They
generally
had a given name, roughly equivalent to a modern first name, followed by their place of origin.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
Perhaps the best example of these kinds of encounters occurs in Book 8, where Odysseus has been shipwrecked on the island of the Phaeacians.
Several of the young Phaeacians, who had a chance meeting with Odysseus but of course had no idea of his identity, decided to be neighborly and invite him to join in their athletic contests--although the reader does get the impression that there was a certain smirking cockiness in their invitation.
After enduring some taunting from his Phaeacian hosts, Odysseus angrily jumped to his feet, not bothering to change into athletic apparel, nor even to stretch or warm up. He grabbed a discus that was lying nearby on the ground, one that was even heavier than those the young Phaeacian athletes had heaved. He whirled around and let it fly; Homer says that the spectators "went flat on the ground," so astonished and surprised were they at Odysseus's strength and throwing skill. The discus flew through the air and landed far beyond the farthest throw that any of the young men had achieved.
The adrenaline gushed. Odysseus next turned to those (formerly! ) smirking Phaeacians and furiously chal- lenged them to any other kind of contest. A footrace? No volunteers arose. Wrestling? Silence. Boxing? Not to- day. Archery? Some other time. Javelin throwing? Forget it.
Finally, Alcinous, the king of the Phaeacians, stepped forward and called a halt to the games and the chal- lenges, suggesting instead that they all turn their attention to a banquet and dancing, more "Phaeacian-like" pursuits.
? ? to beat him out in a race, for all but our Achilles. "
Bantering so, but he flattered swift Achilles
and the matchless runner paid him back in kind:
"Antilochus, how can I let your praise go unrewarded?
Here's more gold--a half-bar more in the bargain. "
He placed it in his hands, and he was glad to have it.
[Tr. Robert Fagles. Homer: The Iliad. (Book 23. ) Penguin Books, 1990. Page numbers: 582, 583, 584. ]
AFTERMATH
The three contestants in the footrace all had interesting post-race adventures. The most famous of these is the story of Odysseus's 10-year homeward journey after the Trojan War, as recounted in Homer's Odyssey.
Ajax drowned on his voyage home after the war. This Ajax was always viewed as a brash and irreverent sort; after successfully weathering a storm at sea and guiding his ship and crew to safety, he loudly boasted that he had bested both the deities and the ocean waves. The god Poseidon, infuriated by this unwarranted insolence, shattered with his fearsome trident the point of land from which Ajax uttered his boast, sinking both it and Ajax into the depths of the onrushing waters.
Antilochus, young, handsome, and a close friend of both Patroclus and Achilles--it was Antilochus who had the unhappy duty of informing Achilles about Patroclus's death--was subsequently killed while defending his father Nestor against an attack by the Ethiopian king
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Memnon. The three friends--Antilochus, Patroclus, and Achilles--were buried in the same tomb and were reunited in the afterlife. When Odysseus made his descent into the Underworld (in Book 11 of the Odyssey), he saw all three of them together.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Achilles was a fast runner; Homer often refers to him as "swift-footed Achilles. " He probably could have won the footrace easily if he had competed. In fact, Antilochus admits, at the end of the document, that Achilles could outrun even Odysseus. Why do you suppose, then, that he sat it out?
2. Why did Ajax complain so bitterly about losing the race to Odysseus? What do you think about his contention that a goddess was the cause of his defeat?
3. The response of the spectators--laughter--to Ajax' unfortunate fall seems a little inappropriate. Why do you suppose they laughed at him? Was it merely because he looked foolish, having fallen in cattle droppings, or did their laughter also display a lack of respect for him?
4. If Odysseus had fallen instead of Ajax, is it likely that the spectators would have greeted him with laughter?
5. Quite a change has taken place in Antilochus. A little earlier in Book 23, he angrily complained when it appeared that he might be deprived of the second-place prize in the chariot race. But he seems to be perfectly content with having finished last in the footrace. Why the change in attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e In Homer's description of the eight events in the funeral games for Patroclus, it seems as if the chariot race is the most important one. It is described first, and in the greatest detail. Think about why the Greeks of Homer's time apparently considered chariot racing so prestigious.
e TheattitudedisplayedbytheHomericathletestowardwinningandlosing seems to be very different from the way in which Olympic athletes (centu- ries later) viewed the matter. As noted, disputes did arise in the funeral games for Patroclus, but more often, the competitors seemed to behave like Antilochus after the footrace: even though he finished last, he was still good-humored about it and willing to give due credit to the winner. No defeated Olympic athlete would have displayed such magnanimity. Two of the events in the funeral games did not even have a winner: the wrestling match, which ended in a tie, and the archery contest, which was cancelled because everyone knew that Agamemnon was unbeatable. Consider some possible reasons why the participants in the funeral games seemed to have such a polite outlook on the question of winning and losing.
e The Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) authored the Aeneid, an epic poem about the Roman hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman race. In Book 5, Virgil describes a series of athletic events staged in honor of Anchises, Aeneas's deceased father. Consider the similarities and differ- ences between the funeral games for Patroclus and the funeral games for Anchises.
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Further Information
Bowra, Sir Maurice. Tradition and Design in the Iliad. London, 1930.
Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore and London, 1987.
Nagy, Gregory. The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry.
Baltimore and London, 1979.
Schein, Seth. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and
London, 1984.
Wace, Alan J. B. and Frank Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962.
Website
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. http://library. thinkquest. org/19300
Bibliography for document
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990.
The Goddess Was on His Side
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43. THE (ANCIENT) WORLD'S GREATEST ATHLETE INTRODUCTION
The sixth-century BCE wrestler Milo of Croton (a southern Italian town noted for the many champion athletes born there) was without a doubt the most successful competitor in ancient Olympic history. It might not be too far a stretch to consider him the most domi- nant Olympic athlete ever. As Pausanias informs us below, he won the championship in six consecutive Olympiads. No Olympic athlete, ancient or modern, has ever accomplished a comparable feat. And he nearly won a seventh; he was undone by a certain Timasitheus (also from Croton, interestingly), who apparently employed a strategy of running around the wrestling ring, and forcing Milo--who must by that time have been 40 years of age or older--to chase him. Eventually, youth and stamina overcame age and experience.
Pausanias also notes that Milo won seven wrestling championships at the Pythian Games. Other sources add that Milo won 10 times at the Isthmian Games and 9 more at the Nemean Games, giving him an astounding total of 32 championships at the four most prestigious and competitive athletic venues.
In addition to his athletic excellence, he was something of a showman, delighting in tests of strength and skill. Many of these displays are described in the passage quoted from the pages of Pausanias. And like many oversized athletes throughout history, Milo had an enor- mous appetite, reportedly downing 20 pounds of meat and bread and three pitchers of wine at a single sitting. He is said to have once carried a four-year-old bull around the stadium, and then to have butchered it and consumed it in its entirety. Another time, at a festival in honor of Zeus, he lifted onto his shoulders a four-year-old steer, paraded with it among the festivalgoers, and then supposedly butchered and ate it.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Statues of victorious athletes were set up in the area around the temple of Zeus, the god to whom the Olympic games were dedicated. Victorious athletes were also praised in verse written by epinicean poets. These poets--who could perhaps be characterized as the western world's first sports writers--specialized in writing odes that honored successful athletes. The best known epinicean poet was Pindar (518-438 BCE). About 45 of his elegantly written poems survive to the present day.
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2. Winning the Olympic championship in wrestling was exceptionally difficult. The number of wrestlers who could enter the lists for wrestling is not known, but appa- rently, the entrants had to wrestle a series of elimination matches prior to the start of the games, so that the number of finalists was reduced to 16. These surviving 16 were paired up by lot; no effort was made to seed them or to match them according to weight. The wrestling event then proceeded in the manner of a single-elimination tournament featuring the (presumably) finest 16 wrestlers in the Greek world. Hence, in order to win the overall championship, a wrestler had to defeat four extremely skilled opponents, in four grueling matches, and most likely, all in the same day. (No wonder the aging Milo had difficulty keeping up with his young rival Timasitheus! )
Document: Pausanias's Account of Milo
of Croton [6. 14. 5-8]
Milo won six victories for wrestling at Olympia, one of them among the boys; at [the Pythian Games] he won six among the men and one among the boys. He came to Olympia to wrestle for the seventh time, but did not succeed in mastering Timasitheus, a fellow-citizen who was also a young man, and who refused . . . to come to close quarters with him. It is further stated that Milo carried his own statue into the Altis. His feats with the pomegranate and the [dis- cus] are also remembered by tradition. He would grasp a pomegranate so firmly
Detail from a sarcophagus shows young Greeks engaged in a wrestling contest, Greek, marble relief, sixth century BCE. (Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis)
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that nobody could wrest it from him by force, and yet he did not damage it by pressure. He would stand upon a greased [discus], and make fools of those who charged him and tried to push him [off of it]. He used to perform also the following exhibition feats: He would tie a cord around his fore- head as though it were a ribbon or a crown. Holding his breath and filling with blood the veins
on his head, he would break the cord by the strength of these veins. It is said that he would let down by his side his right arm from the shoulder to the elbow, and stretch out straight the arm below the elbow, turning the thumb upwards, while the other fingers lay in a row. In this position, then, the little finger was lowest, but nobody could bend it back by pressure. [Tr. W. H. S. Jones. Pausanias: Description of Greece. (6. 14. 5-8. ) Volume III. LCL, 1933. Page numbers: 83, 85. ]
AFTERMATH
Many notable wrestlers competed in the sport after Milo. Examples: Epharmostus of Opus (fifth century BCE), who won championships at the Olympic, Isthmian, and Nemean games, as well as a number of other places, including Arcadia, Argos, Athens, Marathon, and Pellana; Praxidamas of Aegina (fifth century), who triumphed five times in the Isthmian games and three times in the Nemean, and whose son, Alcimidas, won the boys' wrestling crown at Nemea; Thaeaus of Argos (fifth century), winner of three Isthmian championships, one each at the Pythian and Nemean games, as well as at Argos, Sicyon, and Athens; Caprus of Elis (fourth century), a uniquely versatile competitor who was the first man in Olympic history to claim championships in both wrestling and the pankration at the same festival. But none of these athletes, accomplished as they were, matched Milo's excellence. No one else ever did, either.
The (Ancient) World's Greatest Athlete
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Altis: the sacred grove that surrounded the temple of Zeus in Olympia, where the statues of victorious ath- letes were placed. A statue of Milo was erected in the Altis, and inter- estingly, Milo's statue was crafted by his fellow Crotoniate, a sculptor named Dameas.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? CROTON: HOME OF FINE-QUALITY ATHLETES
The southern Italian city of Croton was famous for the many superb athletes it produced. Milo was undoubtedly the best known and most successful of these, but there were others. Astylus, early fifth century BCE, was a champion sprinter. He won both the stade and the diaulos races in the same Olympiad three consecu- tive times, in 488, 484, and 480. Such a unique double victory, accomplished three times, was unmatched in the ancient Olympics.
Phayllus, also early fifth century, won three victories in the Pythian Games: two in the pentathlon, and one in the stade (200-yard) race. An epigram concerning Phayllus records that he long-jumped 55 feet (probably a triple jump) and threw the discus 95 feet.
And in one Olympiad, the top seven finishers in the stade sprint race were all from Croton, thus occasioning a famous saying: "The last of the Crotoniates was the first among all other Greeks. "
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? ? ? ? GREEK NAMES
The ancient Greeks did not have a "first name, middle name, last name" in the same way as do Americans and members of other modern societies.
They generally had a given name, roughly equivalent to a modern first name, followed by their place of origin. Hence, "Milo of Croton. " An alternative form: identifying a person by referencing his father's name, a patronymic naming system. Milo's father's name was Diotimus, and Pausanias sometimes refers to Milo by his patronymic: "Milo, son of Diotimus. " Compare modern patronym- ics, such as names that end with the -son suffix: Johnson (i. e. , "son of John"), Jackson, Peterson, Stevenson, etc.
? ? ? ASK YOURSELF
1. Milo apparently enjoyed competing in informal contests of strength and skill, in addition to those described in the document. What do you suppose motivated him to want to do this?
2. In the introduction to the document, it was stated that Milo was the greatest ancient Olympic athlete, and possibly the greatest of all time. Does this seem plau- sible? Is there a way to prove this contention, or is it more likely that it is an issue for which a consensus will never be achieved?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Ancient athletes like Milo enjoyed the adulation of an adoring public, much like modern athletes and other celebrities. The ancient athletes were
? ? ? ? ? ? ? A FAMOUS ATHLETIC FAMILY
Possibly the most noteworthy athletic family in the history of the ancient games came from the island of Rhodes, in the eastern Mediterranean. Pausanias informs us that the "elder statesman" of this distinguished group, Diagoras, won a boxing crown in the Olympics of 464 BCE. His sons Acusilaus, Damagetus, and Dorieus were all champion athletes. There is a story that Acusilaus and Damagetus, having triumphed at the same Olympiad, hoisted their father onto their shoulders and carried him through the crowd, who tossed flow- ers at him and congratulated him on his sons' athletic excellence. Dorieus, the youngest son, won the pankra- tion in three successive Olympiads (432, 428, and 424), as well as eight crowns in the Isthmian games and seven in the Nemean. Two of Diagoras's grandsons also claimed Olympic glory: Eucles, who triumphed in box- ing in the Olympics of 396, and Peisirodus, in boys' boxing, in 388.
Pindar wrote an epinicean ode (Olympian 7) in honor of Diagoras, that "mighty, fair-fighting man" (tr. Swanson), in which he indicates that Diagoras won twice at Olympia, four times at the Isthmian games, and an unspecified number of times at Nemea, as well as one or more victories at games in Athens, Argos, Thebes, Arcadia, Boeotia, Aegina, and Pellana.
Plutarch and Cicero both relate the following incident from Diagoras's old age: On the day when he had seen his two sons crowned at Olympia, a Spartan supposedly approached him and said, "Die, Diagoras, for you could never ascend to heaven. " The point seemed to be that the old man had reached the apex of happiness, and nothing--not even heaven itself--could surpass the joy a father would feel at the Olympic success of his offspring.
Today, we might use the words "athletic dynasty" to describe this family!
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immortalized by statues in the Altis (sort of like a Hall of Fame of Olympic champions), and praised in verse by well-paid professional poets. Furthermore, they brought fame and glory to their families and home- towns by virtue of their athletic accomplishments. Consider why human beings, both ancient and modern, idolize(d) their athletic heroes, some- times to great extremes.
e The ancient Olympics were first staged in 776 BCE. They continued to be held every four years for more than a millennium. The modern version of the games has been continuously run since 1896 (with the exceptions of the war years of 1916, 1940, and 1944). So one could argue that Olympic competitions constitute one of the most enduring, most popular, and most widely watched events in the history of the western world. Consider why this is so, why it is that the Olympics have inspired and cre- ated such a long-standing interest among both competitors and fans.
Further Information
Gardiner, E. N. Athletics of the Ancient World. Oxford, 1930.
Harris, H. A. Greek Athletes and Athletics. Bloomington, IN, 1964.
Harris, H. A. Sport in Greece and Rome. Ithaca, NY, 1972.
Kyle, Donald. Athletics in Ancient Athens. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1987.
Matz, David S. Greek and Roman Sport. A Dictionary of Athletes and Events. Jefferson, NC,
1991.
Robinson, Rachel S. Sources for the History of Greek Athletics. Cincinnati, 1955.
Website
Milo of Kroton. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/Olympics/milo. html
Bibliography for Document
Jones, W. H. S. (tr. ). Pausanias: Description of Greece. Volume III. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1933.
Swanson, Roy Arthur. (tr. ) Pindar's Odes. Indianapolis and New York, 1974.
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44. "PUT ME IN, COACH": A FAMOUS ATHLETIC TRAINER
INTRODUCTION
Hiring a personal trainer is not a modern phenomenon; ancient Greek athletes often had their own personal coaches, who advised them on everything from dietary regimens, to train- ing methods, to lifestyle options. We even have a detailed training manual, authored by a certain Philostratus; the date is uncertain, but it may have been written in the third century CE. In addition to training advice, Philostratus also offers opinions on other relevant topics, such as an athlete's family background: "Now since it is best to begin with a man's birth, the coach should proceed first to investigate the parentage of the boy athlete, that is, to see if the parents were married when young, both of good stock, and free from diseases . . . Young parents . . . bestow strength upon the athlete, pure blood, powerful frame and untainted humors as well as normal size, and I would still further claim that they bestow also a wholesome beauty" [Philostratus. On Gymnastics 28; tr. Robinson. ].
We know the names of several coaches, and perhaps the most successful of these was the fifth-century BCE wrestling trainer Melesias. Pindar's eighth Olympian Ode honors Alcimedon of Aegina, the winner of the boys' wrestling, in 460; Melesias coached Alcimedon, and according to Pindar, Alcimedon's victory was the 30th earned by wrestlers who learned their craft under Melesias's tutelage.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Greek athletes sometimes became coaches after their retirement from active compe- tition, in much the same manner as retired athletes in modern times. This was clearly the case with Melesias; Pindar notes that "he won in his / own right at Nemea, / and, later in the men's pancration / bouts. " From this, it seems clear that Melesias excelled both in wrestling and in the pancration, but he apparently special- ized in coaching wrestlers. Keep in mind also how Pindar emphasizes to young ath- letes dreaming of Olympic glory that it would be to their advantage to secure the services of an experienced coach who had been there, done that: "Untested men [that is, those who had never competed and won] speak unreliably. / But Melesias speaks with authority / about these feats to neophytes . . . "
2. Pindar often incorporated mythic allusions into his poetry, as, for example, the last two lines of the document: "Hades holds no qualms/for one who wins. " The
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meaning seems to be that a victorious athlete is already immortal, by virtue both of his success and Pindar's poem in his honor, so he need not worry about what might happen to him in the afterlife.
Document: "Coach" Melesias: Pindar, Olympian 8
And, if I've rushed to glorify Melesias' wrestler-boys in poetry,
may envy hurl no jagged stone at me: for I recall he won in his
own right at Nemea,
and, later in the men's pancration
bouts. Teaching comes the easiest to one
who knows; and it is pointless not to learn.
Untested men speak unreliably.
But Melesias speaks with authority
about these feats to neophytes whose highest
dreams are of the prize performances at consecrated games. Alcimedon has brought Melesias
his thirtieth victory:
divinely lucky, with no lack of manliness,
he sent four badly beaten boys
back home in shameful silence, to defer
the choristers of catcalls,
and gave his father's father strength enough
to wrestle with old age:
Hades holds no qualms
for one who wins.
[Tr. Roy Arthur Swanson. Pindar's Odes. (Olympian 8. ) Indianapolis and New York, 1974. Page numbers: 35, 36. ]
AFTERMATH
All three of the wrestlers trained by Milesias and honored by Pindar hailed from families with long-standing athletic traditions. While nothing is known of the progeny of Alcimedon, Timasarchus, or Alcimidas, it would not be surprising if their sons and/or grandsons carried on their families' athletic prowess.
After winning a championship at a major athletic festival like the Olympic or Nemean Games, a victorious athlete could expect to receive a sumptuous welcome upon his return to his hometown. Expensive gifts, free meals at the town hall, or cash prizes might all be showered upon the conquering hero. It is
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? he sent four badly beaten boys/back home in shameful silence, to defer/the choristers of catcalls: An excellent example of Pindar's skill in seamlessly combining two somewhat different topics in the same sentence. The comment about "four badly beaten boys" is a reference to the procedure fol- lowed in wrestling (and also most likely in boxing and the pancra- tion): prior to the official start of the games, wrestlers would be required to engage in a series of elimination matches--the exact number is anybody's guess--to narrow the field of finalists to 16. These 16 would then compete for the championship, in a single- elimination format. So in order to win a wrestling crown, an athlete would have to defeat four oppo- nents, almost certainly on the same day, no small task considering that these 16 could fairly be said to be the best wrestlers in the Greek world.
Even to make it to the "final 16" would have required considerable skill. And yet so intense was the emphasis on winning that simply making it to that select group of 16 would mean nothing for any wrestler who failed--and there would be 15 failures! --to capture the championship. To lose was worse than disgraceful; hence
? ? ? ? ? 236
"Put Me In, Coach": A Famous Athletic Trainer highly likely that all three of Milesias's wrestlers enjoyed these
kinds of perquisites when they came home.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Compare Pindar's style of poetry to that of Homer. Both authors describe athletic competitions in their respective documents, but there are quite a few differences in the way each poet goes about doing so. What differences do you notice? What do you suppose accounts for those differences?
2. Does Pindar give us any hints about why Melesias was so successful as a coach? Does he anywhere suggest that Melesias's experience as an athlete helped to prepare him to become a first-rate coach?
3. What modern examples can you think of in which two or more members of the same family were successful athletes? And modern examples of former athletes who later became successful coaches?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e In modern sports, the skill of a coach is often measured by the number of victories his/her teams have accumulated, and perhaps also by the number of individual awards won by the players on those teams. It seems as if the same kinds of standards were applied to ancient Greek coaches like Melesias. Consider why coaches are evaluated by these criteria. Is there a more accurate way to assess their effectiveness?
e PindarwritesthatMelesiaswas"divinelylucky"tohavebeensosuccessful as a wrestling coach. It seems like a strange phrase, since Pindar elsewhere often praises the work ethic and self-discipline of both athletes and their trainers. Why do you suppose, then, that he would use the word "lucky" to describe Melesias?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Pindar's totally unsympathetic comment about the four wrestlers defeated by Alcimedon having to return home "in shameful silence," to endure the jeers and the catcalls of their fellow townspeople.
pancration (pronounced "pan-krat-ee- on," not "pan-kra-shun. ") A word meaning "all/strength," the pancra- tion was a brutal event, a combina- tion of boxing and wrestling, in which just about every kind of blow, hold, or kick was permitted, somewhat like modern cage fight- ing. The only prohibitions: no bit- ing; no gouging.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? A BOGUS COACH
Women were not permitted to attend the Olympic games as spectators, but the mother of the champion boxer Peisirodus (q. v. ), Pherenice (the daughter of the famous boxer Diagoras, and therefore also a member of that famous family of athletes) was so eager to watch her son compete that she disguised herself as his coach; she did so by completely enveloping herself in a cloak, in the manner of the other coaches. The deception worked until her son's moment of victory, when Pherenice, in her exuberant leaping and cheering, inadvertently allowed the cloak to drop from her body, immediately revealing her feminine qualities. The Olympic authorities were uncertain about what action to take; some felt that Pherenice should be put to death for such a sacrilege, but cooler heads fortunately prevailed, in deference to the considerable athletic prestige of her family.
After enduring some taunting from his Phaeacian hosts, Odysseus angrily jumped to his feet, not bothering to change into athletic apparel, nor even to stretch or warm up. He grabbed a discus that was lying nearby on the ground, one that was even heavier than those the young Phaeacian athletes had heaved. He whirled around and let it fly; Homer says that the spectators "went flat on the ground," so astonished and surprised were they at Odysseus's strength and throwing skill. The discus flew through the air and landed far beyond the farthest throw that any of the young men had achieved.
The adrenaline gushed. Odysseus next turned to those (formerly! ) smirking Phaeacians and furiously chal- lenged them to any other kind of contest. A footrace? No volunteers arose. Wrestling? Silence. Boxing? Not to- day. Archery? Some other time. Javelin throwing? Forget it.
Finally, Alcinous, the king of the Phaeacians, stepped forward and called a halt to the games and the chal- lenges, suggesting instead that they all turn their attention to a banquet and dancing, more "Phaeacian-like" pursuits.
? ? to beat him out in a race, for all but our Achilles. "
Bantering so, but he flattered swift Achilles
and the matchless runner paid him back in kind:
"Antilochus, how can I let your praise go unrewarded?
Here's more gold--a half-bar more in the bargain. "
He placed it in his hands, and he was glad to have it.
[Tr. Robert Fagles. Homer: The Iliad. (Book 23. ) Penguin Books, 1990. Page numbers: 582, 583, 584. ]
AFTERMATH
The three contestants in the footrace all had interesting post-race adventures. The most famous of these is the story of Odysseus's 10-year homeward journey after the Trojan War, as recounted in Homer's Odyssey.
Ajax drowned on his voyage home after the war. This Ajax was always viewed as a brash and irreverent sort; after successfully weathering a storm at sea and guiding his ship and crew to safety, he loudly boasted that he had bested both the deities and the ocean waves. The god Poseidon, infuriated by this unwarranted insolence, shattered with his fearsome trident the point of land from which Ajax uttered his boast, sinking both it and Ajax into the depths of the onrushing waters.
Antilochus, young, handsome, and a close friend of both Patroclus and Achilles--it was Antilochus who had the unhappy duty of informing Achilles about Patroclus's death--was subsequently killed while defending his father Nestor against an attack by the Ethiopian king
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Memnon. The three friends--Antilochus, Patroclus, and Achilles--were buried in the same tomb and were reunited in the afterlife. When Odysseus made his descent into the Underworld (in Book 11 of the Odyssey), he saw all three of them together.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Achilles was a fast runner; Homer often refers to him as "swift-footed Achilles. " He probably could have won the footrace easily if he had competed. In fact, Antilochus admits, at the end of the document, that Achilles could outrun even Odysseus. Why do you suppose, then, that he sat it out?
2. Why did Ajax complain so bitterly about losing the race to Odysseus? What do you think about his contention that a goddess was the cause of his defeat?
3. The response of the spectators--laughter--to Ajax' unfortunate fall seems a little inappropriate. Why do you suppose they laughed at him? Was it merely because he looked foolish, having fallen in cattle droppings, or did their laughter also display a lack of respect for him?
4. If Odysseus had fallen instead of Ajax, is it likely that the spectators would have greeted him with laughter?
5. Quite a change has taken place in Antilochus. A little earlier in Book 23, he angrily complained when it appeared that he might be deprived of the second-place prize in the chariot race. But he seems to be perfectly content with having finished last in the footrace. Why the change in attitude?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e In Homer's description of the eight events in the funeral games for Patroclus, it seems as if the chariot race is the most important one. It is described first, and in the greatest detail. Think about why the Greeks of Homer's time apparently considered chariot racing so prestigious.
e TheattitudedisplayedbytheHomericathletestowardwinningandlosing seems to be very different from the way in which Olympic athletes (centu- ries later) viewed the matter. As noted, disputes did arise in the funeral games for Patroclus, but more often, the competitors seemed to behave like Antilochus after the footrace: even though he finished last, he was still good-humored about it and willing to give due credit to the winner. No defeated Olympic athlete would have displayed such magnanimity. Two of the events in the funeral games did not even have a winner: the wrestling match, which ended in a tie, and the archery contest, which was cancelled because everyone knew that Agamemnon was unbeatable. Consider some possible reasons why the participants in the funeral games seemed to have such a polite outlook on the question of winning and losing.
e The Roman poet Virgil (70-19 BCE) authored the Aeneid, an epic poem about the Roman hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman race. In Book 5, Virgil describes a series of athletic events staged in honor of Anchises, Aeneas's deceased father. Consider the similarities and differ- ences between the funeral games for Patroclus and the funeral games for Anchises.
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Further Information
Bowra, Sir Maurice. Tradition and Design in the Iliad. London, 1930.
Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore and London, 1987.
Nagy, Gregory. The Best of the Achaeans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry.
Baltimore and London, 1979.
Schein, Seth. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and
London, 1984.
Wace, Alan J. B. and Frank Stubbings. A Companion to Homer. London, 1962.
Website
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. http://library. thinkquest. org/19300
Bibliography for document
Fagles, Robert (tr. ). Homer: The Iliad. New York, 1990.
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43. THE (ANCIENT) WORLD'S GREATEST ATHLETE INTRODUCTION
The sixth-century BCE wrestler Milo of Croton (a southern Italian town noted for the many champion athletes born there) was without a doubt the most successful competitor in ancient Olympic history. It might not be too far a stretch to consider him the most domi- nant Olympic athlete ever. As Pausanias informs us below, he won the championship in six consecutive Olympiads. No Olympic athlete, ancient or modern, has ever accomplished a comparable feat. And he nearly won a seventh; he was undone by a certain Timasitheus (also from Croton, interestingly), who apparently employed a strategy of running around the wrestling ring, and forcing Milo--who must by that time have been 40 years of age or older--to chase him. Eventually, youth and stamina overcame age and experience.
Pausanias also notes that Milo won seven wrestling championships at the Pythian Games. Other sources add that Milo won 10 times at the Isthmian Games and 9 more at the Nemean Games, giving him an astounding total of 32 championships at the four most prestigious and competitive athletic venues.
In addition to his athletic excellence, he was something of a showman, delighting in tests of strength and skill. Many of these displays are described in the passage quoted from the pages of Pausanias. And like many oversized athletes throughout history, Milo had an enor- mous appetite, reportedly downing 20 pounds of meat and bread and three pitchers of wine at a single sitting. He is said to have once carried a four-year-old bull around the stadium, and then to have butchered it and consumed it in its entirety. Another time, at a festival in honor of Zeus, he lifted onto his shoulders a four-year-old steer, paraded with it among the festivalgoers, and then supposedly butchered and ate it.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Statues of victorious athletes were set up in the area around the temple of Zeus, the god to whom the Olympic games were dedicated. Victorious athletes were also praised in verse written by epinicean poets. These poets--who could perhaps be characterized as the western world's first sports writers--specialized in writing odes that honored successful athletes. The best known epinicean poet was Pindar (518-438 BCE). About 45 of his elegantly written poems survive to the present day.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
2. Winning the Olympic championship in wrestling was exceptionally difficult. The number of wrestlers who could enter the lists for wrestling is not known, but appa- rently, the entrants had to wrestle a series of elimination matches prior to the start of the games, so that the number of finalists was reduced to 16. These surviving 16 were paired up by lot; no effort was made to seed them or to match them according to weight. The wrestling event then proceeded in the manner of a single-elimination tournament featuring the (presumably) finest 16 wrestlers in the Greek world. Hence, in order to win the overall championship, a wrestler had to defeat four extremely skilled opponents, in four grueling matches, and most likely, all in the same day. (No wonder the aging Milo had difficulty keeping up with his young rival Timasitheus! )
Document: Pausanias's Account of Milo
of Croton [6. 14. 5-8]
Milo won six victories for wrestling at Olympia, one of them among the boys; at [the Pythian Games] he won six among the men and one among the boys. He came to Olympia to wrestle for the seventh time, but did not succeed in mastering Timasitheus, a fellow-citizen who was also a young man, and who refused . . . to come to close quarters with him. It is further stated that Milo carried his own statue into the Altis. His feats with the pomegranate and the [dis- cus] are also remembered by tradition. He would grasp a pomegranate so firmly
Detail from a sarcophagus shows young Greeks engaged in a wrestling contest, Greek, marble relief, sixth century BCE. (Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis)
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that nobody could wrest it from him by force, and yet he did not damage it by pressure. He would stand upon a greased [discus], and make fools of those who charged him and tried to push him [off of it]. He used to perform also the following exhibition feats: He would tie a cord around his fore- head as though it were a ribbon or a crown. Holding his breath and filling with blood the veins
on his head, he would break the cord by the strength of these veins. It is said that he would let down by his side his right arm from the shoulder to the elbow, and stretch out straight the arm below the elbow, turning the thumb upwards, while the other fingers lay in a row. In this position, then, the little finger was lowest, but nobody could bend it back by pressure. [Tr. W. H. S. Jones. Pausanias: Description of Greece. (6. 14. 5-8. ) Volume III. LCL, 1933. Page numbers: 83, 85. ]
AFTERMATH
Many notable wrestlers competed in the sport after Milo. Examples: Epharmostus of Opus (fifth century BCE), who won championships at the Olympic, Isthmian, and Nemean games, as well as a number of other places, including Arcadia, Argos, Athens, Marathon, and Pellana; Praxidamas of Aegina (fifth century), who triumphed five times in the Isthmian games and three times in the Nemean, and whose son, Alcimidas, won the boys' wrestling crown at Nemea; Thaeaus of Argos (fifth century), winner of three Isthmian championships, one each at the Pythian and Nemean games, as well as at Argos, Sicyon, and Athens; Caprus of Elis (fourth century), a uniquely versatile competitor who was the first man in Olympic history to claim championships in both wrestling and the pankration at the same festival. But none of these athletes, accomplished as they were, matched Milo's excellence. No one else ever did, either.
The (Ancient) World's Greatest Athlete
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Altis: the sacred grove that surrounded the temple of Zeus in Olympia, where the statues of victorious ath- letes were placed. A statue of Milo was erected in the Altis, and inter- estingly, Milo's statue was crafted by his fellow Crotoniate, a sculptor named Dameas.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? CROTON: HOME OF FINE-QUALITY ATHLETES
The southern Italian city of Croton was famous for the many superb athletes it produced. Milo was undoubtedly the best known and most successful of these, but there were others. Astylus, early fifth century BCE, was a champion sprinter. He won both the stade and the diaulos races in the same Olympiad three consecu- tive times, in 488, 484, and 480. Such a unique double victory, accomplished three times, was unmatched in the ancient Olympics.
Phayllus, also early fifth century, won three victories in the Pythian Games: two in the pentathlon, and one in the stade (200-yard) race. An epigram concerning Phayllus records that he long-jumped 55 feet (probably a triple jump) and threw the discus 95 feet.
And in one Olympiad, the top seven finishers in the stade sprint race were all from Croton, thus occasioning a famous saying: "The last of the Crotoniates was the first among all other Greeks. "
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? ? ? ? GREEK NAMES
The ancient Greeks did not have a "first name, middle name, last name" in the same way as do Americans and members of other modern societies.
They generally had a given name, roughly equivalent to a modern first name, followed by their place of origin. Hence, "Milo of Croton. " An alternative form: identifying a person by referencing his father's name, a patronymic naming system. Milo's father's name was Diotimus, and Pausanias sometimes refers to Milo by his patronymic: "Milo, son of Diotimus. " Compare modern patronym- ics, such as names that end with the -son suffix: Johnson (i. e. , "son of John"), Jackson, Peterson, Stevenson, etc.
? ? ? ASK YOURSELF
1. Milo apparently enjoyed competing in informal contests of strength and skill, in addition to those described in the document. What do you suppose motivated him to want to do this?
2. In the introduction to the document, it was stated that Milo was the greatest ancient Olympic athlete, and possibly the greatest of all time. Does this seem plau- sible? Is there a way to prove this contention, or is it more likely that it is an issue for which a consensus will never be achieved?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Ancient athletes like Milo enjoyed the adulation of an adoring public, much like modern athletes and other celebrities. The ancient athletes were
? ? ? ? ? ? ? A FAMOUS ATHLETIC FAMILY
Possibly the most noteworthy athletic family in the history of the ancient games came from the island of Rhodes, in the eastern Mediterranean. Pausanias informs us that the "elder statesman" of this distinguished group, Diagoras, won a boxing crown in the Olympics of 464 BCE. His sons Acusilaus, Damagetus, and Dorieus were all champion athletes. There is a story that Acusilaus and Damagetus, having triumphed at the same Olympiad, hoisted their father onto their shoulders and carried him through the crowd, who tossed flow- ers at him and congratulated him on his sons' athletic excellence. Dorieus, the youngest son, won the pankra- tion in three successive Olympiads (432, 428, and 424), as well as eight crowns in the Isthmian games and seven in the Nemean. Two of Diagoras's grandsons also claimed Olympic glory: Eucles, who triumphed in box- ing in the Olympics of 396, and Peisirodus, in boys' boxing, in 388.
Pindar wrote an epinicean ode (Olympian 7) in honor of Diagoras, that "mighty, fair-fighting man" (tr. Swanson), in which he indicates that Diagoras won twice at Olympia, four times at the Isthmian games, and an unspecified number of times at Nemea, as well as one or more victories at games in Athens, Argos, Thebes, Arcadia, Boeotia, Aegina, and Pellana.
Plutarch and Cicero both relate the following incident from Diagoras's old age: On the day when he had seen his two sons crowned at Olympia, a Spartan supposedly approached him and said, "Die, Diagoras, for you could never ascend to heaven. " The point seemed to be that the old man had reached the apex of happiness, and nothing--not even heaven itself--could surpass the joy a father would feel at the Olympic success of his offspring.
Today, we might use the words "athletic dynasty" to describe this family!
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immortalized by statues in the Altis (sort of like a Hall of Fame of Olympic champions), and praised in verse by well-paid professional poets. Furthermore, they brought fame and glory to their families and home- towns by virtue of their athletic accomplishments. Consider why human beings, both ancient and modern, idolize(d) their athletic heroes, some- times to great extremes.
e The ancient Olympics were first staged in 776 BCE. They continued to be held every four years for more than a millennium. The modern version of the games has been continuously run since 1896 (with the exceptions of the war years of 1916, 1940, and 1944). So one could argue that Olympic competitions constitute one of the most enduring, most popular, and most widely watched events in the history of the western world. Consider why this is so, why it is that the Olympics have inspired and cre- ated such a long-standing interest among both competitors and fans.
Further Information
Gardiner, E. N. Athletics of the Ancient World. Oxford, 1930.
Harris, H. A. Greek Athletes and Athletics. Bloomington, IN, 1964.
Harris, H. A. Sport in Greece and Rome. Ithaca, NY, 1972.
Kyle, Donald. Athletics in Ancient Athens. Leiden, The Netherlands, 1987.
Matz, David S. Greek and Roman Sport. A Dictionary of Athletes and Events. Jefferson, NC,
1991.
Robinson, Rachel S. Sources for the History of Greek Athletics. Cincinnati, 1955.
Website
Milo of Kroton. http://www. perseus. tufts. edu/Olympics/milo. html
Bibliography for Document
Jones, W. H. S. (tr. ). Pausanias: Description of Greece. Volume III. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London, 1933.
Swanson, Roy Arthur. (tr. ) Pindar's Odes. Indianapolis and New York, 1974.
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44. "PUT ME IN, COACH": A FAMOUS ATHLETIC TRAINER
INTRODUCTION
Hiring a personal trainer is not a modern phenomenon; ancient Greek athletes often had their own personal coaches, who advised them on everything from dietary regimens, to train- ing methods, to lifestyle options. We even have a detailed training manual, authored by a certain Philostratus; the date is uncertain, but it may have been written in the third century CE. In addition to training advice, Philostratus also offers opinions on other relevant topics, such as an athlete's family background: "Now since it is best to begin with a man's birth, the coach should proceed first to investigate the parentage of the boy athlete, that is, to see if the parents were married when young, both of good stock, and free from diseases . . . Young parents . . . bestow strength upon the athlete, pure blood, powerful frame and untainted humors as well as normal size, and I would still further claim that they bestow also a wholesome beauty" [Philostratus. On Gymnastics 28; tr. Robinson. ].
We know the names of several coaches, and perhaps the most successful of these was the fifth-century BCE wrestling trainer Melesias. Pindar's eighth Olympian Ode honors Alcimedon of Aegina, the winner of the boys' wrestling, in 460; Melesias coached Alcimedon, and according to Pindar, Alcimedon's victory was the 30th earned by wrestlers who learned their craft under Melesias's tutelage.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. Greek athletes sometimes became coaches after their retirement from active compe- tition, in much the same manner as retired athletes in modern times. This was clearly the case with Melesias; Pindar notes that "he won in his / own right at Nemea, / and, later in the men's pancration / bouts. " From this, it seems clear that Melesias excelled both in wrestling and in the pancration, but he apparently special- ized in coaching wrestlers. Keep in mind also how Pindar emphasizes to young ath- letes dreaming of Olympic glory that it would be to their advantage to secure the services of an experienced coach who had been there, done that: "Untested men [that is, those who had never competed and won] speak unreliably. / But Melesias speaks with authority / about these feats to neophytes . . . "
2. Pindar often incorporated mythic allusions into his poetry, as, for example, the last two lines of the document: "Hades holds no qualms/for one who wins. " The
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
meaning seems to be that a victorious athlete is already immortal, by virtue both of his success and Pindar's poem in his honor, so he need not worry about what might happen to him in the afterlife.
Document: "Coach" Melesias: Pindar, Olympian 8
And, if I've rushed to glorify Melesias' wrestler-boys in poetry,
may envy hurl no jagged stone at me: for I recall he won in his
own right at Nemea,
and, later in the men's pancration
bouts. Teaching comes the easiest to one
who knows; and it is pointless not to learn.
Untested men speak unreliably.
But Melesias speaks with authority
about these feats to neophytes whose highest
dreams are of the prize performances at consecrated games. Alcimedon has brought Melesias
his thirtieth victory:
divinely lucky, with no lack of manliness,
he sent four badly beaten boys
back home in shameful silence, to defer
the choristers of catcalls,
and gave his father's father strength enough
to wrestle with old age:
Hades holds no qualms
for one who wins.
[Tr. Roy Arthur Swanson. Pindar's Odes. (Olympian 8. ) Indianapolis and New York, 1974. Page numbers: 35, 36. ]
AFTERMATH
All three of the wrestlers trained by Milesias and honored by Pindar hailed from families with long-standing athletic traditions. While nothing is known of the progeny of Alcimedon, Timasarchus, or Alcimidas, it would not be surprising if their sons and/or grandsons carried on their families' athletic prowess.
After winning a championship at a major athletic festival like the Olympic or Nemean Games, a victorious athlete could expect to receive a sumptuous welcome upon his return to his hometown. Expensive gifts, free meals at the town hall, or cash prizes might all be showered upon the conquering hero. It is
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? he sent four badly beaten boys/back home in shameful silence, to defer/the choristers of catcalls: An excellent example of Pindar's skill in seamlessly combining two somewhat different topics in the same sentence. The comment about "four badly beaten boys" is a reference to the procedure fol- lowed in wrestling (and also most likely in boxing and the pancra- tion): prior to the official start of the games, wrestlers would be required to engage in a series of elimination matches--the exact number is anybody's guess--to narrow the field of finalists to 16. These 16 would then compete for the championship, in a single- elimination format. So in order to win a wrestling crown, an athlete would have to defeat four oppo- nents, almost certainly on the same day, no small task considering that these 16 could fairly be said to be the best wrestlers in the Greek world.
Even to make it to the "final 16" would have required considerable skill. And yet so intense was the emphasis on winning that simply making it to that select group of 16 would mean nothing for any wrestler who failed--and there would be 15 failures! --to capture the championship. To lose was worse than disgraceful; hence
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"Put Me In, Coach": A Famous Athletic Trainer highly likely that all three of Milesias's wrestlers enjoyed these
kinds of perquisites when they came home.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Compare Pindar's style of poetry to that of Homer. Both authors describe athletic competitions in their respective documents, but there are quite a few differences in the way each poet goes about doing so. What differences do you notice? What do you suppose accounts for those differences?
2. Does Pindar give us any hints about why Melesias was so successful as a coach? Does he anywhere suggest that Melesias's experience as an athlete helped to prepare him to become a first-rate coach?
3. What modern examples can you think of in which two or more members of the same family were successful athletes? And modern examples of former athletes who later became successful coaches?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e In modern sports, the skill of a coach is often measured by the number of victories his/her teams have accumulated, and perhaps also by the number of individual awards won by the players on those teams. It seems as if the same kinds of standards were applied to ancient Greek coaches like Melesias. Consider why coaches are evaluated by these criteria. Is there a more accurate way to assess their effectiveness?
e PindarwritesthatMelesiaswas"divinelylucky"tohavebeensosuccessful as a wrestling coach. It seems like a strange phrase, since Pindar elsewhere often praises the work ethic and self-discipline of both athletes and their trainers. Why do you suppose, then, that he would use the word "lucky" to describe Melesias?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Pindar's totally unsympathetic comment about the four wrestlers defeated by Alcimedon having to return home "in shameful silence," to endure the jeers and the catcalls of their fellow townspeople.
pancration (pronounced "pan-krat-ee- on," not "pan-kra-shun. ") A word meaning "all/strength," the pancra- tion was a brutal event, a combina- tion of boxing and wrestling, in which just about every kind of blow, hold, or kick was permitted, somewhat like modern cage fight- ing. The only prohibitions: no bit- ing; no gouging.
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? A BOGUS COACH
Women were not permitted to attend the Olympic games as spectators, but the mother of the champion boxer Peisirodus (q. v. ), Pherenice (the daughter of the famous boxer Diagoras, and therefore also a member of that famous family of athletes) was so eager to watch her son compete that she disguised herself as his coach; she did so by completely enveloping herself in a cloak, in the manner of the other coaches. The deception worked until her son's moment of victory, when Pherenice, in her exuberant leaping and cheering, inadvertently allowed the cloak to drop from her body, immediately revealing her feminine qualities. The Olympic authorities were uncertain about what action to take; some felt that Pherenice should be put to death for such a sacrilege, but cooler heads fortunately prevailed, in deference to the considerable athletic prestige of her family.
