No More Learning

Damis- Don't trouble yourself.
Mondor [aside]-Heyday! Can he be in funds?
Damis- Let us settle now how much we owe each other.
Mondor [aside]-Zounds! he'd teach me to weigh my words!
Damis-To the tutor?
Mondor [in a gentler voice]-Thirty or forty pistoles.
Damis-To the draper, the hair-dresser, the landlord?
Mondor-As much.
Damis-To the tailor?
Mondor-Eighty.
Damis-To the innkeeper?
Mondor-A hundred.
Damis-To you?
Mondor [drawing back and bowing] - Monsieur-
Damis How much?
-
Mondor - Monsieur
-
Damis-Speak!
Mondor-I abuse-
Damis- My patience!


## p. 11511 (#125) ##########################################

ALEXIS PIRON
11511
Mondor - Yes: I beg pardon. It is true that in my zeal I
have failed in respect; but the past made me suspicious of the
future.
Damis-A hundred crowns? Guess! More or less, it does
not matter. We'll share the prizes I shall soon win.
Mondor- The prizes?
Damis-Yes: the silver or gold which France distributes in
different places to whoever composes the best verses. I have
competed everywhere, at Paris, Rouen, Toulouse, Marseilles:
everywhere I've done wonders!
Mondor-Ah! so well that Paris will pay the board, Toulouse
the barber, Marseilles the draper, and the Devil my wages!
Damis- You doubt that I will win everywhere?
Mondor - No, doubt nothing; but haven't you a better secur-
ity for the tailor and the landlord? .
Damis-Yes, indeed: the noblest kind of security. The
Théâtre Français is to give my play to-day. My secret is safe.
Except one actor and yourself, no one in the world knows it is
mine. [Showing the letter which Mondor brought him. ] This
very evening they play it-this says so. To-day my talents are
revealed to Europe. I have taken the first steps toward immor-
tality. Dear friend, how much this great day means to me!
Another hope —
Mondor-Chimerical!
Damis- An adorable girl, only daughter, rare, famous, clever,
incomparable!
Mondor - What do you hope from this rare girl?
Damis-If I triumph to-day, to-morrow I can be her husband.
[Mondor wants to go. ] To-morrow Where are you going,
Mondor?
-
-
_____
Mondor To seek a master.
Damis-Eh! Why am I so suddenly judged unworthy?
Mondor-Monsieur, air is very poor nourishment.
Damis-Who wants you to live on air? Are you mad?
Mondor-Not at all.
Damis-Faith, you're not wise! What, you revolt on the eve
—at the very moment of harvest? Since you force me to details
unworthy of me, let us take a clear view of the state of my for-
tunes, past and present. The payment of your wages is already
sure: one part to-night and the rest the day after to-morrow. I
will succeed; I will marry a scholarly woman. That is the beau-
tiful future before me. Generous young eaglets, worthy their race,


## p. 11512 (#126) ##########################################

11512
ALEXIS PIRON
will fly after us. If we have three, we will bequeath one to
comedy, one to tragedy, and the third to lyricism. These three
possess the whole stage. And my spouse and I, if we uttered
each year, I but a half-poem, she but a single novel, would
draw crowds from all sides. Behold gold and silver rolling
through the house, and our united intellects levying from theatre
and press!
Mondor-In self-esteem you are a rare man, and on that pil-
low you nap soundly. But the noise of hissing may wake you.
Damis [forcing him to take the paper]-Go! My embarrass-
ments merit some consideration. One play announced, another
in my head; one in which I am playing, and another all ready
to read! This is having the mind occupied.
Mondor An inheritance and lots of time thrown away
[He goes, and Damis returns to the house. ]
-
THE OTHERS
S
O RICH in famous men was Greece,
That still she vaunts them to us:
But seven wise men was all she had;
Judge then how many fools!
EXPERIENCE
WOR
ORK without thinking of gain;
Be neither selfish nor vain;
Love; do not hate nor disdain;
Be sober and gay; drink good wine;
And thy life at its final confine
Shall outvalue a monarch's long reign.
M
EPITAPH
Y JOURNEY here below is through;
Life is indeed a narrow strait.
Once saw I clear, now dimmed the view;
Once wise was I, but now I'm blate.
I, step by step, have reached the pass
Which may be shunned by fool nor sage,
To go, where know I not, alas!
Adieu, Piron, and bon voyage!


## p. 11513 (#127) ##########################################

11513
AUGUST VON PLATEN
(1796-1835)
T IS by reason rather of his exquisite perfection of form than
of his poetic inspiration, that Count Platen maintained his
distinguished place among the poets of Germany. The serv-
ice which he rendered to German literature was this: that amid the
mad rush of Romanticism towards banal sentimentality and fastastic
formlessness, he stood firm to the ideal of pure and lofty thoughts
cast in a chastened and classic form. The softer emotions rarely
find voice in his verse; but human dignity, profound sorrow, manly
independence, and fierce hatred of oppres-
sion, have thrilling utterance. He strove,
like Goethe, to live in a serene atmosphere
of intellect, disdaining popular tastes and
vulgar sentiments. Truth was his Muse,
and his poetry reflects her cold and crystal
beauty.

Count August von Platen-Hallermund
was born of a wealthy and noble family
at Ansbach, on October 24th, 1796. He was
educated at the cadet academy of Munich,
and at the age of eighteen became a lieu-
tenant in the Bavarian army. His part in
the campaign of 1815 was a tame one,
and garrison life was irksome to him. He
spent most of his time on furlough, studying philosophy and phi-
lology at the universities of Würzburg and Erlangen. Schelling exer-
cised an austere influence upon his thought.
In 1821 Platen came before the public as a poet, with his exquisite
and inimitable Ghaselen' (Gazels), - poems in the Persian manner;
and in another book of verse called 'Lyrische Blätter' (Lyric Leaves).
In 1823 came a second volume of 'Gazels. ' These poems elicited
warm words of praise from Goethe, and attracted the attention of
poets generally. It was the refinement of thought, and the easy
precision with which a difficult verse-form was handled, that aston-
ished and fascinated. For purposes of dogmatic classification Pla-
ten may be enrolled among the Romantic poets; but except in his
choice of exotic material he has little in common with them. Limpid
AUGUST VON PLATEN


## p. 11514 (#128) ##########################################

11514
AUGUST VON PLATEN
clearness and severe structural beauty distinguish even his earliest
work, and these qualities were at last elevated by him into a gospel
of art. Few poets have taken their calling more seriously, or held
their gifts more sacred.
In 1824 Platen visited Venice; and the noble Sonnets from Ven-
ice' show how his talents were stimulated there. Thenceforth his
life was exclusively devoted to scholarly pursuits and the work of
poetic creation. He was filled with glowing indignation at the bun-
gling of the later Romanticists, the lyrics of empty words, the nov-
els of mass without matter, and the tasteless "tragedies of fate. "
This indignation was concentrated in a comedy after the manner of
istophanes, Die Verhängnissvolle Gabel' (The Fatal Fork). The
cordial recognition which Platen received from Goethe, Uhland, and
Rückert raised his already well-developed self-esteem to the fighting
point. He became a poet militant, and so arose the unfortunate lit-
erary war with Immermann and Heine. A second Aristophanic com-
edy was directed against Immermann, - 'Der Romantische Edipus'
(The Romantic Edipus): Immermann had ridiculed the 'Gazels';
and Heine, who had joined in the ridicule, was included in the satire.
Heine's reply, deliciously witty but bitterly personal, appeared in the
'Reisebilder' (Travel-Pictures).
The indifference with which literary Germany generally received
Platen's enthusiasm for dignity of thought and purity of form in-
creased his wrath, and he left his native land in disgust. In Flor-
ence, Rome, and Naples he found more congenial surroundings.
Goethe blamed him for not forgetting the pettinesses of German
literary strife amid such scenes. Nevertheless these years were the
happiest of his life. Ballads, lyrics, odes, and dramas swelled the
volume of his contributions to literature. He wrote also a perfunc-
tory History of the Kingdom of Naples'; and a charming fairy epic,
'Die Abassiden,' written in 1830 but not published until 1834. His
last drama was the 'League of Cambray. ' The flaming Polenlieder'
(Songs of the Poles), which gave restrained but powerful expression
to his love of freedom, and his hatred of the Czar, were forbidden
by the censor, and did not appear until after the poet's death. It
was this act of tyranny that elicited the glowing stanzas with which
the series comes to an end.
Platen returned to Germany in 1832, and in the following year
brought out the first complete edition of his works. His poems won
new admirers constantly, and long before his death he had ceased
to be the voice of one crying in the wilderness. In 1834 he went
back to Italy; and on December 5th, 1835, he died in Sicily.
Platen was an alien in his native land. It was not only that he
was rejected: he was not himself in touch with his time. Indeed, it


## p. 11515 (#129) ##########################################

AUGUST VON PLATEN
11515
is his chief merit that he checked the movement that threatened
literary chaos. After his death, enthusiastic admiration went almost
as far in the upward direction as indifference had sunk in the down-
ward. To-day we recognize in Platen the "sculptor in words," the
master of form, the stickler for truth, and the sincere thinker, who,
unable to reconcile himself to vulgar views of life, died disappointed
and in exile, rather
"Than the yoke of blind plebeian hatred bear. "
[This, and other selections from Longfellow's Poets and Poetry of Europe,'
are reprinted with the approval of Houghton, Mifflin & Co. , publishers. ]
REMORSE
ow I started up in the night, in the night,
How Drawn on without rest or reprieval!
The streets, with their watchmen, were lost to my
sight,
As I wandered so light
In the night, in the night,
Through the gate with the arch medieval.
The mill-brook rushed through the rocky height,
I leaned o'er the bridge in my yearning;
Deep under me watched I the waves in their flight,
As they glided so light
In the night, in the night,
Yet backward not one was returning.
O'erhead were revolving, so countless and bright,
The stars in melodious existence;
And with them the moon, more serenely bedight;
They sparkled so light
In the night, in the night,
Through the magical, measureless distance.
And upward I gazed in the night, in the night,
And again on the waves in their fleeting;
Ah, woe! thou hast wasted thy days in delight!
Now silence thou, light
In the night, in the night,
The remorse in thy heart that is beating.
Translation of Henry W. Longfellow.
I


## p. 11516 (#130) ##########################################

11516
AUGUST VON PLATEN
BEFORE THE CONVENT OF ST. JUST, 1556
From Trench's 'The Story of Justin Martyr and Other Poems,' and in 'Poets
and Poetry of Europe.
Is night, and storms continually roar;
T'S
Ye monks of Spain, now open me the door.
Here in unbroken quiet let me fare,
Save when the loud bell startles you to prayer.
Make ready for me what your house has meet,
A friar's habit and a winding-sheet.
A little cell unto my use assign:
More than the half of all this world was mine.
The head that stoops unto the scissors now,
Under the weight of many crowns did bow.
The shoulders on which now the cowl is flung,-
On them the ermine of the Cæsars hung.
I living now as dead myself behold,
And fall in ruins like this kingdom old.
THE GRAVE IN THE BUSENTO
-
BY
Y COSENZA Songs of wail at midnight wake Busento's shore;
O'er the wave resounds the answer, and amid the vortex's roar,
Valiant Goths, like spectres, steal along the banks with hurried pace,
Weeping o'er Alaric dead, the best, the bravest of his race.
Ah, too soon, from home so far, was it their lot to dig his grave,
While still o'er his shoulders flowed his youthful ringlets' flaxen
wave.
On the shore of the Busento ranged, they with each other vied,
As they dug another bed to turn the torrent's course aside.
In the waveless hollow, turning o'er and o'er the sod, the corpse
Deep into the earth they sank, in armor clad, upon his horse;
Covered then with earth again the horse and rider in the grave:
That above the hero's tomb the torrent's lofty plants might wave.
And, a second time diverted, was the flood conducted back;
Foaming rushed Busento's billows onward in their wonted track.


## p. 11517 (#131) ##########################################

AUGUST VON PLATEN
11517
And a warrior chorus sang, "Sleep with thy honors, hero brave;
Ne'er a foot of lucre-lusting Roman desecrate thy grave! "
Far and wide the songs of praise resounded in the Gothic host;
Bear them on Busento's billow! bear them on from coast to coast!
Translation of A. Baskerville.
VENICE
ENICE, calm shadow of her elder day,
VEN
Still, in the land of dreams, lives fresh and fair;
Where frowned the proud Republic's Lion, there
His empty prison-walls keep holiday.
The brazen steeds that, wet with briny spray,
On yonder church-walls shake their streaming hair,
They are the same no longer-ah! they wear
The bridle of the Corsican conqueror's sway!
Where is the people gone, the kindly race
That reared these marble piles amid the waves,
Which e'en decay invests with added grace?
Not in the brows of yon degenerate slaves
Think thou the traits of their great sires to trace; -
Go, read them, hewn in stone, on doges' graves!
Translation of Charles T. Brooks.
"FAIR AS THE DAY »
F
AIR as the day that bodes as fair a morrow,
With noble brow, with eyes in heaven's dew,
Of tender years, and charming as the new,
So found I thee,- so found I too my sorrow.
Oh, could I shelter in thy bosom borrow,
There most collected where the most unbent!
Oh, would this coyness were already spent,
That aye adjourns our union till to-morrow!
But canst thou hate me ? Art thou yet unshaken?
Wherefore refusest thou the soft confession
To him who loves, yet feels himself forsaken ?
Oh, when thy future love doth make expression,
An anxious rapture will the moment waken,
As with a youthful prince at his accession!
From Longfellow's Poets and Poetry of Europe. Translator anonymous.


## p. 11518 (#132) ##########################################

11518
AUGUST VON PLATEN
TO SCHELLING
I
S HE not also Beauty's sceptre bearing,
Who holds in Truth's domain the kingly right?
Thou seest in the Highest both unite,
Like long-lost melodies together pairing.
Thou wilt not scorn the dainty motley band,
With clang of foreign music hither faring,
A little gift for thee, from Morning Land;
Thou wilt discern the beauty they are wearing.
Among the flowers, forsooth, of distant valleys,
I hover like the butterfly, that clings
To summer sweets and with a trifle dallies;
But thou dost dip thy holy, honeyed wings,
Beyond the margin of the world's flower-chalice,
Deep, deep into the mystery of things.
From Longfellow's Poets and Poetry of Europe. '
Translator anonymous.
VOLUNTARY EXILE
MY
Y RANGING spirit seeks the far and wide,
And fain would soar and ever further soar:
I never long could linger on one shore,
Though Paradise should bloom on every side.
My spirit, sore perplexed and inly tried,
In this short life must often needs deplore
How easy 'tis to leave the homestead door;
But ah, how bitter elsewhere to abide!
Yet whoso hates things base with fervid soul,
Is driven from his country in despair,
When men, grown sordid, seek a sordid goal.
Far wiser then the exile's lot to share,
Than 'midst a folk that plays a childish rôle
The yoke of blind plebeian hatred bear.
Translation of Charles Harvey Genung.


## p. 11519 (#133) ##########################################

11519
PLATO
(427-347 B. C. )
BY PAUL SHOREY
LATO, the first of philosophers, and the only writer of prose
who ranks in the literature of power with the bibles and
supreme poets of the world, was born at Athens in the year
427 B. C. , and died in the year 347. His youth was contemporaneous
with that fatal Peloponnesian war in which the Athens of Pericles
dissipated, in a fratricidal contest, the energies that might have pro-
longed the flowering season of the Greek genius for another century.
His maturity and old age were passed as writer and teacher in the
subdued and chastened Athens of the restoration, whose mission it
was, as schoolmaster of Greece, to disengage the spirit of Hellen-
ism from local and temporal accidents, and prepare it—not without
some loss of native charm-for assimilation by the Hellenistic, the
Roman, the modern world. Like his pupil the Stagirite Aristotle, he
embraces in the compass of his thoughts the entire experience, and
reflective criticism of life, of the Greek race. But because he was an
Athenian born, and had nourished his mighty youth on the still living
traditions of the great age, he transmits the final outcome of Greek
culture to us in no quintessential distillation of abstract formulas, but
in vivid dramatic pictures that make us actual participants in the
spiritual intoxication, the Bacchic revelry of philosophy, as Alcibiades
calls it, that accompanied the most intense, disinterested, and fruitful
outburst of intellectual activity in the annals of mankind.
It was an age of discussion. The influence of the French salon
on the tone and temper of modern European literature has been often
pointed out. But the drawing-room conversation of fine ladies and
gentlemen has its obvious limits. In the Athens of Socrates, for the
first and last time, men talked with men seriously, passionately, on
other topics than those of business or practical politics; and their
discussions created the logic, the rhetoric, the psychology, the meta-
physic, the ethical and political philosophy of western Europe, and
wrought out the distinctions, the definitions, the categories in which
all subsequent thought has been cast. The Platonic dialogues are
a dramatic idealization of that stimulating soul-communion which
Diotima celebrates as the consummation of the right love of the


## p.
11520 (#134) ##########################################

PLATO
11520
beautiful; wherein a man is copiously inspired to declare to his friend
what human excellence really is, and what are the practices and the
ways of life of the truly good man. And in addition to their formal
and inspirational value, they remain, even after the codification of
their leading thoughts in the systematic treatises of Aristotle, a still
unexhausted storehouse of ideas, which, as Emerson says, "make
great havoc of our originalities. " This incomparable suggestiveness
is due after the genius of Plato-to the wealth of virgin material
which then lay awaiting the interpretative ingenuity of these brilliant
talkers, and the synoptic eye of the philosopher who should first be
able to see the one in the many and the many in the one.
Before the recent transformation of all things by physical science,
the experience of the modern world offered little to the generalizing
philosophic mind which the Periclean Greek could not find in the
mythology, the poetry, the art, the historical vicissitudes, the colo-
nial enterprises, and the picturesquely various political life of his
race. Modern science was lacking. But the guesses of the pre-
Socratic poet-philosophers had started all its larger hypotheses, and
had attained at a bound to conceptions of evolution which, though
unverified in detail, distinctly raised all those far-reaching questions.
touching the origin and destiny of man and the validity of moral
and religious tradition, that exercise our own maturer thought.
The concentration and conscious enjoyment of this rich culture
in the intense life of imperial Athens gave rise to new ideals in edu-
cation, and to the new Spirit of the Age, embodied in the Sophists-
or professional teachers of rhetoric and of the art of getting on in
the world. Their sophistry consisted not in any positive intention of
corruption, but in the intellectual bewilderment of a broad but super-
ficial half-culture, which set them adrift with no anchorage of unques-
tioned principle or fixed faith in any kind of ultimate reality. They
thus came to regard the conflicting religious, ethical, and social ideals
of an age of transition merely as convenient themes for the execu-
tion of dialectical and rhetorical flourishes, or as forces to be esti-
mated in the shrewd conduct of the game of life.
-
Among these showy talkers moved the strange uncouth figure of
Socrates, hardly distinguished from them by the writers of comedy.
or by the multitude, and really resembling them in the temporarily.
unsettling effect, upon the mind of ingenuous youth, of his persistent
questioning of all untested conventions and traditions. Two things,
in addition to the stoic simplicity of his life, his refusal to accept
pay for his teaching, and his ironical affectation of ignorance, espe-
cially distinguish his conversation from theirs: First, a persistent
effort to clear up the intellectual confusion of the age before logic, by
insistence on definitions that shall distinguish essence from accident.


## p. 11521 (#135) ##########################################

PLATO
11521
Second, an adamantine faith in the morality of common-sense, and
in the absoluteness of the distinction between right and wrong.
Every student must decide for himself which he will accept as
the probable Socrates of history: the homely portrait of Xenophon,
or the speculative, super-subtle, mystic protagonist of these dialogues,
fertile in invention, inexhaustible in resource, equal to every situation,
seemingly all things to all men, yet guarding ever his indomitable
moral and intellectual integrity behind a veil of playful irony. This
Platonic Socrates stands out as the second religious figure of the Euro-
pean world in the fourfold gospel of his conversation, his trial, his
temptation, and his death, recorded in the 'Gorgias,' the 'Apology,'
the Crito,' and the 'Phædo. ' However much of this result criticism
may attribute to the genius of the reporter, we divine a strangely
potent personality in the very fact that he dominated to the end the
imagination of a scholar who went to school to many other influ-
ences, and who absorbed the entire culture of that wondrous age
in "a synthesis without parallel before or since. " Amid all the dra-
matic variety, the curious subtlety, the daring speculation, the poetic
Pythagorean mysticism of the later dialogues, the two chief Socratic
notes persist. There is always an effort to dissipate the clouds of
intellectual confusion by the aid of some logic of definition and rele-
vancy; and however often the quest for absolute verities loses itself
in baffling labyrinths of dialectic, or issues in an impasse of conflicting
probabilities, the faith is never lost that truth exists, may be won by.
persistent wooing, and is in the end essentially moral.
Associated with Socrates are groups of the noble youths of Athens;
with worthy burghers who are their parents, guardians, or friends, an
inner circle of earnest disciples or devoted enthusiasts attached to the
person of the master, an outer circle of local celebrities and of all the
brilliant personalities whom the policy of Pericles drew to the Pry-
taneion of Greek intellect, visiting sophists, rhetoricians, philoso-
phers. The dramatic setting is some typical scene of Athenian life.
Socrates returning from the campaign of Potidæa strolls into a gym-
nasium, inquires of the progress of the young men, and draws the
reigning favorite Charmides into a discussion of the nature and defi-
nition of that virtue of temperance which is the bloom of youthful
beauty. He is aroused at earliest dawn by the knock of the youthful
enthusiast Hippocrates, who comes breathless to announce that "Pro-
tagoras is in town," and that there is to be a great gathering of wise
men at the house of Callias. Thither they proceed, and hear and say
many things. He meets Phædrus carrying a roll under his arm, and
fresh from the rhetorical school of Lysias, and joins him in a consti-
tutional beyond the city gates while they discourse on the philosophy
of style, and incidentally on love. He is a guest at the banquet held
―
XX-721


## p. 11522 (#136) ##########################################

11522
PLATO
to celebrate the success of Agathon's new tragedy at the Dionysiac
festival; and after listening benignantly to the young men's euphuis-
tic panegyrics on the great god Love, expounds to them the lore
he learned from the wise woman Diotima; and then, as the night
wears on, drinks all the guests under the table while he proves to
Aristophanes and Agathon that the true dramatic artist will excel in
both tragedy and comedy. Turning homeward from attendance on a
religious ceremony at the Peiræus, he is constrained by the playful
importunity of a band of young friends to remain for the torchlight
race in the evening. They proceed to the house of the delightful old
man Cephalus, father of the orator Lysias, where a conversation springs
up on old age and the right use of wealth, which insensibly develops
into the long argument on the Republic or Ideal State, in which alone
justice and the happy life are perfectly typed. Condemned to drink
the hemlock "for corrupting the youth," he spends the last hours in
prison beguiling the grief of his distracted disciples with high dispu-
tations touching the immortality of the soul, striving
"-to unfold
What worlds or what vast regions hold
The immortal mind, that hath forsook
Her mansion in this fleshly nook. "
The style is as various as are the themes. It ranges from homely
Socratic parable and the simple exquisite urbanity of Attic conver-
sation to the subtlest metaphysical disquisition, the loftiest flights of
poetic eloquence, the most dithyrambic imaginative mysticism. The
only limitation of this universality which the critics of antiquity could
discover was the failure (in the 'Menexenus,' for example) to achieve
sustained formal eloquence of the Demosthenic type. The thought
was too curious and subtle, the expression charged with too many
minor intentions, for that; the peculiar blending, in the Platonic dic-
tion, of colloquialism, dialectic precision, vivid imagination, and the
tone of mystic unction, unfitted it for the conventional effects of
political oratory.
But no other prose writer manifests such complete and easy mas-
tery of every note in the compass of his idiom as Plato possesses over
the resources of Greek. He not only employs all styles separately at
will, but modulates from one to the other by insensible transitions,
that can be compared only to the effects of modern music. Platonic
prose is an orchestral accompaniment of the thought; suggesting for
every nuance of the idea its appropriate mood, and shot through
with leitmotifs of reminiscence and anticipation, that bind the whole
into emotional and artistic unity. He is not only the greatest but the
first artist of an elaborate and curiously wrought prose diction.
No


## p. 11523 (#137) ##########################################

PLATO
11523
writer before him had thus combined quotation, parody, literary and
historic allusion, idiom, proverb, dialect, continued metaphor, and the
dramatically appropriated technical vocabularies of all arts, sciences,
and professions,-to' one resultant literary effect suited to his various
meanings and moods. The nice finish of Demosthenes's comparatively
simple oratorical prose was the outcome from a long evolution, and
from the labors of three generations of orators and rhetoricians. The
composite, suggestive, polychromatic, literary prose which is the ideal
of the cleverest modern writers, was created, in its perfection and
without precedent, by the genius of Plato.
The reconstruction of a systematic philosophy for Plato must be
left, in his own words, to "some very clever and laborious but not
altogether enviable man. " The notorious doctrine of Ideas is a lan-
guage, a metaphysic, a mythology. "Socrates used to ask concerning.
each thing,— as justice, friendship, or the State,- What is it? " And so
in the minor dialogues of search, the definition pursued through many
a dialectical winding in the dramatization of elementary logic came
to be regarded as a real thing to be apprehended, and not as the
mere "statement of the connotation of a term. " "The naïve childish
realism of the immature mind! " will be the confident comment of
the hasty critic. But as against the deeper meaning of Plato such
criticism is competent only to those, if any there be, who have com-
pletely solved the problem of the true nature of Universals. The
mediæval controversy still subsists under manifold disguises; and in
the last resort, as Professor James picturesquely says, "introspective
psychology is forced to throw up the sponge. " We may classify the
doctrine of Ideas as "logical realism"; but if we remember the kind
of reality which Berkeley, Kant, Schopenhauer, Shelley, and the
most delicate psychological analysis concur in attributing to the
"things" of common-sense, which Plato called shadows and copies
of the ideas, we may well surmise that the Platonic doctrine is more
nearly akin to modern psychological and poetical idealism than to the
crude logical realism of the Middle Ages. The verification of this
conjecture would take us too far afield. It is enough that general
notions, forms, essences, purposes, ideals, are in a sense as real as
brick and mortar. For Plato they are the supreme realities. The
idea of a thing, its form, identifying aspect, purpose, and true func-
tion, — these, and not its material embodiment and perishable acci-
dents, are what concern us. The very workman who makes a tool
does not copy with Chinese fidelity the accidents of an individual
pattern, but is guided by an idea of a service or function which in
the last analysis determines both material and form. Similarly the
Divine Artist may be said to have created the world by stamping, in
the limits of necessity, upon rude and shapeless chaos the informing


## p. 11524 (#138) ##########################################

PLATO
11524
types of harmonious order and his own beneficent designs. Lastly we
may transfer the analogy to the social life of man, and say that the
true educator, statesman, and ruler, is he whose soul has risen to the
apprehension of fixed eternal norms of virtue, 'law, the ideal city,
the perfectly just man,- and who has the power to mold and fashion
as nearly as may be to the likeness of these ideal types, the imper-
fectly plastic human material the "social tissue" in which he
works.
-
―――――
Thus the theory of ideas is a high poetic language, consistently
employed to affirm the precedence of soul, form, ideal, reason, and
design, over matter, body, and the accidents, irrelevancies, imper-
fections, and necessary compromises, of concrete physical existence.
«For Soul is Form, and doth the body make. ”
From this it is but a step to the imaginative mythological personi-
fication of the ideas. They are beautiful shapes, almost persons, first
beheld by the soul in pre-natal vision, and now in life's stormy voy-
age, ever fleeting before us "down the waste waters day and night,"
or gleaming "like virtue firm, like knowledge fair," through the mists
that encompass the vessel's prow. So conceived, they provide a ready
explanation or evasion of all the final problems which Plato was
both unwilling and unable to answer in the sense of an unflinching
materialistic nominalism. Our instantaneous a priori recognition of
mathematical truth, the shaping of the vague chaos of sensation in
predetermined molds of thought, the apprehension of norms of expe-
rience to which no finite experience ever conforms, our intuitions
of a beauty, a goodness, a truth, transcending anything that earth
can show, our persistent devotion to ideals that actual life always
disappoints, our postulates of a perfection that rebukes and shames
our practice, what can these things mean save that all which we
call knowledge here is a faint and troubled reminiscence of the Divine
reality once seen face to face, a refraction of the white light of
eternity by life's dome of many-colored glass, a sequence of shadow
pictures cast on the further wall of the dim cavern in which we sit
pinioned, our eyes helplessly averted from the true Light of the
World?
But Plato does not, like the pseudo-Platonists, abandon himself to
dreaming ecstasy. The theory of Ideas in its practical effect is a
doctrine of the strenuous definition and application to life of regu-
lative ideals. The multitude who lack such guiding aims live the
"untested life" which Socrates pronounced intolerable. The so-called
statesmen who fail to achieve them are blind leaders of the blind.
The establishment in the mind of a clearly defined ethical and social
ideal, as
a touchstone of the tendencies of all particular acts and


## p. 11525 (#139) ##########################################

PLATO
11525
policies, is described in the language of poetical Platonism as the
acquisition of the highest knowledge, the knowledge of the Idea of
Good, on which the value of all partial and relative "goods" depends.
The Idea of Good, supreme in the hierarchy of ideas, and last reached
in the scale and process of pure dialectic, is the sun of the intelligible
world; and like its symbol, the visible sun, is not only the fountain
of light and knowledge, but the source of motion, life, and existence.
For-to translate the image into prose-institutions, laws, and sys-
tems of government and education have their origin and find their
best explanation in the final purposes, the ultimate ethical and social
ideals, of their founders and supporters. But the knowledge of the
Idea of Good, though described as a vision, is not granted to vision-
aries. The relation of all action to a rational and consistent theory
of practice presupposes a severe discipline in dialectic. And dialectic
itself, so confusing and unsettling as practiced in imitation of Socra-
tes and the Sophists by the irresponsible youth of Athens, may be
safely studied only after a long preparatory training in all the cult-
ure and exact science of the age. Only to the elect few, who, tri-
umphantly supporting these and many other tests of mind and body,
attain the beatific vision, will Plato intrust the government of his
perfect city and the guardianship of mankind. They represent for
him the antithesis of the typical pettifoggers and brawling demagogues
of the Athens that was "dying of the triumph of the liberal party. "
For these too he shapes, in many of the dialogues, a theory of un-
scrupulous cynical practice more coherent, doubtless, than anything
in their minds, but serving in a way as an ideal of evil to oppose to
his own idea or ideal of good. It has been affirmed that Plato was a
bad citizen because he despaired of the Republic. But if we remem-
ber that, as Matthew Arnold says, Plato was right and Athens was
doomed, if we recall the excesses of the post-Periclean demagogues,
if we reflect on his bitter disillusionment in the brief tyrannical rule
of the "good-and-fair" companions of his youth, we shall not censure
him for "standing aside under a wall in a storm of dust and hurri-
cane of driving wind," or seeking refuge in the "city of which a
pattern is laid up in heaven. " "He was born to other politics. "
Platonism is much more than this doctrine of Ideas, or than any
doctrine. The dialogues, apart from their dramatic interest and lit-
erary charm, make a manifold appeal to numerous abiding instincts
and aptitudes of the human mind through dialectics, metaphysics,
mysticism, and aesthetic and ethical enthusiasm. Some hard-headed
readers will use them as an intellectual gymnastic. The thrust and
parry of logical fence, the close pursuit of a trail of ratiocination
through all the windings and apparently capricious digressions of
the argument, the ingenious détours and surprises of the Socratic


## p. 11526 (#140) ##########################################

11526
PLATO
Elenchus, the apparatus of definitions, divisions, and fine-spun distinc-
tions. these things are in themselves a pleasurable exercise to many
minds. Others seek in the dialogues the gratification of that com-
monplace metaphysical instinct which Walter Pater warns us to sup-
press.
Being and non-Being, the One and the many, the finite and
the infinite, weave their endless dance through the 'Parmenides,' the
'Sophist,' and the 'Philebus. ' We may say that it is barren logoma-
chy, the ratiocinative faculty run to seed, if we will. The history
of literature proves it what Plato called it: a persistent affection
of discourse of reason in man. Certain Platonic dialogues exercise
and gratify this instinct even more completely than Neo-Platonism,
mediæval scholasticism, Hegelianism, or the new psychological scho-
lasticism of to-day. And so, to the amazement and disgust of the
positivists, the stream of résumés, new interpretations, and paraphrases
of the 'Sophist' and 'Parmenides,' flows and will continue to flow.
Mysticism too "finds in Plato all its texts. " The yearning towards
an Absolute One, ineffable symbol of the unity which the soul is
ever striving to recover amid the dispersions of life, the impulse to
seek a spiritual counterpart for every material fact, the tantalizing
glimpses of infinite vistas beyond the ken of the bodily eye, the
aspirations that elude definition, and refuse to be shut in a formula,—
to all these
"Fallings from us, vanishings,
Blank misgivings of a creature
Moving about in worlds not realized,»
Plato gives full recognition, while shunning with unerring tact their
concrete superstitious developments. His mystical imagery is always
embroidered on a definite framework of thought. The attributes of
the Absolute One are deduced as systematically as a table of logical
categories. The structure of a Greek temple is not more transpar-
ently symmetrical than the allegory of the sun and the Idea of Good,
the analogy of the divided line, and the symbolism of the Cave in the
'Republic'; or than the description, in the 'Phædrus,' of the soul as
a celestial car, of which reason is the charioteer, and noble passion
and sensuous appetite are the two steeds. The visions of judgment
that close the 'Republic' and 'Gorgias' are as definite in outline as
a picture of Polygnotus. All nobler forms of mystic symbolism, from
Plotinus to Emerson, derive from Plato; all its baser developments.
from Iamblichus to the newest thaumaturgic theosophy, seek shelter
under his name.
Allied to mysticism is the quality which the eighteenth century
deprecated as enthusiasm. The intellect is suffused with feeling.
All the nobler sentiments partake of the intensity of passionate love


## p. 11527 (#141) ##########################################

PLATO
11527
and the solemnity of initiations. Hence the sage and serious doctrine
of Platonic love, whose interpretation and history would demand a
volume:-
-
"Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting;
The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
Hath had elsewhere its setting
And cometh from afar. »
All noble unrest and higher aspiration in this world is a striving
to recapture something of the rapture of the soul's pre-natal vision of
the Divine ideas. Now the good and the true are apprehended dimly
through the abstractions of dialectic. The idea of beauty alone finds
a not wholly inadequate visible embodiment on earth. And so the
love of beauty is the predestined guide to the knowledge of the good
and the true. In the presence of the beautiful the soul is stung by
recollection of the Idea, and yearns for an immortality which the mor-
tal can put on only through generation. To this throe, this yearn-
ing, awakened by the sight of a beautiful body, men give the special
name love.
But love in the larger sense is all passionate thirst for
happiness, all thrilling recollection of the absolute beauty, all desire to
reproduce it on earth, not merely after the flesh, but in such immor-
tal children of the spirit as the poems of Homer and Sappho, the
laws of Solon and Lycurgus, the victories of Epaminondas.
"The noble heart that harbors virtuous thought,
And is with child of glorious great intent,
Can never rest, until it forth have brought
Th' eternal brood of glory excellent. ”
For this higher love the lower is a preparation and an initiation.
Akin to this enthusiasm of the lover is the fine frenzy of the poet,
who, by visitation of the Muse, is inspired to utter many strange and
beautiful sayings, of which he can render no account under a Socratic
cross-examination. This power of the Muse resembles the magnet,
which both attracts and imparts its attractive virtue to other sub-
stances. And when a vast audience thrills with terror and pity as
the rhapsode, tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect, recites the
sorrows of Priam or Hecuba, they are all dependent links in the
magnetic chain that descends from the poet and the Muse.
The Vita Nuova' of Dante, the sonnets of Michael Angelo, the
'Eroici Furori' of Bruno, the spiritual quality of the higher poetry
of the Italian and English Renaissance, and the more recent names
of Shelley, Wordsworth, and Emerson, faintly indicate the historic
influence of these beautiful conceptions.
In later years Plato's "enthusiasm" was transmuted into a pro-
phetic puritanic world-reforming temper,- the seeming antithesis of


## p. 11528 (#142) ##########################################

11528
PLATO
this gracious philosophy of love and beauty. His work was from the
beginning as intensely moralized as were the discourses of Socrates.
On whatever theme you talked with Socrates, it was said, you would
in the end be forced to render an account of the state of your soul.
And so in Plato every text is improved for edification, "the moral
properties and scope of things" are kept constantly in sight, and
the unfailing ethical suggestiveness of the style intensifies the moral
sentiment to a pitch of spiritual exaltation that makes of Platonism
one of the great religions of the world. But the age as we see it
in Thucydides, Aristophanes, and Euripides, was one of "enlighten-
ment," skepticism, and the breaking up of traditional moral restraints.
And as he watched year by year the deterioration of the Athen-
ian civic temper, and the triumph of the mocking spirit of denial,
Plato's passionate concern for the moral side of life developed into
something akin to the temper of the Hebrew prophet, preaching
righteousness to a stubborn and perverse generation, or the modern
Utopian reformer, dashing his angry heart against the corruptions of
the world. The problems which increasingly absorb his attention are
the disengagement from outworn forms of the saving truths of the
old religion and morality, the polemic defense of. this fundamental
truth against the new Spirit of the Age, and the salvation of society
by a reconstitution of education and a reconstruction of government.
These are the chief problems, again, of our own age of transition;
and the 'Republic,' in which they find their ripest and most artistic
treatment, might seem a book of yesterday- or to-morrow. The
division of labor, specialization, the formation of a trained standing
army, the limitation of the right of private property, the industrial
and political equality of women, the improvement of the human
breed by artificial selection, the omnipotence of public opinion, the
reform of the letter of the creeds to save their spirit, the proscrip-
tion of unwholesome art and literature, the reorganization of edu-
cation, the kindergarten method, the distinction between higher and
secondary education, the endowment of research, the application of
the higher mathematics to astronomy and physics, such are some of
the divinations, the modernisms of that wonderful work. The frame-
work is a confutation of ethical skepticism by demonstration that
morality is of the nature of things, and the just life is intrinsically
happier than the unjust. The nature of justice can be studied only
in the larger life of the State. A typical Greek city is constructed,—
or rather, allowed to grow, and by the reform of education is in-
sensibly transformed into the ideal monarchy or aristocracy, governed
by philosopher-statesmen who have attained to the Idea of Good.
The existing degenerate forms of government are reviewed, and
estimated by their approximation to this perfect type; and by means
-


## p. 11529 (#143) ##########################################

PLATO
11529
of an elaborate psychological parallel between the individual and the
social constitution, it is inferred that the superior happiness of the
"just man" is proportional to the perfection of the best city.
The puritanic temper reveals itself in the famous banishment of
Homer. In the course of a criticism of Greek anthropomorphism,
which was repeated almost verbatim by the Christian fathers, the
tales told of the gods by Homer are deprecated as unsuitable for the
ears of the young. As his conception of education broadens, Socrates
unfolds the Wordsworthian idea of the molding influence upon char-
acter of noble rhythms, and a beautiful and seemly environment of
nature and art; and ordains that in the perfect city all art and liter-
ature must be of a quality to produce this ennobling effect. Lastly,
recurring to the topic with deeper analysis in the closing book, he
rejects all forms of dramatic, flamboyant, luscious art and literature,
as superficial mimicries twice removed from absolute truth, unwhole-
some stimulants of emotion, and nurses of harmful illusions. We may
not, with Ruskin, pronounce this a quenching of the imagination and
of the poetic sensibilities by the excess of the logical faculty. Plato
is only too conscious of the siren's charm:-"And thou too, dear
friend, dost thou not own her spell, and most especially when she
comes in the guise of Homer? But great is the prize for which we
strive; and what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world of
poetry and art, and lose his own soul? »
"But all those pleasant bowers and palace brave
Guyon broke down with rigor pitiless,
Ne aught their goodly workmanship might save
Them from the tempest of his wrathfulness. "
The 'Republic' undertakes to prove that virtue is its own reward,
and needs no other wage here or hereafter. But at the close the
imperious human cry makes itself heard: "Give her the wages of
going on, and not to die. " The beautiful tale of salvation related
by Er the son of Armenius is like the myth at the close of the
'Gorgias'; and the description of the blissful region of the "upper
earth" in the 'Phædo' rather an "intimation of immortality" than a
cogent logical demonstration. Plato sketches many such proofs: the
soul possesses concepts not derived from experience; the soul is an
uncomposite unity; the soul is a spontaneous source of motion.
But
like the myths, these arguments are rather tentative expressions of
a rational hope than dogmatic affirmations or organic members of a
system. Yet the traditional conception of Plato as the champion of
immortality and the truths of natural religion, is justified by the fact
that in the age when traditional religion first found itself confronted


## p. 11530 (#144) ##########################################

11530
PLATO
with the affirmations of dogmatic science, and with the picture of
a mechanical universe that left no place for God or the soul,-he,
at home in both worlds of thought, stood forward as a mediator,
and demonstrated this much at least: that a purely sensationist psy-
chology fails to yield an intelligible account of mind, and that the
dogmatism of negation is as baseless as the dogmatism of unlicensed
affirmation.
Space does not admit even a sketch of the history of the Pla-
tonic dialogues, and their domination of the thought of intensely
vital ages, like the Renaissance and our own time. Their influence
in literature, philosophy, and the higher education, has perhaps never
been greater than in the past thirty years. No original book of this
generation has done more to shape the thought of our time than
Jowett's admirable translation, accompanied by notes and analyses.
This translation, with Grote's elaborate study in four volumes, Zeller's
"History of Greek Philosophy,' Campbell's excellent article in the
'Encyclopædia Britannica,' and Walter Pater's exquisite 'Plato and
Platonism,' will meet all the needs of the general student. The latest
edition of Zeller will guide scholars to the enormous technical litera-
ture of the subject.
Paul Shrey
ва
FROM THE PROTAGORAS›
[Socrates and his young friend Hippocrates visit the Sophists' school. ]
PROCEEDED: IS not a Sophist, Hippocrates, one who deals
wholesale or retail in the food of the soul? To me that
appears to be the sort of man.
And what, Socrates, is the food of the soul?
Surely, I said, knowledge is the food of the soul; and we
must take care, my friend, that the Sophist does not deceive
us when he praises what he sells, like the dealers wholesale or
retail who sell the food of the body: for they praise indiscrimi-
nately all their goods, without knowing what are really beneficial
or hurtful; neither do their customers know, with the exception
of any trainer or physician who may happen to buy of them.
In like manner those who carry about the wares of knowledge,
and make the round of the cities, and sell or retail them to any
customer who is in want of them, praise them all alike: and I


## p. 11531 (#145) ##########################################

PLATO
11531
should not wonder, O my friend, if many of them were really
ignorant of their effect upon the soul; and their customers
equally ignorant, unless he who buys of them happens to be a
physician of the soul. If therefore you have understanding of
what is good and evil, you may safely buy knowledge of Pro-
tagoras, or of any one; but if not, then, O my friend, pause, and
do not hazard your dearest interests at a game of chance. For
there is far greater peril in buying knowledge than in buying
meat and drink: the one you purchase of the wholesale or retail
dealer, and carry them away in other vessels, and before you
receive them into the body as food you may deposit them at
home, and call in any experienced friend who knows what is
good to be eaten or drunken, and what not, and how much and
when; and hence the danger of purchasing them is not so great.
But when you buy the wares of knowledge you cannot carry
them away in another vessel; they have been sold to you, and
you must take them into the soul and go your way, either
greatly harmed or greatly benefited by the lesson: and therefore
we should think about this and take counsel with our elders; for
we are still young- - too young to determine such a matter. And
now let us go, as we were intending, and hear Protagoras: and
when we have heard what he has to say, we may take counsel
of others; for not only is Protagoras at the house of Callias, but
there is Hippias of Elis, and if I am not mistaken, Prodicus of
Ceos, and several other wise men.
To this we agreed, and proceeded on our way until we reached
the vestibule of the house; and there we stopped in order to
finish a dispute which had arisen as we were going along; and
we stood talking in the vestibule until we had finished and come
to an understanding. And I think that the doorkeeper, who was
a eunuch, and who was probably annoyed at the great inroad of
the Sophists, must have heard us talking. At any rate, when we
knocked at the door, and he opened and saw us, he grumbled,
They are Sophists-he is not at home; and instantly gave the
door a hearty bang with both his hands. Again we knocked,
and he answered without opening, Did you not hear me say that
he is not at home, fellows? But, my friend, I said, we are not
Sophists, and we are not come to see Callias: fear not, for we
want to see Protagoras; and I must request you to announce us.
At last, after a good deal of difficulty, the man was persuaded to
open the door.


## p. 11532 (#146) ##########################################

11532
PLATO
When we entered, we found Protagoras taking a walk in
the portico; and next to him on one side were walking Callias
the son of Hipponicus, and Paralus the son of Pericles, who by
the mother's side is his half-brother, and Charmides the son of
Glaucon. On the other side of him were Xanthippus the other
son of Pericles, Philippides the son of Philomelus; also Antimo-
rus of Mende, who of all the disciples of Protagoras is the most
famous, and intends to make sophistry his profession. A train
of listeners followed him, of whom the greater part appeared
to be foreigners, who accompanied Protagoras out of the vari-
ous cities through which he journeyed. Now he, like Orpheus,
attracted them by his voice, and they followed the attraction. I
should mention also that there were some Athenians in the com-
pany. Nothing delighted me more than the precision of their
movements: they never got into his way at all; but when he
and those who were with him turned back, then the band of list-
eners divided into two parts on either side; he was always in
front, and they wheeled round and took their places behind him.
in perfect order.
>>>
After him, as Homer says, "I lifted up my eyes and saw
Hippias the Elean, sitting in the opposite portico on a chair of
state, and around him were seated on benches Eryximachus the
son of Acumenus, and Phædrus the Myrrhinusian, and Andron
the son of Androtion, and there were strangers whom he had.
brought with him from his native city of Elis, and some others:
they appeared to be asking Hippias certain physical and astro-
nomical questions, and he, ex cathedrâ, was determining their
several questions to them, and discoursing of them.
Also, "my eyes beheld Tantalus"; for Prodicus the Cean was
at Athens: he had been put into a room which in the days of
Hipponicus was a storehouse; but as the house was full, Callias.
had cleared this out and made the room into a guest-chamber.
Now Prodicus was still in bed, wrapped up in sheepskins and
bedclothes, of which there seemed to be a great heap; and there
were sitting by him on the couches near, Pausanias of the deme
of Cerameis, and with Pausanias was a youth quite young, who
is certainly remarkable for his good looks, and if I am not mis-
taken, is also of a fair and gentle nature. I think that I heard
him called Agathon, and my suspicion is that he is the beloved
of Pausanias. There was this youth, and also there were the
two Adeimantuses,—one the son of Cepis, and the other of


## p. 11533 (#147) ##########################################

PLATO
11533
Leucolophides,- and some others. I was very anxious to hear
what Prodicus was saying, for he seemed to me to be an extraor-
dinarily wise and divine man; but I was not able to get into
the inner circle, and his fine deep voice made an echo in the
room which rendered his words inaudible.
No sooner had we entered than there followed us Alcibiades
the beautiful- as you say, and I believe you; and also Critias
the son of Callæschrus.
On entering, we stopped a little in order to look about us,
and then walked up to Protagoras, and I said: Protagoras, my
friend Hippocrates and I have come to see you.
Do you wish, he said, to speak with me alone, or in the pres-
ence of others?
That is as you please, I said: you shall determine when you
have heard the object of our visit.
And what is that? he said.
-
I must explain, I said, that my friend Hippocrates is a native
Athenian; he is the son of Apollodorus, and of a great and pros-
perous house, and he is himself in natural ability quite a match.