-
odurus Sic. , 11, 84. ) It was also attacked by the
Thebans in their first invasion of Laconia, for three
days, but without success. (Xen. , Hist. Gr. , 6,5,32. )
It was afterward besieged by the Roman army under
the command of T. Q. Flamininus and his brother Lu-
cius, and compelled to surrender. Livy says it was a
stiong and populous town, and well provided with the
means of resistance (34, 29). On the renewal of the
war, it was, however, retaken by Nabis. [Liv. , 3S,
26. --Compare Polyb. , 2, 69. ) The Gytheatse pre-
tended that their city had been built by Hercules and
Apollo, whose statues were placed in the forum. ! 'o-
lylnus states (5, 19), that the port, distant 30 stadia
from the city itself, was both commodious and secure.
Sirabo remarks, that it was an artificial haven. Gy-
theum stood a little to the north of the present town of
Marathonisi. The site is now called Palceopoli, but
no habitation is left upon it. (Cramer's Arte. Greece,
vol 3, p. 192, seqq.
Lacon. Apophth , p. 227. )--II. The capital of the
Chorastnii in Oactriana. It is supposed to correspond
to the modem Urghenz. (Bischojj und Mollcr, Wor-
terk. der Geogr. , p. 567. )
Gorgunks, three celebrated sisters, daughters of
Phorcys and Ceto, whose names were Stheno, Euryale,
and Medusa, and who were all immortal except Me-
dusa. According to the mycologists, their hairs were
entwined with serpents, they had wings of gold, their
Hands were of brass, their body was covered with im-
penetrable scales, their teeth were as long as the tusks
of a wild boar, and they turned to stone all those on
whom they fixed their eyes. (Apollod. , 2, 4, 2. --
Tzttz. , ad Lye , 838. )--Homer speaks of an object of
terror which he calls Gorgo, and the Gorgonian head.
He places tho former on the shield of Agamemnon (//. ,
11,36), and, when describing Hector eager for slaugh-
ter, he says that he had " the eyes of Gorgo and of
man-destroying Ares. " (11. , 8, 348. ) The Gorgeian
head was on the aegis of Jupiter (It. , 5, 741), and the
oeroof the Odyssey fears to remain in Erebus, lest Pro-
serpina should send out " the Gorgeian head of the dire
monster" against him. (Oil. , 11, 633. ) ^Eschylus
calls the Gorgons the "three sisters of the Grais,
winged, serpent-fleeced, hateful to man, whom no one
can look on and retain the breath of existence. "
{Prom. V. , 804, seqq. ) The Gorgons and Graiee are
always mentioned together; and it was while the Graia;
were handing to one another their single eye (Yid.
Phorcydes) that Perseus intercepted it; and, having
thus blinded the guards, was enabled to come on the
Gorgons unperceived. (For an account of the legend
of Perseus and Medusa, consult each of those articles. )
According lo R. P. Knight, the Gorgon, or Medusa,
in the centre of Minerva's sgis, appears to have been
a symbol of the Moon (Orph. in Clem. Alex , Strom. ,
lib. 5, p. 675); exhibited sometimes with the charac-
ter and expression of the destroying, and sometimes
with those of the generative or preserving, attribute;
the former of which is expressed by the title of Gorgo,
and the latter by that of Medusa. It is sometimes
represented with serpents, and sometimes with fish, in
the hair; and occasionally with almost every symbol
of the passive generative or productive power; it being
the female personification of the Disk, by which almost
all the nations of antiquity represented the sun; and
? ? this female personification was the symbol of the Moon.
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? O rtA
GRACCHUS.
Kbuux the middle of the third cenfiry of jiir era, the
Goths are recorded to have crossed the Dniester, and
to hai e devastated Dacia and Thrace. The Emperor
Decius lost bis life in opposing them in Mccsia (A. D.
251,. aftei which his successor Gallus induced them
by money lo withdraw again to their old dwellings on
the Dniester. They then seem lo have sptead cast-
ward, and to have occupied the country about the
Cimmerian Bosporus, whe. icc they sailed across the
Euxine, occupied Trebisond, and ravaged Bithynia.
In the year 269 they landed in Macedonia, but were
defeated by the Emperor Claudius II. Three years
after, Aurelian gave up Dacia to a tribe of Goths, who
are believed lo have been the Visigoths or Western
Goths, while those who ravaged Asia Minor were the
Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths. This distinction of the
race into two grand divisions appears about this time.
Under Constantine I. the Goths from Dacia invaded
Illyricum, but were repelled. Constantine II. after-
wa'd allowed a part of them to settle in Mccsia, who
. seem to have soon after embraced Christianity, as it
was for them that Ulphilas translated the Scriptures,
about the middle of the 4th century, into the dialect
called Maeso-Gothic. About the year 375, the Huns,
coming from the East, fell upon the Ostrogoths, and
drove them upon the Visigoths, who were living north
of the Danube. Tho latter, being hard pressed, im-
plored permission of the Roman commander to be al-
lowed to cross that river, and take shelter on the ter-
ritory of the empire. The Emperor Valens consented,
and a vast multitude of them were allowed to settle in
Mccsia, but soon afterward they quarrelled with the
Roman authorities, invaded Thrace, and defeated and
killed Valens, who came to oppose them. From that
time they exercised great influence over the Byzantine
court, either as allies and mercenaries, or as formida-
ble enemies. Towards the end of the 4th century,
Alaric, being chosen king of the Visigoths, invaded
Northern Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho near Ve-
rona. He came again, however, about two years af-
ter, and took and plundered Rome. His successor
Ataulphus made peace with the empire, and repaired
to tho south of Gaul, where the Visigoths founded a
kingdom, from which they afterward passed into Spain,
where a Visigothic dynasty reigned for more than two
centuries till it was conquered by the Moors. Mean-
while the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths, who had set-
tled in Pannonia, after the destruction of the kingdom
of the Huns, extended their dominion over Noricum,
Rhastia, and Illyricum, and about the year 489 they in-
vaded Italy, under their king Theodoric, and defeated
Odoacer, king of the Heruli, who had assumed the
title of King of Italy, a title which Theodoric then
took for himself, with the consent of the Eastern em-
peror. Theodoric was a great prince: his reign was
a period of rest for Italy, and his wise administration
did much towards healing the wounds of that country.
But his successors degenerated, and the Gothic do-
minion over Italy lasted only till 544, when it was
overthrown by Narsea, the general of Justinian. From
thin time the Goths figure no longer as a power in the
history -of Western Europe, except in Spain. We
find, however, their name perpetuated long after in
Scandinavia, where a kingdom of Gothia existed until
the 12th century, distinct from Sweden Proper, until
both crowns were united on the head of Charles Swerk-
erson, A. D. 1161, who assumed the title of King of
? ? the Swedes and the Goths, which his successors bear
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? GRACCHUS.
8m Roman people; and, to enhance his own populari-
ty, Gracchus proposed to divide the treasure among
the recipients of land under the new law, to enable
u>m to stock their farms; and to commit the man-
agement of the kingdom of Pergamus to 'he popular
assembly. This brought matters to a greater pitch of
distrust than ever. Gracchus was accused by one
aerator of aspiring to tyranny, and by another of hav-
ing violated the sanctity of the tribunitian office in de-
posing Octavius. On this point Gracchus strove to
|ustify himself before the people, but his opponent
seemed to have gained an advantage so great as to in-
duce him to postpone the assembly. When at last
he did make his defence, it rested, if Plutarch is cor-
rect, on false analogies, and on avoiding the question
of the inviolability of a public officer. At this juncture
Gracchus seems to have trembled for that popularity
wcich alone preserved him from impeachment; and,
est it should fail, endeavoured to secure his own re-
flection to the office of tribune. The other party had
demurred as to his eligibility to the office two years
in succession, and on the day of election this point
occupied the assembly till nightfall. Next morning,
accompanied by a crowd of partisans, he went to the
CapUol; and, on hearing that the senate had deter-
mined to oppose him by force, armed his followers
with staves, and prepared to clear the Capitol. At
this juncture, Scipio Nasica, having in vain called on
the consul to take measures for the safety of the state,
issued from the temple of Faith, where the senate had
assembled, followed by the whole nobility of Rome,
awed the mob into flight, seized their weapons, and at-
tacked all who fell in their way. About three hun-
dred fell, and among the slain was Gracchus, who
was killed by repeated blows on the head, B. C. 133.
(fttf. , Vit. Tib. Graech. )--III. Caius, was nine
years younger than his brother Tiberius, and at his
death was left with Appius Claudius as commissioner
lor carrying out the Agrarian law. By the death of
Apphis, and of Tiberius' successor, Licinius Crassus,
the commission became composed of Fulvius Flaccus,
Papirius Carbo, and himself; but he refrained Irom
iaking any part in public affairs for more than ten
Tears after the death of Tiberius. During this time
the provisions of his brother's law were being carried
out by Carbo and Flaccus; but he does not seem to
have begun his career as an independent political
leade'until the year 123 B. C. , when, on his return
from Sardinia, where he had been for two years, he
? vas elected tribune of the commons. His first act
*a; to propose two laws, one of which, directed
gainst the degraded tribune Octavius, disqualified all
vao had been thus dejrrai'. cd from holding any magis-
acy; and the ot'ner, having in view Pompilius, a
imminent opponent of the popular party, denounced
. he banishment of a Roman citizen without trial as a
violation of the Rom&n laws. The first wan never
carried through; to the latter was added a third, by
which Pompilius was banished from Italy, or, accord-
ing to technical phraseology, interdicted from fire and
*ater These measures of offence were followed by
others, by which he aimed at establishing his own
popnlarity. One of these was a poor-law, by which
l monthly distribution of corn was made to the people
? t an almost nominal price. The effect of this law
*as to make the population of Rome paupers, and to
attract all Italy to partake of the bounty. Next came
organic changes, as they would now be called; and
? ? of these the most important was the transference of
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? G RA
be drawn. He had left his house, it is said,
in his ordinary dress; he had been urgent with Ful-
vius to propose terms of accommodation to the senate;
and now, when the Aventine was attacked, he took
perso i;illv no part in the action. The contest, indeed,
was soon over; the rebels were presently dispersed;
Fulvvus was dragged from the place to which he had
fled for refuge, and was put to death; while Gracchus,
finding himself closely pursued, fled across the Tiber,
<<nd, taking shelter in a grove sacred to the Furies
more correctly, perhaps, to the goddess Furina), was
iiMril, at his own desire, by a single servant who had
accompanied his flight. His head, together with that
of Fulvius, was cut off and carried to the consul, in
order to obtain the price which had been set upon both
by a proclamation issued at the beginning of the en-
gagement; and the bodies, as well as those of all who
had perished on the same side, were thrown into the
river. In addition to this, the houses of Gracchus and
Fulvius were given up to plunder, their property was
confiscated, and even the wife of Gracchus was de-
prived of her own jointure. It is said that in this se-
dition there perished altogether of the partisans of the
popular leaders about 3000, partly in the action, and
partly by summary executions afterward, under the
consul's orders. --The career of the two Gracchi was,
in many respects, so similar, and the circumstances of
their death bore so much resemblance to each other,
that it is not wonderful if historians should have com-
prehended both the brothers under one common judg-
ment, and have pronounced in common their acquittal
or their condemnation. But the conduct of Caius ad-
mits of far less excuse than that of Tiberius; and his
death was the deserved punishment of rebellion, while
that of his brother was an unjustifiable murder. The
character of Caius is by no means as stainless as his
brother's; he was more of a popular leader, and much
less of a patriot than Tiberius; the one was injured
by power, but the other seems from the beginning to
have aimed at little else. The elder brother was head
af a party which owed its existence to his principles
is a politician. The younger took the lead in that
party when it had been regularly formed, and, in his
eagerness to obtain that post, he regulated his conduct
by his wishes. The death of Tiberius may, as we
have already remarked, be justly called a murder; that
of Caius, or that which he would have suffered had
not the slave prevented it, was nothing more than an
execution under martial law. (Plut. , Vil. C. Gracck.
--Encycl. Mctropol. , div. 3, vol. 2, p. 97, scqq. )--IV.
Sempronius, a Roman nobleman, banished to Cerci-
na, an island off the coast of Africa, for his adulterous
intercourse with Julia, the daughter of A'igustus.
After an exile of 14 years, he was put to death by a
party of soldiers sent for that purpose by Tiberius.
(Tacit. , Ann. , 1, 53. )
GRADIVUD, an appellation for Mars among the Ro-
mans, the etymology of which is quite uncertain.
The common derivation is from gradior, '? to ad-
vance," i. e. , against the foe. There appears to be
? nine, analogy in its formation to that of the Sanscrit
MiilMiln-u, i. e. , "magnus deus. " (Pott, Etymol.
Forsch. , p. Ivii. )
<li! ,-vi u, the country of Greece. (Vid. Hellas. )
GRJECIA MAONA. Vid. Magna Grecia.
GRAI/B. Vid. Phorcydes.
GPAMPIUS MONS, a mountain of Caledonia, forming
? ne of a large range of mountains extending from east
? ? to west through almost the whole breadth of modern
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? G RE
GREGORIUS.
empire during the minority of his brother Valentiaian,
called to him young Theodosius, who had distinguish-
ed himself in the Roman armies, but had retired into
Spain after his father's death. Gratianus appointed
him his colleague, a choice equally creditable to both
and fortunate for the empire, and gave him the prov-
inces of the East. Gratianus returned to Italy, and
resided for some time at Mediolanum (Milan), where
ne became intimate with St. Ambrose. He was
obliged, however, soon alter to hasten to Illyricum,
to the assistance of Theodosius, and he repelled the
Goths, who were threatening Thrace. Thence he was
obliged to hasten to the banks of the Rhine, to fight
the Alemanni and other barbarians. Having returned
to Mediolanum in the year 381, he had to defend the
fron. iers of Italy from other tribes, who were advan-
cing on the side of Rhrrtia. Gratianus enacted sev-
eral wise laws, by one of which he checked mendicity,
which had spread to an alarming extent in Italy. He
also showed himself stern and unyielding towards the
remains of the heathen worship. At Rome he over-
threw the altar of Victory, which had continued to
exist; he confiscated the property attached to it, as
well as all that which belonged to the other priests
and the vestals. He also refused to assume the title
ind-insignia of Pontifex Maximus. a dignity till then
considered as annexed to that of emperor.
These
measures gave a final blow to the old worship of the
empire; and although the senators, who, for the most
f*<
at the hod of which was Symmachus, they could not
obtain any mitigation of his decrees. In the year 383,
a certain Maximus revolted in Britain, and was pro-
chimed emperor by the soldiers, to whom he promised
to reestablish the temples and the old religion of the
empire. He invaded Gaul, where he found numerous
sartisans Gratianus, who was then, according to
>>me, on the Rhine, advanced to meet him, but was
farssker. by most of his troops, and obliged to hasten
towards Italy. Orosius and others, however, state
that the emperor received the news of the revolt while
in Italy, and that he hurried across the Alps with a
Jmall retinue as far as Lugdunum (Lyons). All, how-
ever, agree in saying that lie was seized at Lugdunum,
md put to death by the partisans of Maximus. He
was little more than 24 years of age, and had reigned
about eight years. Historians agree in praising him
for bis justice and kindness, and his zeal for the pub-
lic good; and Ammianus Marcellinus, who is not lia-
ble to the charge of partiality towards the Christians,
adds, that, had he lived longer, he would have rivalled
he best emperors of ancient Rome, (he Beau, Bas-
Empire, vol. 2, p. 492, xcqq. -- Encycl. Us. Knowl. ,
rol. 10, p. 365. )
Gkatius Faliscus, a Latin poet, contemporary with
Ovid, hy whom he is once mentioned (Ep. ex Panto,
I, ult. 33). He wrote a poem on hunting, entitled
Cynefrelica, of which we have 540 verses remaining.
Prom the silence, however, preserved respecting him
iy the writers after his time, we may fairly infer that
bis poem remained in gTeat obscurity, and was only
rarely copied: hence we have but one manuscript of
it remaining. The production in question is not with-
out merit; still however, it is somewhat dry. The
? trie is, in general, pure. The best edition is that jf
Wemsdorff, in the Poeta Latini Minores. (Bahr,
Gesch. Rim. Lit. , vol. 1, p. 204. )
? ? Gregorios, I. surnamed Tkaomatukoos, or Won-
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? . GREG0R. 1US.
wnpha He then pleads guilty to the charge of not
Keeping ip the splendour of his offico by a luxurious
table and a magnificent retinue, aaying that he was not
aware that the ministers of the sanctuary were to vie
in pomp with iho consuls and commanders of armies.
After rebuking the ambition and rivalry of his col-
iaagues, which he compares to the factions of the cir-
cus, he terminates by taking an affectionate leave ofl
>>! 1 those around him, and of the places dear to his
memory. This valedictory address is a touching spe-
cimen of the pathetic style, dignified and unmixed with
querulousness. The orator salutes for ta>> last time
the splendid temple in which he is speaking, and then
turns towards his humble but beloved chapel of Anas-
tasia, to the choirs of virgins and matrons, of widows
and orphans, so often gathered there to hear his voice;
and he mentions the short-hand writers who used to
note down his words. He next bids "farewell to
kings and their palaces, and to the courtiers and ser-
vants of kings; faithful, I trust, to your master, but
for the most part faithless towards God; farewell to
the sovereign city, the friend of Christ, but yet open
to correction and repentance; farewell to the Eastern
and Western world, for whose sake I have striven, and
for whose sake I am now slighted. " He concludes
with recommending his flock to the guardian angels of
peace, in hopes of hearing from the place of his retire-
ment that it is daily growing in wisdom and virtue.
S. Gregorii Naziameni, Opera, Oral. 32, ed. Billy. )
This oration was delivered in June, AD. 381, and a
few days after Gregory was on his way to his native
Cappadocia. Arrived at Cesarea, he delivered an im-
pressive funeral oration to the memory of his friend
Basilius, who had died there some time before, in
which he recalls to mind their juvenile studies at
Athens, their long intimacy, and the events of their
:heckered lives (Oral. 20). After paying this last
tribute to the memory of his friend, he withdrew to
his native Arianzus, where he spent the latter years
? f his life, far from the turmoil of courts and councils,
tusy in the cultivation of his garden and in writing
poetry, a favourite occupation with him from his youth.
Gregory died A. D. 389. Most of his poems are reli-
gious meditations. Occasionally the poet attempts to
Jive into the mysterious destiny of man, and some-
times appears lost in uncertainty and doubt as to the
object of human existence; but he recovers himself to
do homage to the Almighty wisdom whose secrets will
become revealed in another sphere. The adept in the
philosophy of ancient Greece is here seen striving with
the submissive Christian convert. St. Jerome and
Suidas say that Gregory wrote no less than thirty thou-
sand lines of poetry. Some of his poems were pub-
lished in the edition of his works by the Abbe de
Billy, Paris, 1609-11, which contains also his orations
and epistles; twenty more pooms, under the title of
'? Carmina Cygnea," were afterward published by Tol-
lius, in his " Insignia Itinerarii Italici," 4to, Utrecht,
1696; and Muratori discovered, and published in his
"Anecdota Graaca," Padua, 1709, a number of Grego-
ry's epigrams. Of his orations some lew turn upon
dogmas, especially on that of the Trinity, but most of
them are upon morality. He is a soberer writer than
his successor Chrysostom, and has more of the calm,
impressive eloquence of conviction. He and his friend
Basilius brought the oratorical arts of ancient Greece
into the service of Christian preaching, and one of
Gregory's greatest complaints against Julian is, that
? ? that emperor had forbidden Christians the study of
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? <<vo
GTN
jlitl ! ep. rt s them as having practised mining in Up-
jirr Ami. Hence, according to him, the gold of the
griffons is nothing more than the gold obtained from
mines. (Ertoeschr. ton Ost. , p. 488, scqq. ) Malte-
Brun remarks, that in the mountains where the Indus
rises, and where there are gold-mines, eagles-and
vultures of an enormous size are found, which may
fcive given rise to the fable respecting the griffons.
(>'<mw#. , Annul, des Voyag. , vol. 2, p. 380, scqq. )
Rhode seeks to identify the griffons with the Dews,
or evil genii of Persian mythology (Hcilige Sage, p.
W. wo), for which he is justly censured by Von
Hammer (Wien. Jahrb. , vol. 9, p. 53); and Wilford,
with as little probability, refers the account of the grif-
fons to that of the fabled bird of Vischnu, named Ga-
? timid. (Anal. Researches, vol. 14, p. 373. )--As re-
gards the name yptnp itself, it evidently comes from the
Persian gercifen, "to seize" (compare the German
preifen), the root of which, greif, has a strong analogy
to ypvf. (Tychsen. op. Heercn, Uecn, vol. 1, pt. 2,
p. 386-- Bakr, ad Herod. , 3, 116, Ercurs. , 5. )
Gtards, a small island of the Archipelago, classed
by Stephanus of Byzantium among the Sporades, but
belonging rather to the Cyclades. It lay southwest of
\ndros, off tiie coast of Attica. So wretched and poor
was this barren rock, being inhabited only by a few
fishermen, that they deputed one of their number to
wait upon Augustus, then at Corinth, after the battle
ol Actium, to petition that their taxes, which amount-
ed to 150 drachma? (about 25 dollars), might be dimin-
ished, as they were unable to raise more than 100.
(Strah. , 485. ) This island became subsequently no-
torious, as the spot to which criminals or suspected
persons were banished by order of the Roman em-
perors. (Juv. , Sat. , i,"3--Jd, Sat. , 10, 70. -- Tacit. ,
3, 68. ) The modern name is Ghioura. (Cramer's
Am. Greece, vol. 3, p. 413. )
Gyas, I. one of the companions of /Eneas, who dis-
tinguished himself at the games exhibited after the
death of Anchises in Sicily. (Virg. , JEn. , 5, 118. )--
II. A Rutulian, son of Melampus, killed by . -Eneas in
Italy. (Jo! . ,'10, 318. )
Grogs (r>>)T/c), more correctly Gtks (Tint), a son
of Castas and Terra, represented as having a hundred
bands. He, with his brothers, made war against the
gods, and was afterward punished in Tartarus. (Vid.
Cotlus. )
Gtgis, a Lydian, to whom Candaules, king of the
country, showed his wife with her person exposed.
The latter was so incensed, although she concealed
her anger at the time, that, calling Gygea afterward
into her presence, she gave him his choice either to
submit to instant death, or to slay her husband. Gyges
chose the latter alternative, married the queen, and as-
cended the vacant throne, about 718 years before the
Christian era. He was the first of the Mermnadse
who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 38 years, and dis-
tinguished himself by the presents which he made to
the oracle of Delphi. (Herodot. , I, 8, scqq. ) The
wife of Candaules above mentioned was called Nyssia
according to Hephaestion. --The story of Rosamund,
}uecn of the Lombards, as related by Gibbon, bears an
exact resemblance to this of Candaules. (Compare
Schlatter, Weltgcschichtc, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 82. )--Pla-
to relates a curious legend respecting this Gyges,
which differs essentially from the account given by
Herodotus. He makes him to have been originally
? ? one of the shepherds of Candaules, and to have de-
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? HAD
HADRIANUS
llvTiiSta, the port of Sparta, about 40 stadia from
I-as (I'aiuan. , 3, 24), and 240 from Sparta itself.
(Slraiio, 363. ) Pliny says it was the nearest point to
embark from for the island of Crete (4, 5). Gytheum
was taken by the Athenians under Tolmidas, who
burnt the docks before the Peloponnesian war. {Di-
odurus Sic. , 11, 84. ) It was also attacked by the
Thebans in their first invasion of Laconia, for three
days, but without success. (Xen. , Hist. Gr. , 6,5,32. )
It was afterward besieged by the Roman army under
the command of T. Q. Flamininus and his brother Lu-
cius, and compelled to surrender. Livy says it was a
stiong and populous town, and well provided with the
means of resistance (34, 29). On the renewal of the
war, it was, however, retaken by Nabis. [Liv. , 3S,
26. --Compare Polyb. , 2, 69. ) The Gytheatse pre-
tended that their city had been built by Hercules and
Apollo, whose statues were placed in the forum. ! 'o-
lylnus states (5, 19), that the port, distant 30 stadia
from the city itself, was both commodious and secure.
Sirabo remarks, that it was an artificial haven. Gy-
theum stood a little to the north of the present town of
Marathonisi. The site is now called Palceopoli, but
no habitation is left upon it. (Cramer's Arte. Greece,
vol 3, p. 192, seqq.