No More Learning

conquered the whole of Transalpine Gaul, which This great victory soon raised Caesar's fame
had hitherto been independent of the Romans, among the various tribes of the Gauls, who now
with the exception of the part called Provincia; sent embassies to congratulate him on bis success,
be twice crossed the Rhine, and carried the terror and to solicit his aid. Among others, Divitiacus,
of the Roman arms across that river, and he twice one of the most powerful of the Aeduan chiefs,
landed in Britain, which had been hitherto un- informed Caesar that Ariovistus, a German king,
known to the Romans. To give a detailed account had been invited by the Arverni and Sequani to
of these campaigns would be impossible in the come to their assistance against the Aedui, be-
limits of this work; we can only offer a very brief tween whom and the Arverni there had long been
sketch of the principal events of each year. a struggle for the supremacy in Gaul. He further
Caesar left Rome, as has been already remarked, stated, that not only had the Aedui been again
towards the latter end of April, and arrived at and again defeated by Ariovistus, but that the
Genera in eight days. His first campaign was German king had seized upon a great part of the
against the Helvetii, a powerful Gallic people situ- land of the Sequani, and was still bringing over
ated to the north of the lake of Geneva, and be fresh swarms of Germans to settle in the Gallic


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CAESAR,
545
CAESAR
country. In consequence of these representations, vided with light armed troops. The attack of the
Caesar commanded Ariovistus, who had received Nervii was so unexpected, and the surprise 60
the title of king and friend of the Roman people complete, that before the Romans could form in
in Caesar's own consulship, to abstain from intro- rank, the enemy was in their midst : the Roman
ducing any more Germans into Gaul, to restore the soldiers began to give way, and the battle seemed
hostages to the Aedui, and not to attack the latter entirely lost. Caesar used every effort to amend
or their allies. But as a haughty answer was his first error; he hastened from post to post,
returned to these commands, both parties prepared freely exposed his own person in the first line of
for war. Caesar advanced northwards through the the battle, and discharged alike the duties of a
country the Sequani, and took possession of brave soldier and an able general. llis exertions
Vesontio (Besançon), an important town on the and the discipline of the Roman troops at length
Dubis (Doubs), and some days afterwards fought triumphed; and the Nervii were defeated with
a decisive battle with Ariovistus, who suffered a such immense slaugnter, that out of 60,000 fight-
total defeat, and fled with the remains of his army ing-men only 500 remained in the state. The
to the Rhine, a distance of fifty miles. Only a Aduatici, who were on their march to join the
very few, and among the rest Arioristus himself, Nervii, returned to their own country when they
crossed the river; the rest were cut to pieces by heard of Caesar's victory, and shut themselves up
the Roman cavalry. [Ariovistus. )
in one of their towns, which was of great natural
Having thus completed two very important wars strength, perhaps on the hill called at pre-
in one summer, Caesar led his troops into their sent Falais. Caesar marched to the place, and laid
quarters for the winter early in the autumn, where siege to it; but when the barbarians saw the mili-
he left them under the command of Labienus, tary engines approaching the walls, they surren-
while he himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to at- dered to Caesar. In the night, however, they
tend to his civil duties in the province.
attempted to surprise the Roman camp, but, being
The following year, B. c. 57, was occupied with repulsed, paid dearly for their treachery; for on
the Belgic war. Alarmed at Caesar's success, the the following day Caesar took possession of the
various Belgic tribes, which dwelt between the town, and sold all the inhabitants as slaves, to the
Sequana (Seine) and the Rhine, and were the most number of 53,000. At the same time he received
warlike of all the Gauls, had entered into a con- intelligence that the Veneti, Unelli, and various
federacy to oppose Caesar, and had raised an army other states in the north-west of Gaul, had sub-
of 300,000 men. Caesar meantime levied two mitted to M. Crassus, whom he had sent against
new legions in Cisalpine Gaul, which increased his them with one legion. Having thus subjugated
army to eight legions; but even this was but a the whole of the north of Gaul, Caesar led his
small force compared with the overwhelming num- troops into winter-quarters in the country of the
bers of the enemy. Caesar was the first to open Camutes, Andes, and Turones, people near the
the campaign by marching into the country of the Ligeris (Loire), in the central parts of Gaul, and
Remi, who submitted at his approach, and entered then proceeded himself to Cisalpine Gaul. When
into alliance with him. He then crossed the Axo- the senate received the despatches of Caesar an-
na (Aisne), and pitched his camp on a strong posi- nouncing this victory, they decreed a public thanks-
tion on the right bank. But, in order to make a giving of fifteen days—a distinction which had
diversion, and to separate the past forces of the never yet been granted to any one : the thanks-
enemy, he sent Divitiacus with the Aedui to giving in Pompey's honour, after the Mithridatic
attack the country of the Bellovaci from the war, had lasted for ten days, and that was the
The enemy bad meantime laid siege to longest that had hitherto been decreed.
Bibrax (Bièvre), a town of the Remi, but retired At the beginning of the following year, B. C.
when Caesar sent troops to its assistance. They 56, which was Caesar's third campaign in Gaul,
soon, however, began to suffer from want of provi- he was detained some months in Italy by the
sions, and hearing that Divitiacus was approaching state of affairs at Rome. There had been a mis-
the territories of the Belloraci, they came to the understanding between Pompey and Crassus; and
resolution of breaking up their vast army, and re- L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who had become a can-
tiring to their own territories, where each people didate for the consulship, threatened to deprive
could obtain provisions and maintain themselves. Caesar of his army and provinces. Caesar accord-
This determination was fatal to them : together ingly invited Pompey and Crassus to come to him
they might possibly have conquered; but once sepa- at Luca (Lucca), where he reconciled them to one
rated, they had no chance of contending against another, and arranged that they should be the con-
the powerful Roman army. Hitherto Caesar had suls for the following year, and that Crassus should
remained in his entrenchments, but he now broke hare the province of Syria, and Pompey the two
up from his quarters, and resumed the offensive. Spains. They on their part agreed to obtain the
The Suessiones, the Belloraci, and Ambiani were prolongation of Caesar's government for five years
subdued in succession, or surrendered of their own more, and pay for his troops out of the public trea-
accord; but a more formidable task awaited him sury. It was not through any want of money
when he came to the Nervii, the most warlike of that Caesar made the latter stipulation, for he
all the Belgic tribes. In their country, near the had obtained immense booty in his two campaigns
river Sabis (Sambre), the Roman army was sur in Gaul ; but so corrupt was the state of society at
prised by the enemy while engaged in marking Rome, that he knew it would be difficult for him
out and fortifying the camp. This part of the to retain his present position unless he was able to
country was surrounded by woods, in which the bribe the people and the leading men in the city.
Nervii had concealed themselves; and it seems, as The money which he had acquired in his Gallic
Napoleon has remarked, that Caesar was on this wars was therefore freely expended in carrying
uccasion guilty of great imprudence in not having the elections of those candidates for public offices
explored the country properly, as he was well pra who would support his interests, and also in pre-
-a
west.
2 N


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$46
CAESAR.
CAESAR.
gents to the senators and other influential men | assigned the provinces of the Spains and Syria to
who flocked to him at Luca to pay him their re- the consuls Pompey and Crassus, and the other
spects and share in his liberality. He held almost prolonged Caesar's provincial government for five
a sort of court at Luca : 200 senators waited upon additional years. By the law of Vatinius, passed
him, and so many also that were invested with in B. c. 59, Gaul and Illyricum were assigned to
public offices, that 120 lictors were seen in the Caesar for five years, namely, from the 1st of
streets of the town.
January, B. c. 58 to the end of December, B. c. 54;
After settling the affairs of Italy, Caesar pro and now, by the law of Trebonius, the provinces
ceeded to his army at the latter end of the spring were continued to hiın for five years morc, namely,
of 1. c. 56. During his absence, a powerful con- from the 1st of January, B. c. 53 to the end of
federacy had been formed against him by the ma- the year 49.
ritime states in the north-west of Gaul. Many of In B. C. 55, Caesar left Italy earlier than usual,
these had submitted to P. Crassus in the preceding in order to make preparations for a war with the
year, alarmed at Caesar's victories over the Belgians; Germans. This was his fourth campaign in Gaul.
but, following the example of the Veneti in Bre- The Gauls had suffered too much in the last three
tagne, they had now all risen in arms against the Ro- campaigns to make any further attempt against the
mans. Fearing a general insurrection of all Gaul, Romans at present; but Caesar's ambition would
Caesar thought it advisable to divide his army and not allow him to be idle. Fresh wars must be
distribute it in four different parts of the country. undertaken and fresh victories gained to keep him
He himself, with the main body and the fieet in the recollection of the people, and to employ his
which he had caused to be built on the Liyeris, un- troops in active service. Two German tribes, the
dertook the conduct of the war against the Veneti ; Usipetes and the Tenchtheri, had been driven out
while he sent T. Titurius Sabinus with three legions of their own country by the Suevi, and had crossed
into the country of the Unelli, Curiosolitae, and the Rhine, at no great distance from its mouth,
Lexovii (Normandy). Labienus was despatched with the intention of settling in Gaul. This, how-
eastwards with a cavalry force into the country of ever, Caesar was resolved to prevent, and accord-
the Treviri, near the Rhine, to keep down the ingly prepared to attack them. The Germans
Belgians and to prevent the Germans from crossing opened negotiations with him, but while these
that river. Crassus was sent with twelve legionary were going on, a body of their cavalry attacked
cohorts and a great number of cavalry into Aqui- and defeated Caesar's Gallic cavalry, which was
tania, to prevent the Basque tribes in the south of vastly superior in numbers. On the next day, all
Gaul from joining the Veneti
. The plan of the the German chiefs came into Caesar's camp to
campaign was laid with great skill, and was crown- apologize for what they had done; but, instead of
ed with complete success. The Veneti, after suf- accepting their excuse, Caesar detained them, and
fering a great naval defeat, were obliged to surrender straightway led out his troops to attack the enemy.
to Caesar, who treated them with merciless severity Deprived of their leaders, and taken by surprise,
in order to strike terror into the surrounding tribes: the Germans after a feeble resistance took to flight,
he put all the senators to death, and sold the rest and were almost all destroyed by the Roman ca-
of the people as slaves. About the same time, valry. The remainder Hled to the confluence of the
Titurius Sabinus conquered the Veneti and the Mosa (Meuse) and the Rhine, but few crossed the
surrounding people ; and Crassus, though with river in safety. To strike terror into the Germans,
more difficulty, the greater part of Aquitania. The Caesar resolved to cross the Rhine. In ten days
presence of Labienus, and the severe defeats they he built a bridge of boats across the river, probably
had experienced in the preceding year, seem to in the neighbourhood of Cologne, and, after spend-
have deterred the Belgians from any attempt at ing eighteen days on the eastern side of the river,
revolt. Although the season was far adranced, and ravaging the country of the Sigambri, he re-
Caesar marched against the Morini and Menapii turned to Gaul and broke down the bridge.
(in the neighbourhood of Calais and Boulogne), as Although the greater part of the summer was
they were the only people in Gaul that still re- now gone, Caesar resolved to invade Britain. His
mained in arms. On his approach, they retired into object in undertaking this expedition at such a
the woods, and the rainy season coming on, Caesar late period of the year was more to obtain some
was obliged to lead his troops into winter-quarters. knowledge of the island from personal observation,
He accordingly recrossed the Sequana (Seine), and than with any view to permanent conquest at pre-
stationed bis soldiers for the winter in Normandy sent. He accordingly took with him only iwo
in the country of the Aulerci and Lexovii. Thus, legions, with which he sailed from the port Itius
in three campaigns, Caesar may be said to have (probably Witsand, between Calais and Boulogne),
conquered the whole of Gaul; but the spirit of the and effected a landing somewhere near the South
people was not yet broken. They therefore made Foreland, after a severe struggle with the natives.
several attempts to recover their independence ; Several of the British tribes hereupon sent offers
and it was not till their revolts had been again of submission to Caesar; but, in consequence of
and again put down by Caesar, and the flower of the loss of a great part of the Roman fleet a few
the nation had perished in battle, that they learnt days afterwards, they took up arms again. Being
to submit to the Roman yoke.
however defeated, they again sent offers of sub-
In the next year, B. c. 55, Pompey and Crassus mission to Caesar, who simply demanded double
were consuls, and proceeded to carry into execution the number of hostages he had originally required,
the arrangement which had been entered into at as he was anxious to return to Gaul before the
Luca. They experienced, however, more opposition season should be further advanced. He did not,
than they had anticipated : the aristocracy, headed therefore, wait for the hostages, but commanded
by Cato, threw every obstacle in their way, but them to be brought to him in Gaul. On his return,
was unable to prevent the two bills proposed by the be punished the Morini, who had revolted in his
tribune Trebonius from being carried, one of which absence; and, after leading his troops into winter-
3
:


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CAESAR.
547
CAESAR.
ments.
quarters among the Belgians, repaired, as usual, to latter people and the Aduatici readily joined the
the north of Italy. Cacsar had not gained any Eburones, and Cicero's camp was soon surrounded
victories in this campaign equal to those of the by an overwhelining host. Seconded by the bra-
three former years; but his victories over the Ger- very of his soldiers, Cicero, though in a weak state
mans and far-distant Britons were probably re- of health, repulsed the enemy in all their attempts
garded by the Romans with greater admiration to storm the camp, till he was at length relieved by
than his conquests of the Gauls. The senate ac- Caesar in person, who came to his assistance with
cordingly voted him a public thanksgiving of twenty two legions, as soon as he heard of the dangerous
days, notwithstanding the opposition of Cato, who position of his legate. The forces of the enemy,
declared, that Caesar ought to be delivered up to the which amounted to 60,000, were defeated by Caesar,
Usipetes and Tenchtheri, to prevent the gods from who then joined Cicero, and praised him and his
visiting upon Rome his violation of the law of na- men for the bravery they had shewn. In conse-
tions in seizing the sacred persons of ambassadors. quence of the unseitled state of Gaul, Caesar re-
The greater part of Caesar's fifth campaign, B. C. solved to remain with his army all the winter, and
54, was occupied with his second invasion of Bri- accordingly took up his quarters at Samarobriva
tain. After making an expedition into Illyricum, (Amiens). About the same time, Indutiomarus,
and afterwards into the country of the Treviri, a chief of the Treviri, attempted to form a confe-
who had shewn a disposition to revolt, he set sail deracy against the Romans, but was attacked and
from the port Itius with an army of five legions, killed by Labienus, who was stationed in the
and landed without opposition at the same place country of the Treviri.
as in the former year. The British states had In September of this year, B. C. 54, Julia, Cae-
entrusted the supreme command to Cassivellaunus, sar's daughter and Pompey's wife, died in child-
a chief whose territories were divided from the birth; but her death did not at the time affect the
maritime states by the river Tamesis (Thames). relations between Caesar and Pompey. In order,
The Britons bravely opposed the progress of the however, to keep up a family connexion between
invaders, but were defeated in a series of engage them, Caesar proposed that his niece Octavia, the
Caesar crossed the Thames at the only wife of C. Marcellus and the sister of the future
place where it was fordable, took the town of Cas- emperor Augustus, should marry Pompey, and
sivellaunus, and conquered great part of the coun- that he himself should marry Pompey's daughter,
ties of Essex and Middlesex. In consequence of who was now the wife of Faustus Sulla. This
these disasters, Cassivellaunus sued for peace; and, proposal, however, was declined, but for what rea-
after demanding hostages, and settling the tribute son we are not told.
which Britain should pay yearly to the Roman In the next year, B. c. 53, which was Caesar's
people, Caesar returned to Gaul towards the latter sixth campaign in Gaul, the Gauls again took up
part of the summer. Caesar gained no more by his arms, and entered into a most formidable conspi-
second invasion of Britain than by his first. He racy to recover their independence. The destruc-
had penetrated, it is true, further into the country, tion of the Roman troops under Sabinus and Cotta,
but he had left no garrisons or military establish and the unsettled state of Gaul during the winter,
ments behind him; and the people obeyed the had led Caesar to apprehend a general rising of the
Romans just as little afterwards as they had done natives, and he had accordingly levied two new
before.
legions in Cisalpine Gaul, and obtained one from
In consequence of the great scarcity of corn in Pompey, who was remaining in the neighbourhood
Gaul, arising from a drought this year, Caesar of Rome as proconsul with the imperium. Being
was obliged, contrary to his practice in former thus at the head of a powerful army, he was able to
years, to divide his forces, and station his legions subdue the nations that revolted, and soon compelled
for the winter in different parts of Gaul. This the Nervii, Senones, Carnutes, Menapii, and Tre-
seemed to the Gauls a favourable opportunity for viri to return to obedience. But as the Treviri
recovering their lost independence, and destroying had been supported by the Germans, he crossed
their conquerors. The Eburones, a Gallic people the Rhine again a little above the spot where he
between the Meuse and the Rhine, near the mo- had passed over two years before, and having re.
dern Tongres, led on by their chiefs, Ambiorix and ceived the submission of the Ubii, proceeded to
Cativolcus, were the first to begin the revolt, and march into the country of the Suevi. The latter
attacked the camp of the legion and five cohorts people, however, retired to their woods and fast-
under the command of T. Titurius Sabinus and nesses as he advanced ; and, finding it impossible
L. Aurunculeius Cotta, only fifteen days after they to come up with the enemy, he again recrossed the
had been stationed in their country. Alarmed at Rhine, having effected as little as in his previous
the vast hosts which surrounded them, and fearing invasion of the country. On his return, he made
that they should soon be attacked by the Germans a vigorous effort to put down Ambiorix, who still
also, the Romans quitted their camp, with the in- continued in arms. The country of the Eburones
tention of marching to the winter-quarters of the was laid waste with fire and sword; the troops of
legions nearest them under promise of a safe-conduct Ambiorix were again and again defeated, but he
from Ambiorix. This step was taken by Sabinus himself always escaped faliing into the hands of
against the wish of Cotta, who mistrusted the good the Romans. In the midst of this war, when the
faith of Ambiorix. The result verified his fears: the enemy were almost subdued, Cicero's camp was
Romans were attacked on their march by Ambiorix, surprised by a body of the Sigambri, who bad
and were destroyed almost to a man. This was the crossed the Rhine, and was almost taken. At the
firs: serious disaster that Caesar had experienced in conclusion of the campaign, Caesar prosecuted a
Gaul. Flushed with victory, Ambiorix and the strict inquiry into the revolt of the Senones and
Eburones now proceeded to attack the camp of Carnutes, and caused Acco, who had been the chief
Q. Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was sta- ringleader in the conspiracy, to be put to death. .
tioned with one legion among the Nervii. The He then stationed his troops for the winter among
2 N 2


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548
CAESAR.
CAESAR,
the Treviri, Lingones, and Senones, and departed | Noviodunum (Nouan, between Orleans and Bour-
to Cisalpine Gaul.
ges), fell into his hands without difficulty. Alarmed
Upon Caesar's arrival in Cisalpine Gaul, he at Caesar's rapid progress, Vercingetorix persuaded
heard of the death of Clodius, who was killed by his countrymen to lay waste their country and
Milo at the latter end of January, B. c. 52. This destroy their towns, that Caesar might be deprived
event was followed by tumults, which rent both of all sustenance and quarters for his troops. This
Roine and Italy asunder; and it was currently re- plan was accordingly carried into effect; but Ava-
ported in Gaul that Caesar could not possilily leave ricum (Bourges), the chief town of the Bituriges,
Italy under these circumstances. The unsuccessful, and a strongly fortified place, was spored from the
issue of last year's revolt had not yet damped the general destruction, contrary to the wishes of Ver-
spirits of the Gauls; the execution of Acco had cingetorix. This town Caesar accordingly laid
frightened all the chiefs, as every one feared that siege to, and, notwithstanding the heroic resistance
his turn might come next; the hatred of the Ro- of the Gauls, it was at length taken, and all the
man yoke was intense; and thus all the materials | inhabitants, men, women, and children, were in-
were ready for a general conflagration. It was discriminately butchered by the Roman soldiery.
first set alight by the Carnutes, and in an incredi- Caesar now divided his army into two parts :
bly short time it spread from country to country, one division, consisting of four legions, he sent
till almost the whole of Gaul was in flames. Even under the command of T. Labienus against the Se-
the Aedui, who had been hitherto the faithful allies nones and Parisii ; the other, comprising six legions,
of the Romans, and had assisted them in all their he led himself into the country of the Arverni, and
wars, subsequently joined the general revolt. At with them laid siege to Gergoria (ncar Clermont).
the head of the insurrection was Vercingetorix, The revolt of the Aedui shortly afterwards com-
a young man of noble family belonging to the pelled him to raise the siege, but not until he had
Arverni, and by far the ablest general that Cae- received a severe repulse in attempting to storm
sar had yet encountered. Never before had the the town. Meantime, the Aedui had taken No-
Gauls been so united : Caesar's conquests of the viodunum, in which Caesar had placed all his
last six years seemed to be now entirely lost. stores; and, as his position had now become very
The war, therefore, of this year, B. C. 52, was by critical, he hastened northwards to join Labienus
far the most arduous that Caesar had yet carried in the country of the Senones. By rapid marches
on; but his genius triumphed over every obstacle, he eluded the pursuit of the enemy, crossed the
and rendered it the most brilliant of all,
Ligeris (Loire), and joined Labienus in safety.
It was in the depth of winter when the news of The revolt of the Aedui inspired fresh courage
this revolt reached Caesar, for the Roman calendar in the Gauls, and Vercingetorix soon found himself
was now nearly three months in advance of the at the head of a much larger army than he had
real time of the year. Caesar would gladly have hitherto commanded. Fearing now for the safety
remained in Italy to watch the progress of events of the province, Caesar began to march southwards
at Rome ; but not merely were his hard-won through the country of the Lingones into that of
conquests at stake, but also his army, the loss the Sequani. The Gauls followed him in vast
of which would have ruined all his prospects for numbers, and attacked him on his march. After
the future. He was therefore compelled to leave an obstinate engagement, in which Caesar is said
Rome in Pompey's power, and set out to join his to have lost his sword, the Gallic cavalry were
army. It was, however, no easy matter to reach repulsed by the German horse whom Caesar had
his troops, as the intermediate country was in the procured from beyond the Rhine. Thereupon,
hands of the enemy, and he could not order them Vercingetorix led off his infantry, and retreated
to come to him without exposing them to be at- towards Alesia (Alise in Burgundy, between Semur
tacked on their march. Having provided for the and Dijon), whither he was pursued by Caesar,
safety of the province in Transalpine Gaul, be After disniissing his cavalry, Vercingetorix shut
resolved to surprise the enemy by crossing the himself up in the town, which was considered im-
Cebenna and descending into the country of the pregnable, and resolved to wait for succours from
Arverni (Auvergne). With the forces already in his countrymen. Caesar immediately laid siege
the province, and with those which he had himself to the place, and drew lines of circumvallation
brought from Italy, he effected a passage over these around it. The Romans, however, were in their
mountains, though it was the depth of winter, and turn soon surrounded by a vast Gallic army, which
the snow lay six feet on the ground. The Arverni, had assembled to raise the siege. The Roman
who looked upon these mountains as an impregna- army was thus placed in imminent peril, and in no
ble fortress, had made no preparations to resist | instance in Caesar's whole life was his military
Caesar, and accordingly sent to Vercingetorix to genius so conspicuous. He was between two great
pray him to come to their assistance. This was armies : Vercingetorix had 70,000 men in Alesia,
what Caesar had anticipated : his only object was and the Gallic army without consisted of between
to direct the attention of the enemy to this point, 250,000 and 300,000 men. Still, he would
while he himself stole away to his legions. He not raise the siege. He prevented Vercingetorix
accordingly remained only two days among the from breaking through the lines, entirely routed
Arverni, and leaving his troops there in command the Gallic army without, and finally compelled
of D. Brutus, he arrived by rapid journeys in the Alesia to surrender. Vercingetorix himself thus
country of the Lingones, where two of his legions fell into his hands. The fall of Alesia was followed
were stationed, ordered the rest to join him, and by the submission of the Aedui and Arverni.
Cae-
had assembled his whole army before Vercingetorix sar then led his troops into winter-quarters, and
heard of his arrival in that part of the country. resolved to pass the winter himself at Bibracte,
He lost no time in attacking the chief towns in the in the country of the Aedui. After receiving
bands of the enemy. Vellaunodunum (in the coun- Caesar's despatches, the senate voted him a public
try of Château-Landon), Genabuin (Orléans), and thanksgiving of twenty days, as in the year 55.


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CAESAR.
519
CAESAR
The victories of the preceding year had deter- 1 years of Caesar's government would expire at the
mined the fate of Gaul ; but many states still re- end of B. C. 49, and he was therefore resolved to
mained in arms, and entered into fresh conspiracies obtain the consulship for B. C. 48, for otherwise he
during the winter. The next year, B. c. 51, Cae- would become a private man.
sar's eighth campaign in Gaul, was occupied in the In the following year, B. c. 51, Pompey entered
reduction of these states, into the particulars of into still closer connexions with the aristocracy;
which we need not enter. It is sufficient to say, but at the same time was not willing to support all
that he conquered in succession the Carnutes, the the violent measures of the consul M. Claudius
Bellovaci, and the Armoric states in western Gaul, Marcellus, who proposed to send a successor to Cae-
took Uxellodunum, a town of the Cadurci (Cahors), sar, on the plen that the war in Gaul was finished,
and closed the campaign by the reduction of and to deprive him of the privilege of becoming a cnn-
Aquitania. He then led his troops into winter. didate for the consulship in his absence. Ai length
quarters, and passed the winter at Nemetocenna in a decree of the senate was passed, that the consuls
Belgium. He here employed himself in the pacifi- of the succeeding year, B. C. 50, should on the
cation of Gaul; and, as he already saw that his first of March consult the senate respecting the
presence would soon be necessary in Italy, he was disposal of the consular provinces, by which time
anxious to remove all causes for future wars. He it was hoped that Pompey would be prepared to
accordingly imposed no new taxes, treated the take decisive measures against Caesar. The con-
states with honour and respect, and bestowed great suls for the next year, B. C. 50, L. Aemilius Paul-
presents upon the chiefs. The experience of the lus and C. Claudius Marcellus, and the powerful
last two years had taught the Gauls that they had tribune C. Curio, were all reckoned devoted parti-
no hope of contending successfully against Caesar; zans of Pompey and the scnate. Caesar, however,
and as be now treated them with mildness, they gained over Paullus and Curio by large bribes, and
were the more readily induced to submit patiently with an unsparing hand distributed immense sums
to the Roman yoke. Having thus completed the of money among the leading men of Rome. Tous
pacification of Gaul, Caesar found that he could this year passed by without the senate coming to
leave his army in the spring of B. C. 50, and there any decision. The great fear which Pompey and
fore, contrary to his usual practice, repaired at the the senate entertained was, that Caesar should be
end of the winter to Cisalpine Gaul.
elected consul while he was still at the head of his
While Caesar had thus been actively engaged army, and it was therefore proposed in the senate
in Gaul during the last two years, affairs at Rome by the consul C. Marcellus, ihat Caesar should lay
bad taken a turn, which threatened a specdy rup- down his command by the 13th of November.
ture between him and Pompey. The death of This it could not be expected that Caesar would do ;
Crassus in the Parthian war in B. c. 53 had left his proconsulate had upwards of another year to
Caesar and Pompey alone at the head of the state. run ; and if he had come to Rome as a private man
Pompey had been the chief instrument in raising to sue for the consulship, there can be little doubt
Caesar to power in order to serve his own ends, that his life would have been sacrificed. Cato bad
and never seems to have supposed it possible declared that he would bring Caesar to trial as
that the conqueror of Mithridates could be thrown soon as he laid down his command ; but the trial
into the shade by any man in the world. This, would have been only a mockery, for Pompey was
however, now began to be the case ; Caesar's brils in the neighbourhood of the city at the head of an
liant victories in Gaul were in every body's army, and would hare overawed the judges by his
mouth; and Pompey saw with ill-disguised soldiery as at Milo's trial. The tribune Curio
mortification that he was becoming the second consequently interposed his reto upon the proposi-
person in the state. Though this did not lead tion of Marcellus. Meantime Caesar had come
him to break with Caesar at once, it made him into Cisalpine Gaul in the spring of B. c. 50, as al-
anxious to increase his power and influence, ready mentioned. Here he was received by the
and he had therefore resolved as early as B. C. 53 municipal towns and colonies with the greatest
to obtain, if possible, the dictatorship. He ac- marks of respect and affection; and after remain-
cordingly used no effort to put an end to the dis- ing there a short time, he returned to Transal-
turbances at Rome between Milo and Clodius in pine Gaul and held a review of his whole army,
that year, in hopes that all parties would be which he had so long led to victory. Anxious to
willing to accede to his wishes in order to restore diminish the nunber of his troops, the senate had,
peace to the city. These disturbances broke out under pretext of a war with the Parthians, ordered
into perfect anarchy on the death of Clodius at that Pompey and Caesar should each furnish a
the beginning of the following year, B. c. 52, and legion to be sent into the East. The legion which
led to the appointment of Pompey as sole consul | Pompey intended to devote to this service was the
with the concurrence of the senate. This, it is true, one he had lent to Caesar in B. c. 53, and which
did not entirely meet Pompey's wishes, yet it was he now accordingly demanded back; and although
the first step which the aristocracy had taken to Caesar saw that be should thus be deprived of two
gratify Pompey, and it paved the way for a recon- legions, which would probably be employed against
ciliation with them. The acts of Pompey's consul himself, he did not think it advisable to break with
ship, which were all directed to the increase of his the senate on this point, and felt that he was suffi-
power, belong to Pompey's life; it is sufficient ciently strong to spare even iwo legions. He accord-
to mention here, that among other things he ob ingly sent them to the senate, after bestowing libe-
tained the prolongation of his government in Spain ral presents upon each soldier. Upon their arrival
for five years mure; and as he was not yet pre in Italy, they were not, as Caesar had anticipated,
pared to break entirely with Caesar, be allowed sent to the East, but were ordered to pass the
some of the tribunes to carry a law exempting winter at Capua. After this Caesar stationed his
Caesar from the necessity of coming to Rome to remaining cight legions in winter-quarters, four in
hecome a candidate for the consulship. The ten | Belgium and four among the Aedui, and then re-


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CAESAR.
paired to Cisalpine Gaul. He took up his quar- willing to follow him, he crossed the Rubicon
ters at Ravenna, the last town in his province which separated his province from Italy, and oc-
bordering upon Italy, and there met C. Curio, who cupied Ariminum, where he met with the tri-
informed him more particularly of the state of bunes. He commenced his enterprise with only
affairs at Rome.
one legion, consisting of 5000 foot soldiers and
Though war seemed inevitable, Caesar still show. 300 horse, but others had orders to follow bim
ed himself willing to enter into negotiations with from Transalpine Gaul, and he was well aware of
the aristocracy, and accordingly sent Curio with a the importance of expedition, that the enemy
letter addressed to the senate, in which he ex- might have no time to complete their prepara-
pressed his readiness to resign his command if tions. Therefore, though it was the middle of
Pompey would do the same, but intimated that winter, he pushed on with the utmost rapidity,
he would continue to hold it if Pompey did not and such was the popularity of his cause in Italy,
accede to his offer. Curio arrived at Rome on that city after city opened its gates to him, and
the first of January, B. C. 49, the day on which his march was like a triumphal progress. Arre-
the new consuls L. Cornelius Lentulus and C. tium, Pisaurum, Fanum, Ancona, Iguvium, and
Claudius Marcellus entered upon their office. It Auximum, fell into his hands. These successes
was with great difficulty that the tribunes M. caused the utmost consternation at Rome; it was
Antonius and Q. Cassius Longinus forced the se- reported that Caesar's cavalry was already near
nate to allow the letter to be read, but they could the gates of the city; a general panic seized the
not prevail upon the house to take the subject of it senate, and they fled from the city even without
into deliberation and come to a vote upon it. The taking with them the money from the public
consuls, however, brought before the house the state treasury, and did not recover their courage till
of the republic in general; and after a violent de they had got as for south as Capun. Caesar
bate the motion of Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, continued his victorious march through Picenum
was carried, “ that Caesar should disband his army till he came to Corfinium, which was the first town
by a certain day, and that if he did not do it he that offered him any vigorous resistance. L. Do-
should be regarded as an enemy of the state. " mitius Ahenobarbus, who had been appointed
Upon this motion the tribunes M. Antonius and Caesar's successor in Gaul, had thrown himself
Q. Cassius put their veto; but their opposition was into Corfinium with a strong force ; but as Pompey
set at naught. Pompey had now made up his did not come to his assistance, he was unable to
mind to crush Caesar, if possible, and accordingly maintain the place, and fell himself into Caesar's
the more violent counsels prevailed. Antonius and hands, together with several other senators and
Cassius were ejected from the senate-house, and on distinguished men. Caesar, with the same cle-
the sixth of January the senate passed the decree, mency which he displayed throughout the whole
which was tantamount to a declaration of martial of the civil war, dismissed them all uninjured, and
law, that the consuls and other magistrates “ should hastened in pursuit of Pompey, who had now re-
provide for the safety of the state. " Antonius and solved to abandon Italy and was accordingly has-
Cassius considering their lives no longer safe, fied tening on to Brundisium, intending from thence
from the city in disguise to Caesar's army, and to sail to Greece. Pompey reached Brundisium
called upon him to protect the inviolable persons of before Caesar, but had not sailed when the latter
the tribunes. War was now declared. The senate arrired before the town. Caesar straightway laid
entrusted the whole management of it to Pompey, siege to the place, but Pompey abandoned it on
made a fresh distribution of the provinces, divided the 17th of March and enbarked for Greece.
the whole of Italy into certain districts, the defence Caesar was unable to follow Pompey for want of
of each of which was to be entrusted to some dis- ships, and therefore determined to march against
tinguished senator, determined that fresh levies of Afranius and Petreius, Pompey's legates in Spain,
troops should be held, and voted a sum of money who possessed a powerful army in that country. He
from the public treasury to Pompey. Pompey had accordingly marched back from Brundisium and
had all along no apprehensions as to the result of repaired to Rome, having thus in three months
a war ; he seems to have regarded it as scarcely become the supreme master of the whole of Italy.
possible that Caesar should ever seriously think of After remaining in the neighbourhood of Rome
marching against him; his great fame, he thought, for a short time, he set out for Spain, having left
would cause a multitude of troops to tlock around M. Lepidus in charge of the city and M. Antonius
him whenever he wished them; and thus in his in command of the troops in Italy. He sent
confidence of success, he had neglected all means Curio to drive Cato out of Sicily, Q. Valerius to
for raising an army. In addition to this be had take possession of Sardinia, and C. Antonius to
been deceived as to the disposition of Caesar's occupy Illyricum. Curio and Valerius obtained
troops, and had been led to believe that they were possession of Sicily and Sardinia without opposi-
ready to desert their general at the first oppor- tion; and Curio then passed orer into Africa,
tunity. Consequently, when the war broke out, which was in possession of the Pompeian party.
Pompey had scarcely any troops except the two Here, however, he met with strong opposition, and
legions which he had obtained from Caesar, and at length was defeated and lost his life in a battle
on the fidelity of which he could by no means with Juba, king of Mauritania, who supported
rely. So unpopular too was the senatorial party P. Atius Varus, the Pompeian commander. C.
in Italy, that it was with great difficulty they Antonius also met with bad success in Illyri-
could levy troops, and when levied, they took the cum, for his army was defeated and he himself
first opportunity of passing over to Caesar.
taken prisoner. These events, however, hap-
As soon as Caesar learnt the last resolution of pened at a later period in this year; and these
the senate, he assembled his soldiers, informed disasters were more than counterbalanced by Cae
them of the wrongs he had sustained, and called sar's victories in the meantime in Spain. Caesar
upon them to support him. Finding them quite | left Rome about the middle of April, and on his


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:
arrival in Gaul found, that Massilia refused to After laying down the dictatorship, Caesar went
submit to him. He forth with laid siege to the in December to Brundisium, wbere he had pre-
place, but unable to take it immediately, he left viously ordered his troops to assemble. He had
C. Trebonius and D. Brutus with part of his troops lost many men in the long march from Spain, and
to prosecute the siege, and continued his march to also from sickness arising from their passing the
Spain. In this country Pompey had seven autumn in the south of Italy. Pompey had not
legions, three under the command of L. Afranius been idle during the summer, and had employed his
in the nearer province, two under M. Petreius in time in raising a large army in Greece, Lgypt, and
the further, and two under M. Terentius Varro the East, the scene of his former glory. He thus
also in the latter province west of the Anas collected an army consisting of nine legions of Ro-
(Guadiana). Varro remained in the west; but man citizens, and an auxiliary force of cavalry and
Afranius and Petreius on the approach of Caesar infantry; and, though it is impossible to estimate its
united their forces, and took up a strong position exact strength, as we do not know the number of
near the town of Ilerda (Lerida in Catalonia) on men which cach legion contained, it was decidedly
the right bank of the Sicoris (Segre). Into the greater than the army which Caesar bad assembled
details of this campaign we cannot enter. It is at Brundisium. His fieet entirely commanded the
sufficient to state, that, after experiencing great sea, and so small was the number of Caesar's ships,
difficulties at first and some reverses, Caesar at that it seemed impossible that he should venture
length reduced Afranius and Petreius to such to cross the sea in face of Pompey's superior flect.
difficulties that they were obliged to surrender. This circumstance, and also the time of the year
They themselves were dismissed uninjured, part of caused M. Bibulus, the commander of Pompey's feet,
their troops disbanded, and the remainder incorpo- to relax in his guard ; and thus when Caesar set sail
rated among Caesar's troops. · Caesar then pro- from Brundisium, on the 4th of January, he arrived
ceeded to march against Varro; but after the the next day in safety on the coast of Epeirus. In
victory over Afranius and Petreius, there was no consequence, however, of the small number of his
army in Spain capable of resisting the conqueror, ships, Caesar was able to carry over only seven le-
and Varro accordingly surrendered to Caesar when gions, which, for the causes previously mentioned,
the latter arrived at Corduba (Cordova). Having had been so thinned as to amount only to 15,000 foot
thus subdued all Spain, which had engaged him and 500 horse. After landing this force, he sent back
only forty days, he returned to Gaul. Massilia had his ships to bring over the remainder ; but part of
not yet yielded, but the siege had been prosecuted the fleet was intercepted in its return by M. Bibulus,
with so much vigour, that the inhabitants were who cruelly put all the crews to death ; and the
compelled to surrender the town soon after his Pompeian fleet kept up such a strict watch along
arrival before the walls.
the coast, that the remainder of Caesar's army was
While Caesar was before Massilia, he received obliged for the present to remain at Brundisium.
intelligence that he had been appointed dictator Caesar was thus in a critical position, in the midst
by the praetor M. Lepidus, who had been em- of the enemy's country, cut off from the rest of his
powered to do so by a law passed for the purpose. army; but he knew that he could thoroughly rely
This appointment, which was of course made in on his men, and therefore immediately commenced
accordance with Caesar's wishes, was contrary to acting on the offensive. After gaining possession
all precedent; for a practor had not the power of of Oricum and Apollonia, he hastened northwards,
nominating a dictator, and the senate was entirely in hopes of surprising Dyrrhachium, where all
passed over: but it is idle to talk of established Pompey's stores were deposited; but Pompey, by
forms under such circumstances; it was necessary rapid marches, reached this town before him, and
that there should be a higher magistrate than both armies then encamped opposite to each other,
praetor to hold the comitia for the election of Pompey on the right and Caesar on the left bank
the consuls ; and Caesar wished to enter Rome of the river Apsus. Caesar was at length joined
invested with some high official power, which by the remainder of his troops, which were brought
he could not do so long as he was merely pro over from Brundisium with great difficulty by M.
consul. Accordingly, as soon as Massilia sur- Antonius and Q. Fufius Calenus. Pompey mean-
rendered, Caesar hastened to Rome and entered time had retired to some high ground near Dyr-
upon his dictatorship, but laid it down again at rhachium, and as he would not venture a battle
the end of eleven days after holding the consular with Caesar's veterans, Caesar began to blockade
comitia, in which he himself and P. Servilius Vatia bim in his position, and to erect lines of circum-
Isauricus were elected consuls for the next year. vallation of an extraordinary extent; but when
But during these eleven days he caused some very these were nearly completed, Pompey forced a
important laws to be passed. The first, which was passage through Caesar's lines, and drove back
intended to relieve cebtors, but at the same time his legions with considerable loss. Caesar thus
protect to a great extent the rights of creditors, found himself compelled to retreat from his
was in the present state of affairs a most salutary present position, and accordingly commenced his
(For the provisions of this lex, see march for Thessaly, pursued by Pompey's army,
Dict. of Ant. s. v. Julia Lex de Foenore. ) He next which was not however able to come up with him.
obtained the reversal of the sentences which had Pompey's plan of avoiding a general engagement
been pronounced against various persons in ac- with Caesar's veterans till he could place inore
cordance with the laws passed in Pompey's last reliance upon his own troops, was undoubtedly a
consuiship; he also obtained the recall of several wise one, and had been hitherto crowned with
other exiles ; be further restored the descendants success; but his victory at Dyrrhachium and the
of those who had been proscribed by Sulla to the retreat of the enemy inspired him with more confi-
enjoyment of their rights, and rewarded the Trans-dence, and induced him to give heed to those of
padani by the citizenship for their faithful support his officers who recommended him to bring the
of his cause.
contest to an issue by an immediate battle. Ac-
measure.


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cordingly, when Pompey came up with Caesar, His third dictatorship consequently begins before
who was encamped on the plains of Pharsalus or the termination of the year 47.
The property
Pharsalia, in Thessaly, he offered him battle, which of Pompey and of several others of the aristo-
was readily accepted by Caesar. Their numbers cracy was now confiscated and sold by public
were very unequal : Pompey had 45,000 foot-auction. That he might the more easily re-
soldiers and 7000 horse, Caesar 22,000 foot-soldiers ward his own friends, the dictator increased the
and 1000 horse. The battle, which was fought on number of practors and of the members of the
the 9th of August, B. C. 48, according to the old priestly colleges, and also introduced a great num-
calendar, ended in the total defeat of Pompey's ber of his partizans into the senate. For the re-
army. Pompey fled to the court of Egypt, pursued mainder of this year he elevated Q. Fufius Calenus
by Caesar, but was murdered there before the and P. Vatinius to the consulship, but he caused
latter arrived in the country. (POMPEIUS. ] himself and his master of the horse, M. Aemilius
The battle of Pharsalia decided the fate of the Lepidus to be elected consuls for the next year. It
republic. When news of it reached Rome, various was during this time that he quelled a formidable
laws were passed, which conferred in fact supreme mutiny of his troops which had broken out in
power upon Caesar.
Though absent, he was no Campania.
minated dictator a second time, and that not for Caesar did not remain in Rome more than two
six months or a shorter time, but for a whole year. or three months. With his usual activity and
He appointed M. Antonius his master of the horse, energy, be set out to Africa before the end of the
and entered upon the office in September of this year (B. C. 47), in order to carry on the war against
year (B. C. 48), so that the commencement and Scipio and Cato, who had collected a large army
termination of his dictatorship and consulship did in that country. Their forces were far greater
not coincide, as some modern writers have repre than Caesar could bring against them at present;
sented. He was also nominated to the consulship but he was well aware of the advantage which
for the next five years, but this privilege he did a general has in acting on the offensive, and
not avail himself of; he was invested, moreover, had too much reliance on his own genius to be
with the tribunicial power for life, and with the alarıned by mere disparity of numbers.