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[28] Arsames.

When Arsames was besieging Barce, the inhabitants of the city sent envoys to him with proposals of peace. He agreed to their terms, and in confirmation of it, he gave them his hand, as is the Persian custom. After raising the siege, he recommended that they make a close alliance with the king against the Greeks, and proposed that they should furnish him with a number of carriages, which he needed for his Greek expedition. They agreed with this proposal, and sent some of their leaders to him to arrange measures for the expedition. Arsames received these men courteously, and held a magnificent banquet for them. He also opened up a market for all the inhabitants of Barce, where a vast profusion of all kinds of things were put up for sale. Accordingly the inhabitants came out in great numbers to make purchases, but on a given signal the Persians took possession of the gates and rushed into the city. They plundered the city, and put to the sword anyone who attempted to resist them.

2 After Arsames had revolted from the king, he took control of Greater Phrygia, and made war against the king's generals. He received intelligence that his own cavalry commander was collaborating with the enemy, and had promised to desert to them, as soon as they met in battle. He went to the commander's tent by night, and ordered him to be examined under torture. As soon as a full confession of the fact had been made, he ordered the arms and uniform of the cavalry, who had joined in the plot, to be taken away from them; and others, in whom he trusted, to wear them instead. He ordered these men, as soon as they saw the enemy give the signal for desertion, to pretend to ride over to them, and then fall on their rear. After giving these orders, Arsames vigorously attacked the front of the enemy; at the same time, his cavalry obeyed the signal, but instead of assisting the enemy, fell upon their rear. Their ranks were immediately broken, and most of them were cut down as they fled.

[29] Mithridates.

After Datames had revolted, the king order Mithridates to capture him, either dead or alive. Mithridates pretended to join in the revolt, and offered to join Datames. But that cautious general wanted to see some proof of his revolt, by commencing hostilities against the king, before he trusted his claims. Mithridates accordingly began to ravage the countryside; he levelled his forts to the ground, burned his own villages, extorted money, and plundered his subjects. After Mithridates had taken such decisive action against the king, the two generals agreed on a conference, at which they were to meet unarmed. But Mithridates had secretly concealed a number of daggers around the spot, which was chosen for their meeting; he hid them in the ground, and marked the places where he had concealed them. After they had walked about together, and had spent a considerable time in conversation, Datames took his leave, and they parted. But Mithridates hastily dug up one of the daggers, which he concealed under his left arm, and called back Datames, on the pretence that he had forgotten something else, which he needed to say. Datames accordingly returned, and Mithridates pointed at a mountain, which he said they ought to secure. While Datames was looking at the mountain intently, Mithridates plunged the dagger into his breast. [see also: Cornelius Nepos, Dat_10]

2 Mithridates was closely pursued to a city in Paphlagonia, where he took refuge. In the night, he stripped the houses of their furniture, vases, and other valuables, and scattered them indiscriminately around the streets. He then left the city as quickly as possible. When his pursuers entered the city the next morning, and saw vases and other valuables scattered around the streets, they immediately fell to plundering. Although their generals ordered them to carry on the pursuit without delay, they refused to forgo the profit which was before their eyes. In this way Mithridates was able to leave them far behind, and completed his escape.

[30] Mempsis.

# Mempsis was forced to retreat before Aribaeus, who had made war on him, but he decided not to be blocked up in his city. For this reason, he brought out everything that was most valuable - his wives, his children, and all his treasures. He placed them outside the walls, and destroyed the gates. Aribaeus saw marks of desperation in his conduct, and drew away his army. He considered it unwise to fight with an enemy, who was so determined to achieve either death, or victory.

[31] Cersobleptes.

Some of the relatives of Cersobleptes revolted from him, after embezzling large sums of money. He afterwards however found a way of recalling them to their duty; and, to separate them from each other, he gave them the command of different cities. After some time had passed, he sent orders for them to be seized, on account of the money which they had embezzled. He expelled them from their cities, and confiscated their estates.

[32] Seuthes.

When Seuthes, the second-in-command of Cersobleptes, was very short of money, he sent orders to every farmer, to sow as much land as would require five medimni of seed. He carried the great quantity of corn, which was produced by this increase in tillage, down to the sea. There he sold it at somewhat less than the market price; which immediately brought into the treasury a very considerable sum of money.

[33] Artabazus.

Timoxenus of Scione promised to betray Potidaea, which Artabazus was besieging. Their correspondence was carried on by a letter fixed to an arrow, which was shot at a particular place; and the answer was returned by another arrow. [see also: Herodotus, 8. 128]

2 Artabazus instructed Pammenes, who was suspected of communicating with the enemy, to go to make payments, and distribute corn to the troops. But as soon as Pammenes entered the camp, he ordered him to be seized, and handed him over to his brothers Oxythres and Dibictus. [see also: Diodorus, 16. 34]

3 Artabazus, the son of Pharnaces, escaped from Plataea, and came to Thessaly. When the Thessalians questioned him about the battle, he was afraid to admit the defeat which the Persians had suffered, and he replied, that he was on his way to Thrace, to deliver a secret message from the king, but Mardonius would soon follow after him, with the news of the victory which he had obtained. By this pretence, Artabazus escaped from Thessaly, before the news of the Persians' defeat became known. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 89]

[34] Aryandes.

When Aryandes was besieging Barce, he dug a ditch by night in front of the walls; over the ditch he placed some beams of wood, and covered them with a little earth. Some time later, he proposed terms of peace to the Barcaeans; and he concluded a treaty with them on the site of the ditch which he had dug, where he swore to adhere to the conditions of the treaty, as long as the ground he stood on continued. When the treaty had been concluded, the Barcaeans opened their gates. But the soldiers of Aryandes broke open the ditch, and made themselves masters of the city, on the pretext that the ground, on which the two sides stood when they made the treaty, no longer existed. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 201]

[35] Brennus.

# Brennus, king of the Gauls, in order to persuade the Gauls to undertake an expedition against Greece, convened an assembly of men and women, and ordered some Greek prisoners to be displayed there, who were poor and feeble, with their heads shaven and shabbily dressed. Next to them he placed some Gauls, who were stout handsome men, equipped with Gallic armour. Then he addressed the assembly: "Such as these," he said, "are the men who march with us into battle; and such, as those you see, are the enemies with which we have to contend. " By these means, the Gauls were brought to conceive such a contempt for the Greeks, that they readily offered to serve in an expedition against them.

2 # When the Gallic army marched into Greece, Brennus saw some gold statues at Delphi. He sent for some Delphian captives, and asked them through an interpreter, if the statues were of solid gold. When they informed him that they were only brass, covered with a thin layer of gold, he told them that he would certainly execute any of them, who gave out such a report. He ordered them therefore, whenever they were asked about the statues, to say the opposite, that they were made of solid gold. Then he sent for some of his generals, and in their presence he again asked the prisoners the same question, that he had already put to them. They, as they had been instructed, replied that they were all real gold. He ordered the generals to communicate this message to the army; in order that the prospect of so much wealth might encourage them to obtain it through conquest.

[36] Mygdonius.

When Mygdonius was closely besieged, and suffering from a severe shortage of provisions, he ordered heaps of stone and earth to be brought into the market place. He bundled them together with clay, and covered them with corn, some with wheat, and others with barley. He also ordered some of the largest and fattest mules, that could be picked out, to be turned out of the city. Then he dispatched a herald into the enemy's camp, and asked them to send some envoys to negotiate a ransom for the mules, and whatever other property the citizens might have lost. As soon as the envoys arrives, they were brought into the market-place, where Mygdonius met them. There they saw vast heaps of wheat, and barley, and heard orders given to servants to measure out great quantities of corn in other places also. On their return, the envoys reported that the town was provided with large stores. The enemy believed that this was confirmed by the fatness of the mules. They concluded that there was little prospect of reducing the town by starvation, and therefore they raised the siege.

[37] Paerisades.

Paerisades, king of Pontus, used three distinct outfits of clothing on different occasions: one when he reviewed his troops, another in time of battle, and a third when he was forced to take flight. The reasons he gave for this custom were as follows: at a review, he wished to be known by every individual in his army; in battle, he wished not to be known by the enemy; and when he was forced to take flight, he wished to be known by no-one.

[38] Seuthes.

When the Athenians were raiding and ravaging the coastal districts of Chersonesus, Seuthes hired two thousand light-armed Getae. He ordered them to ravage the country in full view of the enemy, destroying it with fire, and attacking the people on the walls with missiles and arrows. The Athenians assumed from these hostile actions, that the Getae were enemies of the Thracians. They disembarked in order to join them, and marched boldly up to the walls. Seuthes immediately sallied out of the city against them; and the Getae, advancing as if to their assistance, fell on their rear. Thus the Athenians, attacked on one side by the Thracians, and by the Getae on the other, were all cut to pieces.

[39] Cheiles.

# In order to rid himself of three thousand Persians, who had been involved in a revolt, Cheiles pretended to have received a threatening letter from Seleucus. He told them that, by their assistance, he hoped to bring Seleucus to reason. For this purpose, he instructed them to assemble at Randa, a town not far distant, and he promised to meet them there. In a deep and sheltered valley nearby, Cheiles posted three hundred Macedonian and Thracian cavalrymen, along with three thousand heavy-armed troops. He ordered them, as soon as they saw an iron shield raised up, to charge out and cut the Persians to pieces. The Persians assembled as they had been instructed; and Cheiles' plan was executed so effectively, that all three thousand were massacred.

[40] Oborzus.

When Oborzus was informed that a conspiracy had been formed against him by three thousand Persians, he discharged them, and banished them to a place in Persia, called Comastus, to which they were escorted by a strong guard. The country abounded with villages; it was very populous, and the roads were well accommodated with inns. In the towns, where they were lodged, they were dispersed in several inns; and the inn-keepers were ordered by the guards, who escorted them, and who surrounded the towns, each to kill his lodgers. Accordingly they made their lodgers drunk, and then killed them. In this way, the three thousand Persians were murdered in the night, and buried, without any tumult or confusion.

[41] Surenas.

# Crassus, when he had been ignominiously defeated by the Parthians, retreated into the mountains. Surenas, the general of the Parthians, was afraid that he would rally his forces, and renew the fight in desperation. Therefore he sent a herald to inform Crassus, that the great king was ready to enter into a treaty of peace with him, and that, after convincing the Romans of the Parthians' courage, he was now ready to convince them of their generosity. Crassus suspected a plot, and he was unwilling to meet with them. But his soldiers, whose spirits were depressed and broken, clashed their weapons, and insisted that he comply with the barbarians' request. In silent sorrow, Crassus set out for the Parthian camp on foot, but Surenas, who pretended to treat him with great respect, sent a richly ornamented horse, for him to ride. Then the barbarian groom pricked the horse and made him spring forwards. The horse would have carried Crassus, as was intended, into the middle of the Parthian army, had not Octavius, one of his legates, perceived the danger and caught hold of the reins; and Petronius, a tribune, did the same. Octavius immediately drew his sword, and killed the groom on the spot, but he himself was slain by a Parthian. Exathres the Parthian attacked Crassus, cut off his head and right hand, and carried them to Hyrodes, the great king of the Parthians. The king was at the time engaged in a banquet, where Jason of Tralles was performing the Bacchae of Euripides. The actor had just uttered this verse:
A new-skinned calf we from the mountains bring,
Blest spoil -
when they arrived with the head of Crassus, and brought it in to the king. While everyone immediately clapped and cheered, Exathres jumped up and observed, that the verse was most appropriate for the occasion. This incident gave a new zest to the royal banquet; the king rewarded the bearer with a handsome present, and gave the actor a talent.

[42] The Celts.

The Celts, who were engaged in a long and indecisive war against the Autoriatae, poisoned their own food and wine with noxious herbs, and suddenly left their camp by night in pretended confusion. The Autoriatae supposed that the enemy had admitted their inferiority and made a precipitate retreat. They took possession of their camp, and feasted on the provisions which they found there. But soon they were seized with a violent sickness, and while they were in that condition, the Celts attacked them, and slew them.

[43] The Thracians.

The Thracians fought against the Boeotians by lake Copais, and were defeated; then they retreated to Helicon, and made a truce with the Boeotians for a certain number of days, to give time for agreeing the terms of peace. The Boeotians, who were confident because of their recent victory and the truce that followed it, celebrated a sacrifice in honour of Athene Itonia. But at night while they still were intent on the ceremony, and engaged in festivities, the Thracians armed, and attacked them; they cut many of them to pieces, and took a great number prisoners. When the Boeotians afterwards charged them with a breach of the truce, the Thracians replied that the terms of the truce expressed a certain number of days, but said nothing concerning the nights. [see also: Strabo, 9. 401 (9. 2. 4)]

[44] The Scythians.

The Scythians, when they were about to go into battle against the Triballi, ordered their farmers and horse-keepers, as soon as they saw them engaged in fighting the enemy, to show themselves at a distance with as great a number of horses as they could collect. The Triballi on a distant view of such a number of men and horses, and the dust they raised, supposed them to be a fresh body of Scythians advancing to the assistance of their countrymen; and so they took fright, and fled away. [see also: Frontinus, Str_2. 4'20]

2 While the Scythians were fighting in Asia, the Scythian women, thinking that they had been deserted by their husbands, had children by their slaves. When their masters returned, the slaves decided to resist them by force. They accordingly took the field; and advanced in arms, to give them battle. One of the Scythians, fearing that, once the fighting started, desperation might make the slaves brave, advised that the Scythians should lay down their arms and bows, and advance against their slaves with whips in their hands. Accordingly the Scythians took up their whips; and the slaves, suddenly made conscious of their own servitude, immediately threw down their arms, and fled. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 3]

[45] The Persians.

The Persians, suspecting the Samians and Milesians of treachery, posted them alone on the heights of Mycale, supposedly because they were well acquainted with the country; but in reality, to prevent them from corrupting the rest of the Ionians. [see also: Herodotus, 9. 99]

2 When the Persians under Cyrus were fighting against the Medes; Oebares the satrap fled from the battlefield, and all the Persians under his command followed him. The Persian women marched out in a body, and met the fugitives; lifting up their skirts, they called out to the men, "Where are you running? Will you hide yourselves here, from where you came? " The women's reproof struck the Persians with shame. They returned to the battle, and defeated the enemy. [see also: Plutarch, Mor_246'A]

[46] The Taurians.

When preparing for battle, the Taurians, a Scythian people, always used to dig ditches, throw up mounds, and make the ground behind them impassable. Because their means of retreat had been cut off in this way, they knew they had no alternative, but to conquer or die.

[47] The Trojan Women.

During their journey back home from Troy, the Pallenians landed at Phlegra. While the men made raids into the interior, the captive Trojan women, who were tired with the voyage, and apprehensive of the ill treatment which they might receive from the Greek women, set fire to the fleet, at the instigation of Aethia, the sister of Priamus. After they had been thus deprived of their ships, the Greeks occupied the region of Scione, in which they built a city, and instead of Phlegra they called it Pallene.

[48] The Women of Salmatis.

# When Hannibal was besieging Salmatis, a great and wealthy city in Spain, he agreed with the inhabitants to raise the siege, on payment of three hundred talents of silver, and the delivery of three hundred hostages. The inhabitants of Salmatis afterwards refused to carry out the terms of their agreement. As a result, Hannibal detached a body of troops to plunder the town. The barbarians then begged him for permission to leave the city with their wives, and only the clothes which they wore; they promised to leave behind their slaves, weapons, and other belongings. The women according marched out with their husbands, each carrying a dagger concealed in her bosom. The soldiers immediately entered the town, and started plundering it. Then the women gave the daggers to their husbands, who re-entered the city and attacked the plunderers, while some of the women accompanied them with drawn swords. They captured some of the enemy, and drove the rest out of the city. Out of respect for the bravery of the women, Hannibal restored to them their hostages, their country, and their property.

[49] The Tyrrhenian Women.

The Tyrrhenians, who inhabited Lemnos and Imbros, were expelled from their homes by the Athenians, and landed at Taenarus. There they served as auxiliaries to the Spartans in the war against the Helots. As a reward for this service, they were presented with the freedom of the state, and they were allowed to intermarry with the Spartans. But they were suspected of being disaffected, because they were excluded from the council and all positions of trust. Afterwards they were accused of plotting against the state, and the Lacedaemonians threw them into prison. Their wives went to the prison, and asked the guards for permission to visit their husbands and talk with them. When the guards let them in, they exchanged clothes with their husbands; and in the evening the men escaped, disguised in the women's clothes, while the women remained in prison, dressed in their husbands' clothes, and prepared for whatever sufferings might ensue. The men did not forget or desert their wives; they took possession of Taygetus, and encouraged the Helots to revolt. The Lacedaemonians were afraid that there might be serious consequences; so they sent an embassy to settle the controversy, and gave them back their wives. They also supplied them with money and ships; and sent them out as Lacedaemonian colonists. [see also: Herodotus, 4. 146]

[50] The Celtic Women.

# The Celts, who had long been troubled by civil wars, had taken up arms against each other, and were just advancing to battle, when their wives rushed into the battlefield, threw themselves between the two armies, and begged them to lay aside their differences. By the insistence of the women, the battle was postponed; and in the end the disputes of the different parties were happily and amicably resolved. Ever since then, throughout the towns and villages of the Celts, whenever there is a debate about peace, or war, concerning either themselves or their allies, the women are always consulted. And in their treaties with Hannibal it was specified, that if the Celts should have any accusation to make against any of the Carthaginians, the dispute should be referred to the generals and commanders of the cavalry; but if the Carthaginians had any accusation to make against any of the Celts, it should be referred to the judgement of the Celtic women.

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Polyaenus: Stratagems
- BOOK 8, Chapters 1-25
Adapted from the translation by R. Shepherd (1793). See key to translations for an explanation of the format.

The Greek text of Book 8 is available in archive. org.

CONTENTS: 1 Amulius ; 2 Numitor ; 3 Romulus ; 4 Numa ; 5 Tullus ; 6 Tarquinius ; 7 Camillus ; 8 Mucius ; 9 Sulla ; 10 Marius ; 11 Marcellus ; 12 Atilius ; 13 Gaius ; 14 Fabius ; 15 Quintus ; 16 Scipio ; 17 Porcius Cato ; 18 Daunus ; 19 Titus ; 20 Gaius ; 21 Pinarius ; 22 Sertorius ; 23 Caesar ; 24 Augustus ; 25 The Romans ; → Following Chapters (26-71)

[Preface] This eighth book of stratagems I address to your most sacred majesties, Antoninus and Verus. And having with it finished the collection I promised, I have only to wish you success in the wars, in which you are at present engaged, equal to your military merits, and to myself your favourable opinion, that amidst my civil employments I have devoted my leisure hours to such pursuits, as may serve the Roman empire, and the Greeks, in conducting wars, and regulating treaties of peace.
What is won in the field, must be secured in the council-house; and he, that excels in both, deserves immortal glory, and his country's thanks.

[1] Amulius.

Amulius and Numitor were brothers. Amulius the younger kept his brother in captivity, and himself mounted the throne of Alba. And to prevent Numitor, who had an only daughter Sylvia, from having any posterity capable of taking revenge on his usurpation, he appointed her priestess of Vesta; who in consequence of that office became devoted to perpetual virginity.

[2] Numitor.

Remus and Romulus, sons of Mars and Sylvia, formed a design against Amulius, possessed themselves of the citadel, and from thence attacked the city. Numitor, who was privy to the conspiracy, summoned the citizens; he told them that the enemy meant to attack the city, that Amulius had betrayed the interests of it, and fled; but bade them meet him in the market place. The citizens accordingly armed, and assembled; when Remus and Romulus, after having slain Amulius, marched out of the citadel, harangued the citizens, and told them, who they were, how they had been injured, and the resolution they had taken to avenge the injustice which had been done to their grandfather. The people applauded the act, and placed Numitor on the throne.

[3] Romulus.

When the Romans were in need of wives, Romulus ordered a proclamation to be made throughout the neighbouring cities, that he intended to make a sacrifice to Equestrian Neptune; on which occasion he meant to exhibit sports, and games, and athletic exercises, and to reward the victors with magnificent presents. From the adjacent towns this drew numbers of people of all ranks; men, women, and maidens. Romulus strictly ordered his people to offer no violence either to the men, or matrons, but when a particular signal was given, to seize the maidens; and that not for purposes of lust, but to contract marriages with them. And from these marriages the first Romans were born. [see also: Livy, 1. 9]

2 Romulus encamped about ten stades from Fidenae, and in the night marched out his forces, forming a narrow front with one half of his troops; and the rest he posted in ambush, having given his orders to the officers, who commanded the ambuscade. As soon as it was dawn, he advanced with his little army against the gates; which he ordered his light troops, furnished with hatchets and pick-axes, to break down. The Fidenates, enraged at his presumption and temerity, opened their gates, and without any order rushed out, and attacked the enemy, who slowly and in good ordered retreated before them. The Fidenates, suspecting nothing of an ambush, and despising the paucity of the troops they saw, pressed closely on him, presuming on a cheap and easy victory. The commanders of the troops that formed the ambush made their men crouch down behind the others, so as not to be observed by the enemy; while the rest of the Roman army continued retreating, and then wheeled round beside them to face the Fidenates. The ambuscade, as soon as the enemy reached them, stood up; and with a great shout they charged down on them. The Fidenates were already exhausted by the long pursuit, and were easily defeated. Those, who before had fled, snatched the palm of victory from their pursuers, and made themselves master of the city. [see also: Livy, 1. 14]

[4] Numa.

To turn the Romans from war and slaughter to a life of peace and law, Numa retired into the sacred temple of the nymphs; and there shut himself up alone for several days. And when he returned from there to the people, he produced certain oracles, which he said had been delivered to him by the nymphs, and persuaded them to receive as laws: to which they accordingly paid a most careful observance. And the body of those religious institutions, feasts, supplications, sacrifices and ceremonies, which are at this day in use among the Romans, were framed by Numa; and by the people originally received as the institutions of the nymphs. And in this device I have always thought that he had an eye to Minos and Lycurgus. For they received, or at least professed to have received, their laws, the one from Zeus, and the other from Apollo, which the former prevailed on the Cretans, and the latter on the Lacedaemonians, to accept and observe.

[5] Tullus.

In the reign of Tullus, an engagement was fought between the Fidenates and the Romans; in which the Albans, who were posted in the left wing of the Roman army, deserted their post at the moment of action, and retired to the mountains. A horseman rode full speed up to Tullus, to inform him of the treachery of the Albans; but he replied in a loud and resolute tone of voice, "Go back to your post; what the Albans have done, they have done by my order, with intention to surround the enemy". On hearing this the Romans set up a loud shout. Their exultation struck terror into the Fidenates, who, suspecting the movement of the Albans to be in reality what Tullus pretended, a design to surround them, sought to elude the manoeuvre by a precipitate flight. [see also: Livy, 1. 27]

[6] Tarquinius.

Tarquinius, tired out with a long war against Gabii, in the course of which he had besieged the city, but had not been able to capture it, scourged his youngest son Sextus; and sent him over to the enemy in the character of a deserter. Seeing the marks of cruelty and ignominy, that he carried about him, they did not doubt not his sincerity, but received him as a friend. He promised to help them against his father; and at first he did so. He ravaged the Roman territories, and defeated the enemy in frequent skirmishes; he took some prisoners, and returned laden with spoils. The inhabitants of Gabii, convinced of his great valour, made him general of their armies, and commander in chief. When he had been invested with this power, he secretly dispatched a messenger to his father, to enquire what he would have him do. Tarquinius, as they were conversing in the garden, struck off the heads of some of the tallest poppies; then turning to the messenger he said, tell my son, I would have him do thus. Following his instructions, Sextus found a way to rid himself of the most powerful men in Gabii. After the city had been thus reduced to weakness, and robbed of its natural protectors, he betrayed it to the Romans. [see also: Livy, 1. 54]

[7] Camillus.

When Camillus commanded against the Falerians, the master, to whose care the instruction of the Falerian boys was committed, led them out of the city, under pretence of exercising them; and delivered them up to the Romans. Camillus, who detested the treachery of the teacher, ordered his hands to be tied behind him; and told the boys to conduct him back in disgrace to their parents. The Falerians whipped him to death; and struck by the exemplary regard to justice and duty, which Camillus had displayed, they surrendered themselves to him without risking a battle. By this act of generosity he subdued those, who had proved themselves invincible by arms. [see also: Plutarch, Cam. 10]

2 The Gauls, under the leadership of their king Brennus, made themselves masters of Rome; and kept possession of it seven months. Then Camillus, having collected the forces that were dispersed in different parts of the country, defeated Brennus, and recovered the city. Thirteen years later the Gauls again ventured to invade the Roman territories, and encamped at the river Anio, not far from the city. Camillus was on this occasion created dictator a fifth time; and took the command of the army. Against the broad swords of the Gauls, with which they aimed their blows at the enemy's head, he made his men wear smooth iron helmets, by which the swords were soon blunted, and broken; and because the Roman shield, which was of wood, was not proof against the stroke, he directed them to border it round with a thin plate of brass. He also taught them the use of the long spear; with which they engaged in close fighting, and receiving the blow of the sword on their shield, made their thrust with the spear. The Gallic iron was soft and poorly beaten; the edge of the sword was soon bent by means of the brass plate, and the weapon became unserviceable. By this improvement in their weapons, the Romans obtained a cheap and easy victory; many of the Gauls were cut to pieces, and the rest saved themselves by flight. [see also: Plutarch, Cam. 40]

[8] Mucius.

In a war between the Etruscans and Romans, when Porsenna was king of the Etruscans, and Publicola, then in his third consulship, commanded the Romans; Mucius, a Roman citizen of proved valour, formed a design against the life of Porsenna; and for that purpose he entered the Etruscan camp, spoke in the Etruscan dialect, and dressed in Etruscan clothes. And, while the king was seated on his throne, attended by his officers, Muscius advanced towards it; and not knowing the king's person, plunged his sword in the breast of one who sat near him, whom he mistook for the king. He was instantly seized; and confessed his intention, and who he was; and while a sacrifice, according to immediate orders, was offered for Porsenna's safety, he thrust his errant hand into the fire; and with an intrepid voice, and without emotion, conversed with the king, his hand in the mean time burning in the flames. When Porsenna expressing astonishment at the bravery which he displayed, Mucius bade him not be surprised. "For," said he, "there are at this instant three hundred Romans, possessed of as much courage and resolution as myself, wandering about your camp, and with the same intention of killing you. " The king believed his assertion; and, alarmed for his own safety, immediately put an end to the war. [see also: Plutarch, Publ. 17]

[9] Sulla.

# In the Social War Albinus, a legate and ex-praetor, was murdered by some of his own men, who set upon him with stones and clubs. Great as the offence was, Sulla neglected to punish it, on the principle of making them behave with the greater courage in future; observing, that to expiate a great offence, a much greater display of military merit would be necessary; and in the following battles they fought so bravely, that their crime against Albinus was forgotten.

2 # In an engagement at Orchomenus with Archelaus the general of Mithridates, Sulla, perceiving the Romans give ground, leaped from his horse; and seizing a standard, advanced with it through the fleeing squadrons, and called aloud to them, "My death, O Romans, will be glorious; and when you are asked, where you betrayed Sulla, say at Orchomenus. " The reproof so stung the Romans, that they faced about, vigorously attacked the enemy, and changed the fortune of the day.

[10] Marius.

# When the Cimbri and Teutones, a people savage in their manners, of immense stature, with horrid countenances, and a language scarcely human, penetrated into Italy; Marius would not at first enter into a close engagement, but ordered his men to advance no further than the trenches, and within a javelin's throw skirmish with them at a distance. The Romans, after having been thus familiarised with their appearance, soon learned to despise them as savages; and desired Marius to lead them out, and give them an opportunity of distinguishing themselves against the barbarous invaders. He did so; and of a hundred thousand of the enemy few escaped; the greater part being either taken prisoners, or slain.

2 Previous to an engagement with the Teutones and Cimbri, Marius ordered Marcellus with three thousand heavy-armed troops in the night to take a circuit round the mountains, and endeavour to make good their march over the more inaccessible parts of them, in the enemy's rear. When this was achieved, Marius ordered his troops to fall back from the higher ground onto the plain; that the enemy presuming on their inferiority might pursue them, and be thus decoyed onto level ground. The manoeuvre succeeded; and Marius attacking them in front, and Marcellus in the rear, obtained a brilliant victory.

3 # Marius in his war with the Cimbri, who came out of a cold country, realising that they could bear frost and snow much better than heat and sun, took the field against them in the month of August, and harassed their rear. And when the barbarians faced about, they met in front not only the enemy, but a hot beaming sun; to protect against the heat and glare of which, they endeavoured to shade their faces with their shields. This left their bodies bare, at which the Romans aimed; they slew a hundred and twenty thousand of them, and sixty thousand were taken prisoners.

[11] Marcellus.

# Marcellus at the siege of Syracuse, having been repeatedly beaten off from the walls by the machines of Archimedes, desisted for a time from his attempts to storm the town; till having taken prisoner Damippus the Spartan, who had sailed from Syracuse, he gained intelligence from him of a particular tower on the walls, capable of containing a great number of men, and carelessly guarded, and thus the walls also in that quarter were very accessible. Marcellus ordered suitable ladders to be made for an ascent, and, while the Syracusans were engaged in celebrating a festival in honour of Artemis, and giving way to banqueting and merriment, he made himself master of the tower; and lining the parapet with his troops, early in the morning he broke down the Hexapyla, and possessed himself of the city. The men, who had behaved with great gallantry, required the city to be given up to them to be plundered. Marcellus, wishing to preserve the inhabitants from acts of outrage, yet at the same time unwilling to disappoint the soldiers, allowed his men to take the money and the slaves; but forbade them to injure any of the free citizens and priests.

[12] Atilius.

# Atilius, when a prisoner of the Carthaginians, engaged himself by an oath, if they would give him leave to go on his parole to Rome, to endeavour to persuade the senate, to put an end to the war; and, if he did not succeed in the negotiation, to return. As soon as he arrived at Rome, he advised the senate to the direct contrary; he revealed to them the weakness of the Carthaginians, and pointed out to them in what part, and in what manner they were most open to attacks. The senate were convinced that his advice was right, and they requested him to remain with them, and consider an oath extorted from him by necessity as no oath at all. To the entreaties of the senate his wife, his children, friends, and relations, tenderly embracing him, added theirs. But, deaf to all their pleadings, he disdained to violate his oath, and returned to Carthage; where he informed the Carthaginians of the stratagem he had employed for the service of his country, and the determination of the Romans. In revenge, they threw him into a dungeon; and after scourging, and exercising various cruelties on him, they put him to death.

[13] Gaius.

Gaius had given express orders for everyone to continue under arms, and not to stir out of the camp; but, in the heat of the day, his son led out his horse to water at a river, that ran close by. His father immediately ordered him to be beheaded for disobeying orders; thus enforcing discipline by the sacrifice of his son.

[14] Fabius.

# Fabius, when he commanded against Hannibal, after having been censured in the senate for not bringing the enemy to an engagement, was pressed by his son to wipe off the aspersion, and proceed to action. Fabius then, leading him through the army, pointed out to him every part of it, and explained the apparent mysteriousness of his conduct. "Observe", said he, "how many infirm men, how many unfit for action, contribute to form this army; and who would in prudence risk the hazard of a battle on the prowess of such troops as these? Every man, that has had any experience in military affairs, knows that we can never depend on bringing our whole force into action; and if the parts where these men are posted are attacked, we must be defeated. For this reason I study to avoid a general action; contenting myself with harassing the enemy in his march, by securing advantageous posts, and by secret negotiations winning over cities to revolt from him. " This conduct of his was at first censured as timidity, but afterwards received its full praise. The Romans, after other generals had lost great armies, had recourse to Fabius, whom they appointed general, and afterwards dictator, and also surnamed Maximus, which means Greatest.

2 # Fabius was honoured with the surname of Maximus [Greatest], and Scipio only with that of Magnus [Great]. Scipio, with some degree of pique at the superior distinction of Fabius, asked him how it was that he, who had only saved the Roman armies, should be surnamed Maximus, while himself, who in close action had engaged Hannibal, and defeated him, should have no higher distinction than that of Magnus. "Why", replied Fabius, "if I had not preserved the men, you would have had no soldiers, with whom to have fought and conquered him. "

3 # Fabius by a stratagem, made himself master of the city of the Tarentines, then in alliance with Hannibal. In the army of Fabius was a Tarentine, whose sister, a young woman of exquisite beauty in Tarentum, possessed the affections of a Bruttian, to whom Hannibal had committed the charge of the walls. Fabius, informed of the circumstance, dispatched the Tarentine into the city; with instructions through his sister to cultivate an acquaintance with the Bruttian, and endeavour to bring him over to the interests of the Romans. This he effected; and after the Bruttian revealed to him, in what part the walls might most successfully be attacked, Fabius there applied his ladders, and took the town by storm. This exploit gained Fabius great reputation, in that by his stratagem he got the better of Hannibal, than whom no general had ever employed stratagems with greater success.

[15] Quintus.

# Quintus Fabius, when very advanced in years, in order to get his son appointed general, requested the Romans not to give him the command of their armies; which would in effect, said he, be calling his father out in extreme old age to attend him. The Romans wished for nothing more, than to have a man of Fabius' experience to superintend the operations of the army; and therefore appointed the youth to be their supreme commander. But as soon as he was appointed, Fabius excused himself from attending him in the field; lest his own authority should lessen the glory of his son's command.

[16] Scipio.

# Scipio, when in Spain, having received information that the enemy had advanced to action before they had eaten, drew up his army against them, and delayed them with various manoeuvres; then at about the seventh hour, when the enemy were tired, and were faint for want of refreshment, he vigorously attacked, and easily defeated them.

2 # Scipio expelled all prostitutes from the camp; bidding them go, and exercise their trades in cities, which were abandoned to ease and luxury. He ordered also to be sent away all couches, tables, vases, and the whole apparatus of dinner, except a pot, a spit, and an earthen mug. And if any one desired to be allowed a silver cup, he limited the size of it to a pint. The use of baths he prohibited; and forbade those, who used unguents, to be attended by servants in their rubbings, observing that the servants might be much more usefully employed in taking care of the cattle. He obliged the army to eat cold dinners; allowing the preparation of hot meat only for suppers. He introduced the wearing of the Gallic cloak, and himself used to wear a black one; and in walking about the camp, if he saw any of the generals reclined on couches, he would lament the luxury of the army, and their love of ease.

3 Scipio observing a soldier bending under a huge piece of palisade, called out to him, "Fellow soldier, you seem overloaded. " "Indeed I am," replied the man. "I see it," said Scipio; "and am afraid, that you place your hopes of safety more on your palisades, than on your sword. " [see also: Plutarch, Mor. 201]

4 Seeing a soldier very intent on displaying the elegance of his shield; "It is a shame," said Scipio, "for a Roman to pride himself more on the ornament of his left hand, than of his right. "

5 # Scipio, interrupted by a commotion of the people, called aloud to them, "The shout of an armed foe never terrified me; and the clamour of a mob never shall, to whom Italy is only a stepmother. " The resolution, with which he expressed himself, silenced the rioters, and quashed the commotion.

6 # After the capture of Oenyssa, a city in Spain, they who had the charge of the prisoners brought to Scipio a maiden of extraordinary beauty. He immediately enquired for her father, and restored his daughter to him. The presents also, which the father had brought to purchase her ransom, Scipio returned; desiring him to accept them in addition to his daughter. And whatever other women were taken, whether the wives or daughters of men of any consequence, he committed them to the care of two sober and aged Romans; with orders that they should be cared for in a manner suitable to their rank. By this remarkable display of self-control, Scipio won over to the Roman interests and alliance a great number of Spanish cities.

7 # Scipio, having engaged Syphax king of the Massylii in an alliance with him, crossed over into Sicily. While he was there, Hasdrubal, who had a daughter of exquisite beauty, promised her to Syphax, on condition that he would renounce the Roman alliance. The marriage accordingly took place; and Syphax went over to the Carthaginians. He immediately dispatched a letter to Scipio, warning him not to land in Africa. Aware of the great confidence the Romans placed in the alliance of Syphax, and apprehensive that if they were informed of his revolt they would not venture to invade Africa, Scipio summoned a council, and laid before them Syphax's letter, but altered the purport of it to the direct contrary of what it actually said. He pretended that Syphax invited them into Africa, was surprised that they had deferred their expedition for so long, and observed that treaties of alliance should be promptly followed by action, or would soon be dissolved. This representation gave new confidence and alacrity to the Romans, who pressed him to fix a day for their embarkation.

8 # When some Carthaginian spies were captured, instead of executing them as Roman law directed, Scipio ordered them to be conducted through every quarter of the camp. After having seen the men there, some exercised in launching missiles, other in hurling javelins, some again employed in furbishing their weapons, and others in sharpening their swords, they were again introduced to Scipio; who, after having entertained them at dinner, bade them go, and tell their master all they had seen. The report, which the spies made of the magnanimity of Scipio, and of the preparations for war which they observed in the Roman camp, alarmed Hannibal, and struck the Carthaginian army with consternation.

[17] Porcius Cato.

# When Porcius Cato invaded Spain, ambassadors met him from every city, with tenders of submission to him and the Roman people; those he directed within a fixed time to send hostages. And two of these hostages from each place he charged with a letter to their respective cities; directing them all to be delivered on the same day. The purpose of all the letters was the same: "The moment you receive this, demolish your walls. " The orders, being immediate, gave no time for one city to consult another; and each fearing lest, if the rest complied with the orders, and they should not, they might be reduced to a state of slavery, obeyed the instruction; and in one day every city in Spain razed their walls.

[18] Daunus.

In honour of Diomedes, who died in Italy, Daunus instituted funeral games. On the first day he proposed to the Greeks to form a procession in arms. The next day he commanded the barbarians to do the same; directing them, for the purpose, to borrow the weapons of the Greeks; with which they were no sooner furnished, than they fell upon the Greeks, and slew them with their own weapons.

[19] Titus.

# Cleonymus having made Titus prisoner, demanded for his ransom two cities, Epidamnus and Apollonia. The father of Titus refused to give them up to him; bidding him keep his prisoner. Under these circumstances Titus procured a model to be made of himself in an attitude of sleep, which he placed in his house; and having contrived means, while the sentinels were guarding the room where he had placed the model, to get secretly on board a ship, he made his escape before the deception was discovered.

[20] Gaius.

# While the Carthaginian fleet, consisting of eighty large ships, lay at Tyndaris, Gaius with two hundred triremes endeavoured in vain to bring them to a engagement, because they were deterred by the superior number of his fleet. Furling therefore the sails of one hundred of his vessels, and setting those of the rest, he concealed one half on his fleet behind the expanded sails of the other half; and, his line thus formed, showed himself to the enemy, who, supposing the number of his ships to be only in proportion to the number of sails they saw, advanced against him, determined to hazard a battle. Gaius lay by, until they had approached too near him to escape; and then bearing down upon them with all his force obtained an easy victory.

[21] Pinarius.

# The Ennaeans, who had decided to renounce the alliance of the Romans, asked Pinarius, the commander of the garrison, to give them the keys to the gates. "If," said he, "the people will assemble tomorrow, and a public decree sanctions the revolt, I will readily obey it, and give up the keys. " The next day they accordingly assembled, but in the night he placed many soldiers in ambush at the citadel, and detached different parties, to surround the theatre, post themselves in the narrow streets, and attentively look out for the signal that should be given them. The Ennaeans assembled, according to their arrangement, and passed a decree confirming the revolt. The commander of the garrison then gave the signal; at which the men, who were posted on the high points near the citadel, let fly a shower of missiles; and those, who were posted in the narrow streets, with drawn swords attacked the people; and such a general carnage prevailed, that none escaped, except some few who let themselves down from the walls, or made their way through subterranean passages.

[22] Sertorius.

# Sertorius when in Spain had a present made him by some huntsmen of a white fawn, which he brought up so tame, that it would follow him wherever he went. When he mounted the tribunal, it mounted with him; and it would move its mouth to him, when he passed judgement on a case. From this he took occasion to persuade the barbarians, that the fawn was sacred to Diana; that through it the goddess foretold all events to him; and under her auspices he waged and conducted his wars. And whatever secrets he obtained through his envoys and spies, he pretended to have been informed of them by this fawn. He gave out that this messenger of the goddess never failed to provide him early warning of hostile attacks, ambushes, and sudden incursions; and he asserted that his future victories had been revealed to him by his fawn. Seized with astonishment, the barbarians paid him abject homage, and supported him as a particular favourite of the gods.

[23] Caesar.

# On his voyage to Nicomedes, Caesar was captured by some Cilician pirates near Malea. When they demanded a very large sum for his ransom, he promised to double it. As soon as they had reached Miletus, and landed there, he dispatched Epicrates a Milesian servant to the Milesians, asking them to lend him the sum he required; which was immediately sent. Epicrates was also commanded by Caesar, at the same when he brought the money, to bring likewise every preparation for a magnificent feast, together with a water-pot filled with swords, and wine with mandrake steeped in it. Caesar then paid them the double sum, as he had promised; and made them partake of the banquet he had prepared. In high spirits at the large sum they had received, they gave loose to their appetite, and drank freely of the drugged wine, which presently sent them to sleep. In that state Caesar ordered them to be slain, and he immediately repaid the money to the Milesians.

2 # Caesar, when in Gaul, arrived at the foot of the Alps, and found the mountains occupied by the barbarians, who were prepared to dispute his passage. By a careful observation of the nature of the place, beneath those mountains he observed a great number of streams, which were of considerable depth; and the exhalations, which ascended from them every morning, formed a thick cloud. Under that cover, Caesar with half his army made a circuit round the mountains and reached the heights; the enemy because of the thickness of the cloud were not able to see his movement, but supposed him to be still in his camp. As soon as he found himself above the enemy, he set up a loud shout, which was returned by the other half of the army below; while the mountains re-echoing with the sound threw the barbarians into a general consternation; they precipitately quitted their posts, and fled, leaving Caesar to pass the Alps without molestation.

3 # Caesar fought against the Helvetii, of whom eighty thousand, twenty thousand of them bearing arms, had penetrated into the Roman territories in Gaul. As was his usual method in his engagements with the barbarians, on the first day he retreated before the enemy, suffering a kind of defeat. This imaginary success gave them fresh confidence; and they determined to cross the Rhone in pursuit of him, while he encamped some little distance from it. The stream was rough; about thirty thousand of the barbarians crossed it with great difficulty and fatigue, and the rest of the army waited to cross it the next day. Those who had crossed over, worn out with the labour of the day, threw themselves down on the banks to rest; but Caesar attacked them in the night, and cut every man to pieces, who had neither time nor opportunity to cross back over the river.

4 # Caesar not thinking himself strong enough to engage the Germans, who had offered him battle, contented himself with acting on the defensive; till, having learned that their augurs had forbidden them to fight before the new moon, he took the first opportunity to advance and attack them, supposing they would fight with less spirit and alacrity, when it was contrary to the instructions of their augurs. The event justified his expectations; and, by availing himself of an advantageous time for engaging, without any other advantage he gained a complete victory.

5 # When Caesar's passage over a large river in Britain was disputed by the British king Cassivellaunus, at the head of a strong body of cavalry and a great number of chariots, he ordered an elephant, an animal till then unknown to the Britons, to enter the river first, mailed in scales of iron, with a tower on its back, on which archers and slingers were stationed.