" Technical
Communication
Quarterly 14 (2005): 359-73.
The Public Work of Rhetoric_nodrm
, "Attitudinal Barriers.
"
21. Bevan et al. , "Informed Lay Preferences. "
22. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives.
23. Lee, Mountain, and Koenig, "Meanings of 'Race. '"
24. Condit et al. , "Role of 'Geneticis. '"
25. This meeting took place November 20-23, 2003, in Chantilly, Virginia.
26. See the HapMap Web site at www. HapMap. org.
27. See http://www. hapmap. org/citinghapmap. html. en for further information.
28. International HapMap Consortium, "Haplotype Map. "
29. This occurs in spite of the fact that the sole graphic presenting separate JPT data
seems to be quite different from the other groupings. Ibid. , Figure 6. 30. Montpetit et al. , "Evaluation. "
31. The latter data is now published. Lynch and Condit, "Genes and Race. " 32. Risch et al. , "Categorization of Humans. "
33. Joralemon and Cox, "Body Values. " Note especially page 32.
34. Segal, Health and the Rhetoric.
35. Lynch, "Making Room"; Taylor, Defining Science.
36. Reeves, "Owning a Virus"; Mitchell, "Sacrifice. "
37. Keller and Longino, Feminism and Science; Happe, "Rhetoric of Race. " 38. Sullivan, "Keeping the Rhetoric"; Taylor, Defining Science.
39. Ceccarelli, Shaping Science; Miller, "Genre as Social Action. "
40. Brockreide, "Arguers as Lovers. " 41. Ehninger, "Argument as Method. "
Works Cited
Berger, Robert L. "Nazi Science--The Dachau Hypothermia Experiments. " New England Journal of Medicine 322, no. 20 (1990): 1435-40.
134 Celeste M. Condit
Bevan, J. L. , J. A. Lynch, T. N. Dubriwny, T. M. Harris, P. J. Achter, A. L. Reeder, and C. M. Condit. "Informed Lay Preferences for Delivery of Racially Varied Pharmacoge- nomics. " Genetics in Medicine (2003): 393-99.
Bix, Amy Sue. "Experiences and Voices of Eugenics Field-Workers: 'Women's Work' in Biology. " Social Studies of Science 27 (1997): 625-68.
Brockriede, Wayne E. "Arguers as Lovers. " Philosophy & Rhetoric 5 (Winter 1972): 1-11. Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1973.
------. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
Camus, Albert. "The Myth of Sisyphus. " In The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Trans-
lated by Justin O'Brien, 119-23. New York: Vintage International, 1983.
Ceccarelli, Leah. Shaping Science with Rhetoric: The Cases of Dobzhansky, Schro? dinger, and
Wilson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Condit, Celeste M. "La 'race' n'est pas un concept scientifique: Quelles sont les alterna-
tives? " ("Race" Is Not a Scientific Concept: Alternative Directions? ) L'observatoire de
la genetique. October 2005.
------. "How Culture and Science Make Race 'Genetic': Motives and Strategies for Dis-
crete Categorization of the Continuous and Heterogeneous. " Literature and Medicine
26 (2007): 240-68.
------. "Race and Genetics from a Modal Materialist Perspective. " Quarterly Journal of
Speech, in press.
Condit, Celeste M. , and B. Bates. "How Lay People Respond to Messages About Genet-
ics, Health, and Race. " Clinical Genetics (2005): 97-105.
Condit, Celeste M. , D. M. Condit, and P. Achter. "Human Equality, Affirmative Action
and Genetic Models of Human Variation. " Rhetoric and Public Affairs 4, no. 1 (2001):
85-108.
Condit, Celeste M. , R. L. Parrott, T. M. Harris, J. A. Lynch, and T. Dubriwny. "The Role
of 'Geneticis' in Popular Understandings of Race in the United States. " Public Under-
standing of Science 13 (2004): 249-72.
Condit, Celeste M. , A. Templeton, B. R. Bates, J. L. Bevan, and T. M. Harris. "Attitudinal
Barriers to Delivery of Race-Targeted Pharmacogenomics among Informed Lay Per-
sons. " Genetics in Medicine 5 (2003): 385-92.
Ehninger, Douglas. "Argument as Method: Its Nature, Its Limitations and Its Uses. "
Speech Monographs 37, no. 2 (1970): 101-11.
Fahnestock, Jeanne. Rhetorical Figures in Science. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Farrell, T. B. , and G. T. Goodnight. "Accidental Rhetoric: The Root Metaphors of Three
Mile Island. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 48 (1981): 271-301.
Frank, Robert E. "A Rhetorical History of the 1989 Revolution in the German Demo-
cratic Republic: Calling for the People. " Ph. D. diss. , University of Georgia, 1995. Gould, Stephen J. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton, 1981.
Gross, Alan. The Rhetoric of Science. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1990. Hamilton, Cynthia S. "'Am I Not a Man and a Brother? ' Phrenology and Anti-slavery. "
Slavery and Abolition 29 (2008): 173-87.
Happe, Kelly E. "The Rhetoric of Race in Breast Cancer Research. " Patterns of Prejudice
40 (2006): 461-80.
Hasian, M. The Rhetoric of Eugenics in Anglo-American Thought. Athens: University of
Georgia Press, 1996.
Hedgecoe, Adam M. "Transforming Genes: Metaphors of Information and Language in
Modern Genetics. " Science as Culture 8 (1999): 209-29.
The Process of Remaking Race as Genetic 135
International HapMap Consortium. "A Haplotype Map of the Human Genome. " Nature 27 (October 2005): 1299-1320.
Joralemon, Donald, and Phil Cox. "Body Values: The Case against Compensating for Transplant Organs. " Hastings Center Report 33, no. 1 (2003): 27-33.
Keller, Evelyn Fox, and Helen E. Longino, eds. Feminism and Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Kilingsworth, M. Jimmie. "From Environmental Rhetoric to Ecocomposition and Ecopoetics.
" Technical Communication Quarterly 14 (2005): 359-73.
Lee, S. S. , J. Mountain, and B. A. Koenig. "The Meanings of 'Race' in the New Genomics: Implications for Health Disparities Research. " Yale Journal of Health Policy Law Ethic 1 (2001): 33-75.
Lynch, John A. "Making Room for Stem Cells: Dissociation and Establishing New Research Objects. " Argumentation and Advocacy 42 (2006): 143-56.
Lynch, John A. , and Celeste M. Condit. "Genes and Race in the News: A Test of Com- peting Theories of News Coverage. " American Journal of Health Behavior 30 (2006): 125-35.
Marks, Jonathon. Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995.
Miller, Carolyn R. "Genre as Social Action. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 70 (1984): 151-67. Mitchell, Robert. "Sacrifice, Individuation, and the Economics of Genomics. " Literature
and Medicine 26 (2007): 126-58.
Montpetit A. , M. Nelis, P. Laflamme, R. Magi, X Ke, M. Remm, L. Cardon, T. J. Hudson,
and Metspalu, J. P. "An Evaluation of the Performance of Tag SNPs Derived from
HapMap in a Caucasian Population. " Plos Genetics 2, no. 3 (March 2006): e27. Nakayama, T. , and R. Krizek. "Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric. " Quarterly Journal of Speech
81 (1995): 291-309.
National Institutes of Health. Defining Race and Ethnicity in Biomedical and Behavioral
Research. Bethesda, Md. : NIH, April 18, 2006. MPEG. http://videocast. nih. gov/Sum-
mary. asp? File=13179 (accessed April 18, 2006).
Nguyen, A. , Z. Desta, and D. A. Flockhart. "Enhancing Race-Based Prescribing Precision
with Pharmacogenomics. " Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 81 (2007): 323-25. Peterson, Tarla Rai, and Cristi Choat Horton. "Rooted in the Soil: How Understanding the Perspectives of Landowners Can Enhance the Management of Environmental
Disputes. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 139-66.
Reeves, Carol. "Owning a Virus: The Rhetoric of Scientific Discovery Accounts. " In Land-
mark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies, edited by Randy Allen Harris, 151-65.
Mahwah, N. J. : Hermagoras Press, 1997.
Risch N. , E. Burchard, E. Ziv, and H. Tang. "Categorization of Humans in Biomedical
Research: Genes, Race and Disease. " Genome Biology 3 (2002): 12.
Rosner, M. , and T. R. Johnson. "Telling Stories: Metaphors of the Human Genome Proj-
ect. " Hypatia 10 (Fall 1995): 104-29.
Sankar, Pamela, Mildred Cho, Celeste Condit, Linda M. Hunt, Barbara Koenig, Patricia
Marshall, Sandra Lee, and Paul Spicer. "Genetic Research and Health Disparities. "
Journal of the American Medical Association 291 (2004): 2985-89.
Segal, Judy Z. Health and the Rhetoric of Medicine. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univer-
sity Press, 2005.
Smart, Andrew, Richard Tutton, Paul Martin, George T. H. Ellison, and Richard Ashcroft.
"The Standardization of Race and Ethnicity in Biomedical Science Editorials and UK Biobanks. " Social Studies of Science 28 (2008): 407-23.
136 Celeste M. Condit
Smedley, Brian D. , Adrienne Y. Stith, and Alan R. Nelson, eds. Unequal Treatment: Con- fronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, D. C. : National Acad- emy Press, 2003.
Sullivan, Dale. "Keeping the Rhetoric Orthodox: Forum Control in Science. " Technical Communication Quarterly 9 (2000): 125-46.
Taylor, Charles Alan. Defining Science: A Rhetoric of Demarcation. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996.
Tucker, William H. "Burt's Separated Twins: The Larger Picture. " Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 43 (2007): 81-86.
van der Weele, Cor. "Images of the Genome. " In Current Themes in Theoretical Biology: A Dutch Perspective, edited by Thomas A. C. Reydon and Lia Henerik, 9-31. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2005.
Wade, Nicholas. "Brain May Still Be Evolving, Studies Hint. " New York Times, Septem- ber 9, 2005. http://www. nytimes. com/2005/09/09/science/09brain. html? oref=login &pagewanted=print (accessed September 9, 2005).
------. "Race Is Seen as Real Guide to Track the Roots of Disease. " New York Times, July 30, 2002.
? Going Public--in a Disabling Discourse
Linda Flower
A critical assumption in the rhetoric of social change rests on the notion of "publicity" or "publicness. " The power of the public sphere is its ability to give visibility to an issue, to create a demand for disclosure and justification (even from a government), and in doing so to exert a powerful if indirect reg- ulatory force. In Rules for Radicals, Alinsky says, "The organizer's first job is to create the issues . . . through action persuasion, and communication. "1 And when social categories such as race, sex, class, or disability use the quiet tool of definition to oppress people by "defining them," a critical step in break- ing this marginalizing power has been to go public through the literate act of renaming. Freire describes this public reappropriation this way: "to exist, humanly, is to name the world, to change it. Once named, the world in its turn reappears to its namers as a problem and requires of them a new naming. "2 Within the rhetoric of social/cultural critique, this means analyzing the implicit mes- sages naturalized into unquestioned assumptions. Within community literacy studies, it can mean direct action supporting the public voice of marginalized people and perspectives through collaborative research, community-based courses and projects, media development, and public dialogue. 3
However, in celebrating the work of rhetoric from an enfranchised aca- demic perspective, we have not always considered the difficulties going pub- lic might raise for others. In equating empowerment with acts of critique, self-expression, argument, or advocacy, we rarely consider the cost of chal- lenging "dehumanizing societal constructions of difference," when to do is to identify oneself as one of those marginal people. 4 I speak here about the iden- tity of being "learning disabled" (or LD), but the problem is more general. Academic rhetors can address this dilemma by speaking with a powerful dou- ble voice--claiming the "stigma" of disability, of speaking Black English, of poverty, of working-class background, of ethnicity, but doing so in an aca- demically recognized voice and successfully mainstreamed work. But for the
138 Linda Flower
rhetors of whom I speak, this is not an option. For these urban high school students, going public about their learning disabilities at school or on a job is no easy decision. 5 It pits the option of getting the help and accommodations they may need against the socially hazardous outcomes of being labeled LD. For them, rhetoric is an embodied act that opens them to being co-opted by the discourse of disability in which they become the object of its rhetoric, not a rhetorical agent. 6
This essay attempts to understand some of the competing forces (the per- sonal goals, public agendas, language, and practices) one must negotiate to go public within a discourse that disables. In such discourses, the already marginalized speaker must not only resist available representations of himself or herself, but also enact an alternative representation. He or she must not only come to voice but also construct and negotiate that voice, that represen- tation within a personally and publicly conflicted space. Second, I consider what this means for educators and supporters, when the work of empower- ment is not limited to speaking in our own voices as advocates or to encour- aging self-expression in others. What if the goal is rhetorical empowerment, helping others, as Brueggemann and colleagues so elegantly state it, "to be their own best advocates, their own authors, and their own best representa- tives. "7
Finding Your Self in a Disabling Discourse
The public discussion of learning disabilities often revolves around whether such learning should be defined in terms of differences in how people learn (for example, the time required or the mode of instruction they prefer, whether verbal, oral, or demonstration) or in terms of disability, defined as deviance from the norm (or from schools' preferred modes of instruction). It was in the context of this debate that we organized the Community Think Tank on Learning Disability. The "we" in this case was an upper-level college class on the rhetoric of making a difference as well as the director and students from Pittsburgh's Start on Success (SOS)--a public school program for students with learning disabilities. 8 This semester-long project culminated in a public dia- logue that brought together nearly sixty teachers, counselors, school admin- istrators, workforce developers, parents, advocates, and high school students with learning disabilities to address the problem we came to call "Naming the LD Difference. "9
The inquiry, however, began early in the semester when the members of the Think Tank team (eleven urban high school students with learning disa- bilities and eleven college students in my class) were asked to create two prob- lem scenarios that would document and dramatize some of the difficult decision points that students with a learning disability routinely confront. These brief skits would be included in an advance briefing book sent to par- ticipants and then performed at the Think Tank event to focus and jump-start
Going Public--in a Disabling Discourse 139
the deliberation. In this initial inquiry, it became apparent that going public about the taboo topic of a disability posed an enormous felt difficulty with practical consequences; how you handle the taboo topic of disability makes a huge difference in an urban high school: if you cannot do what is expected in a class, and dare not talk about what you need in order to learn, you prob- ably will not get the help that could, in fact, let you succeed.
In the first problem scenario our high school/college student team created, Joel has just been paired up for in-class work with Shauna, the smart new stu- dent on whom he has a major crush. However, Joel's learning disability makes it difficult to read new material quickly, so while she dives into the task, he tries his standard diversionary tactics (from conversation about the weekend to looking around the room) to avoid the problem. Until, of course, the teacher "helpfully" asks, "Joel, are you having a difficult time with the reading? " Joel is on the spot, and "Billy the Bully" cuts off his retreat:
Joel: Umm . . . I was just . . .
Billy the Bully (laughing and sarcastic): Pfssht! Of course he is . . . you
know Joel can't read!
Everyone is shocked, while Billy laughs rudely . . .
Shauna: What does he mean, Joel?
Despite his best efforts at avoidance, Joel has entered a public deliberative moment, which asks him to answer the definitional question: what does that revelation mean?
Educators who move out of the classroom in their work with socially dis- empowered students may find themselves in an oddly similar public space. Like Joel, we must decide how does one deal with the discourse of disability? In this case, some standard--and not entirely happy--ways of going public are read- ily available. How the LD difference is represented--named and interpreted-- has already been shaped by discourses over which we have little control.
Mediatized
One way the LD difference goes public is to become a media topic. For in- stance, a Newsweek cover story on children with dyslexia--those "otherwise intelligent children"--makes a point of explaining that "their brains weren't defective, just different. " Yet in doing so, such media accounts perpetuate stereotypes and rehearse the obligatory narratives of the victim, the struggle and overcoming, and the "famous and successful dyslexics. "10 The media also offer a deceptively cheery message, which White describes as the relentless nar- ratives of "overcoming"--stories that fail to note that "successful adults with [learning disabilities] are those with less severe impairments, from affluent fam- ilies, who had a positive educational experience (often in private schools). "11 Other images are more accusatory. For some educational conservatives, the
140 Linda Flower
exponential growth of diagnoses of learning disabilities is a faddish function of political correctness. As the president of Boston University describes it, stu- dents "'swaddled for years in the comforting illusions of learning disabled theory' [then] enter higher education and lower its standards. "12 Although language and self-definition have become a central focus of the disability move- ment, media labeling dies hard and thematic conventions even harder. 13
Medicalized
Medical diagnosis has emerged as a scientific alternative to older, invidious popular representations. Early-nineteenth-century perceptions of low-achiev- ing children (and/or low literate immigrants) talked about a "dunce," "loafer," or "reprobate," who was not only "stupid" but "depraved," "wayward," and "incorrigible. "14 As Hull and colleagues put it, "some of these labels imply that the students lacked intelligence, but the majority reflect a flawed charac- ter. "15 Later, with the growth of the IQ movement, diagnoses based on defects of character were replaced by notions of intellectual deficits and abnormal development. The pseudo-scientific measurement of IQ offered a "unitary mea- sure of cognitive--and human--worth. "16
Contemporary research has replaced the unitary image of a deficient per- son with an increasingly local account of specific neurological differences that can produce a variety of difficulties in perception, in integrating information (such as organizing and abstracting), in memory, and in production (such as expressing what you do know on demand). 17 Many students will have labored since third grade (when language-processing disabilities often show up) with the growing burden of an inexplicable, unnamed difference, with seeing their friends in school effortlessly "get it" while they must wrestle jumbles of letters, numbers, or spoken instructions into a meaningful pattern. Soon the process inside one's head turns into a problem in social relations: parents scold, teach- ers make failure public, peers laugh, and the child copes through the use of withdrawal, silence, attitude, or diverting behavior.
21. Bevan et al. , "Informed Lay Preferences. "
22. Burke, Rhetoric of Motives.
23. Lee, Mountain, and Koenig, "Meanings of 'Race. '"
24. Condit et al. , "Role of 'Geneticis. '"
25. This meeting took place November 20-23, 2003, in Chantilly, Virginia.
26. See the HapMap Web site at www. HapMap. org.
27. See http://www. hapmap. org/citinghapmap. html. en for further information.
28. International HapMap Consortium, "Haplotype Map. "
29. This occurs in spite of the fact that the sole graphic presenting separate JPT data
seems to be quite different from the other groupings. Ibid. , Figure 6. 30. Montpetit et al. , "Evaluation. "
31. The latter data is now published. Lynch and Condit, "Genes and Race. " 32. Risch et al. , "Categorization of Humans. "
33. Joralemon and Cox, "Body Values. " Note especially page 32.
34. Segal, Health and the Rhetoric.
35. Lynch, "Making Room"; Taylor, Defining Science.
36. Reeves, "Owning a Virus"; Mitchell, "Sacrifice. "
37. Keller and Longino, Feminism and Science; Happe, "Rhetoric of Race. " 38. Sullivan, "Keeping the Rhetoric"; Taylor, Defining Science.
39. Ceccarelli, Shaping Science; Miller, "Genre as Social Action. "
40. Brockreide, "Arguers as Lovers. " 41. Ehninger, "Argument as Method. "
Works Cited
Berger, Robert L. "Nazi Science--The Dachau Hypothermia Experiments. " New England Journal of Medicine 322, no. 20 (1990): 1435-40.
134 Celeste M. Condit
Bevan, J. L. , J. A. Lynch, T. N. Dubriwny, T. M. Harris, P. J. Achter, A. L. Reeder, and C. M. Condit. "Informed Lay Preferences for Delivery of Racially Varied Pharmacoge- nomics. " Genetics in Medicine (2003): 393-99.
Bix, Amy Sue. "Experiences and Voices of Eugenics Field-Workers: 'Women's Work' in Biology. " Social Studies of Science 27 (1997): 625-68.
Brockriede, Wayne E. "Arguers as Lovers. " Philosophy & Rhetoric 5 (Winter 1972): 1-11. Burke, Kenneth. The Philosophy of Literary Form. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1973.
------. A Rhetoric of Motives. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.
Camus, Albert. "The Myth of Sisyphus. " In The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Trans-
lated by Justin O'Brien, 119-23. New York: Vintage International, 1983.
Ceccarelli, Leah. Shaping Science with Rhetoric: The Cases of Dobzhansky, Schro? dinger, and
Wilson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
Condit, Celeste M. "La 'race' n'est pas un concept scientifique: Quelles sont les alterna-
tives? " ("Race" Is Not a Scientific Concept: Alternative Directions? ) L'observatoire de
la genetique. October 2005.
------. "How Culture and Science Make Race 'Genetic': Motives and Strategies for Dis-
crete Categorization of the Continuous and Heterogeneous. " Literature and Medicine
26 (2007): 240-68.
------. "Race and Genetics from a Modal Materialist Perspective. " Quarterly Journal of
Speech, in press.
Condit, Celeste M. , and B. Bates. "How Lay People Respond to Messages About Genet-
ics, Health, and Race. " Clinical Genetics (2005): 97-105.
Condit, Celeste M. , D. M. Condit, and P. Achter. "Human Equality, Affirmative Action
and Genetic Models of Human Variation. " Rhetoric and Public Affairs 4, no. 1 (2001):
85-108.
Condit, Celeste M. , R. L. Parrott, T. M. Harris, J. A. Lynch, and T. Dubriwny. "The Role
of 'Geneticis' in Popular Understandings of Race in the United States. " Public Under-
standing of Science 13 (2004): 249-72.
Condit, Celeste M. , A. Templeton, B. R. Bates, J. L. Bevan, and T. M. Harris. "Attitudinal
Barriers to Delivery of Race-Targeted Pharmacogenomics among Informed Lay Per-
sons. " Genetics in Medicine 5 (2003): 385-92.
Ehninger, Douglas. "Argument as Method: Its Nature, Its Limitations and Its Uses. "
Speech Monographs 37, no. 2 (1970): 101-11.
Fahnestock, Jeanne. Rhetorical Figures in Science. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Farrell, T. B. , and G. T. Goodnight. "Accidental Rhetoric: The Root Metaphors of Three
Mile Island. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 48 (1981): 271-301.
Frank, Robert E. "A Rhetorical History of the 1989 Revolution in the German Demo-
cratic Republic: Calling for the People. " Ph. D. diss. , University of Georgia, 1995. Gould, Stephen J. The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton, 1981.
Gross, Alan. The Rhetoric of Science. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1990. Hamilton, Cynthia S. "'Am I Not a Man and a Brother? ' Phrenology and Anti-slavery. "
Slavery and Abolition 29 (2008): 173-87.
Happe, Kelly E. "The Rhetoric of Race in Breast Cancer Research. " Patterns of Prejudice
40 (2006): 461-80.
Hasian, M. The Rhetoric of Eugenics in Anglo-American Thought. Athens: University of
Georgia Press, 1996.
Hedgecoe, Adam M. "Transforming Genes: Metaphors of Information and Language in
Modern Genetics. " Science as Culture 8 (1999): 209-29.
The Process of Remaking Race as Genetic 135
International HapMap Consortium. "A Haplotype Map of the Human Genome. " Nature 27 (October 2005): 1299-1320.
Joralemon, Donald, and Phil Cox. "Body Values: The Case against Compensating for Transplant Organs. " Hastings Center Report 33, no. 1 (2003): 27-33.
Keller, Evelyn Fox, and Helen E. Longino, eds. Feminism and Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Kilingsworth, M. Jimmie. "From Environmental Rhetoric to Ecocomposition and Ecopoetics.
" Technical Communication Quarterly 14 (2005): 359-73.
Lee, S. S. , J. Mountain, and B. A. Koenig. "The Meanings of 'Race' in the New Genomics: Implications for Health Disparities Research. " Yale Journal of Health Policy Law Ethic 1 (2001): 33-75.
Lynch, John A. "Making Room for Stem Cells: Dissociation and Establishing New Research Objects. " Argumentation and Advocacy 42 (2006): 143-56.
Lynch, John A. , and Celeste M. Condit. "Genes and Race in the News: A Test of Com- peting Theories of News Coverage. " American Journal of Health Behavior 30 (2006): 125-35.
Marks, Jonathon. Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History. New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1995.
Miller, Carolyn R. "Genre as Social Action. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 70 (1984): 151-67. Mitchell, Robert. "Sacrifice, Individuation, and the Economics of Genomics. " Literature
and Medicine 26 (2007): 126-58.
Montpetit A. , M. Nelis, P. Laflamme, R. Magi, X Ke, M. Remm, L. Cardon, T. J. Hudson,
and Metspalu, J. P. "An Evaluation of the Performance of Tag SNPs Derived from
HapMap in a Caucasian Population. " Plos Genetics 2, no. 3 (March 2006): e27. Nakayama, T. , and R. Krizek. "Whiteness: A Strategic Rhetoric. " Quarterly Journal of Speech
81 (1995): 291-309.
National Institutes of Health. Defining Race and Ethnicity in Biomedical and Behavioral
Research. Bethesda, Md. : NIH, April 18, 2006. MPEG. http://videocast. nih. gov/Sum-
mary. asp? File=13179 (accessed April 18, 2006).
Nguyen, A. , Z. Desta, and D. A. Flockhart. "Enhancing Race-Based Prescribing Precision
with Pharmacogenomics. " Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 81 (2007): 323-25. Peterson, Tarla Rai, and Cristi Choat Horton. "Rooted in the Soil: How Understanding the Perspectives of Landowners Can Enhance the Management of Environmental
Disputes. " Quarterly Journal of Speech 81 (1995): 139-66.
Reeves, Carol. "Owning a Virus: The Rhetoric of Scientific Discovery Accounts. " In Land-
mark Essays on Rhetoric of Science: Case Studies, edited by Randy Allen Harris, 151-65.
Mahwah, N. J. : Hermagoras Press, 1997.
Risch N. , E. Burchard, E. Ziv, and H. Tang. "Categorization of Humans in Biomedical
Research: Genes, Race and Disease. " Genome Biology 3 (2002): 12.
Rosner, M. , and T. R. Johnson. "Telling Stories: Metaphors of the Human Genome Proj-
ect. " Hypatia 10 (Fall 1995): 104-29.
Sankar, Pamela, Mildred Cho, Celeste Condit, Linda M. Hunt, Barbara Koenig, Patricia
Marshall, Sandra Lee, and Paul Spicer. "Genetic Research and Health Disparities. "
Journal of the American Medical Association 291 (2004): 2985-89.
Segal, Judy Z. Health and the Rhetoric of Medicine. Carbondale: Southern Illinois Univer-
sity Press, 2005.
Smart, Andrew, Richard Tutton, Paul Martin, George T. H. Ellison, and Richard Ashcroft.
"The Standardization of Race and Ethnicity in Biomedical Science Editorials and UK Biobanks. " Social Studies of Science 28 (2008): 407-23.
136 Celeste M. Condit
Smedley, Brian D. , Adrienne Y. Stith, and Alan R. Nelson, eds. Unequal Treatment: Con- fronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington, D. C. : National Acad- emy Press, 2003.
Sullivan, Dale. "Keeping the Rhetoric Orthodox: Forum Control in Science. " Technical Communication Quarterly 9 (2000): 125-46.
Taylor, Charles Alan. Defining Science: A Rhetoric of Demarcation. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996.
Tucker, William H. "Burt's Separated Twins: The Larger Picture. " Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 43 (2007): 81-86.
van der Weele, Cor. "Images of the Genome. " In Current Themes in Theoretical Biology: A Dutch Perspective, edited by Thomas A. C. Reydon and Lia Henerik, 9-31. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2005.
Wade, Nicholas. "Brain May Still Be Evolving, Studies Hint. " New York Times, Septem- ber 9, 2005. http://www. nytimes. com/2005/09/09/science/09brain. html? oref=login &pagewanted=print (accessed September 9, 2005).
------. "Race Is Seen as Real Guide to Track the Roots of Disease. " New York Times, July 30, 2002.
? Going Public--in a Disabling Discourse
Linda Flower
A critical assumption in the rhetoric of social change rests on the notion of "publicity" or "publicness. " The power of the public sphere is its ability to give visibility to an issue, to create a demand for disclosure and justification (even from a government), and in doing so to exert a powerful if indirect reg- ulatory force. In Rules for Radicals, Alinsky says, "The organizer's first job is to create the issues . . . through action persuasion, and communication. "1 And when social categories such as race, sex, class, or disability use the quiet tool of definition to oppress people by "defining them," a critical step in break- ing this marginalizing power has been to go public through the literate act of renaming. Freire describes this public reappropriation this way: "to exist, humanly, is to name the world, to change it. Once named, the world in its turn reappears to its namers as a problem and requires of them a new naming. "2 Within the rhetoric of social/cultural critique, this means analyzing the implicit mes- sages naturalized into unquestioned assumptions. Within community literacy studies, it can mean direct action supporting the public voice of marginalized people and perspectives through collaborative research, community-based courses and projects, media development, and public dialogue. 3
However, in celebrating the work of rhetoric from an enfranchised aca- demic perspective, we have not always considered the difficulties going pub- lic might raise for others. In equating empowerment with acts of critique, self-expression, argument, or advocacy, we rarely consider the cost of chal- lenging "dehumanizing societal constructions of difference," when to do is to identify oneself as one of those marginal people. 4 I speak here about the iden- tity of being "learning disabled" (or LD), but the problem is more general. Academic rhetors can address this dilemma by speaking with a powerful dou- ble voice--claiming the "stigma" of disability, of speaking Black English, of poverty, of working-class background, of ethnicity, but doing so in an aca- demically recognized voice and successfully mainstreamed work. But for the
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rhetors of whom I speak, this is not an option. For these urban high school students, going public about their learning disabilities at school or on a job is no easy decision. 5 It pits the option of getting the help and accommodations they may need against the socially hazardous outcomes of being labeled LD. For them, rhetoric is an embodied act that opens them to being co-opted by the discourse of disability in which they become the object of its rhetoric, not a rhetorical agent. 6
This essay attempts to understand some of the competing forces (the per- sonal goals, public agendas, language, and practices) one must negotiate to go public within a discourse that disables. In such discourses, the already marginalized speaker must not only resist available representations of himself or herself, but also enact an alternative representation. He or she must not only come to voice but also construct and negotiate that voice, that represen- tation within a personally and publicly conflicted space. Second, I consider what this means for educators and supporters, when the work of empower- ment is not limited to speaking in our own voices as advocates or to encour- aging self-expression in others. What if the goal is rhetorical empowerment, helping others, as Brueggemann and colleagues so elegantly state it, "to be their own best advocates, their own authors, and their own best representa- tives. "7
Finding Your Self in a Disabling Discourse
The public discussion of learning disabilities often revolves around whether such learning should be defined in terms of differences in how people learn (for example, the time required or the mode of instruction they prefer, whether verbal, oral, or demonstration) or in terms of disability, defined as deviance from the norm (or from schools' preferred modes of instruction). It was in the context of this debate that we organized the Community Think Tank on Learning Disability. The "we" in this case was an upper-level college class on the rhetoric of making a difference as well as the director and students from Pittsburgh's Start on Success (SOS)--a public school program for students with learning disabilities. 8 This semester-long project culminated in a public dia- logue that brought together nearly sixty teachers, counselors, school admin- istrators, workforce developers, parents, advocates, and high school students with learning disabilities to address the problem we came to call "Naming the LD Difference. "9
The inquiry, however, began early in the semester when the members of the Think Tank team (eleven urban high school students with learning disa- bilities and eleven college students in my class) were asked to create two prob- lem scenarios that would document and dramatize some of the difficult decision points that students with a learning disability routinely confront. These brief skits would be included in an advance briefing book sent to par- ticipants and then performed at the Think Tank event to focus and jump-start
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the deliberation. In this initial inquiry, it became apparent that going public about the taboo topic of a disability posed an enormous felt difficulty with practical consequences; how you handle the taboo topic of disability makes a huge difference in an urban high school: if you cannot do what is expected in a class, and dare not talk about what you need in order to learn, you prob- ably will not get the help that could, in fact, let you succeed.
In the first problem scenario our high school/college student team created, Joel has just been paired up for in-class work with Shauna, the smart new stu- dent on whom he has a major crush. However, Joel's learning disability makes it difficult to read new material quickly, so while she dives into the task, he tries his standard diversionary tactics (from conversation about the weekend to looking around the room) to avoid the problem. Until, of course, the teacher "helpfully" asks, "Joel, are you having a difficult time with the reading? " Joel is on the spot, and "Billy the Bully" cuts off his retreat:
Joel: Umm . . . I was just . . .
Billy the Bully (laughing and sarcastic): Pfssht! Of course he is . . . you
know Joel can't read!
Everyone is shocked, while Billy laughs rudely . . .
Shauna: What does he mean, Joel?
Despite his best efforts at avoidance, Joel has entered a public deliberative moment, which asks him to answer the definitional question: what does that revelation mean?
Educators who move out of the classroom in their work with socially dis- empowered students may find themselves in an oddly similar public space. Like Joel, we must decide how does one deal with the discourse of disability? In this case, some standard--and not entirely happy--ways of going public are read- ily available. How the LD difference is represented--named and interpreted-- has already been shaped by discourses over which we have little control.
Mediatized
One way the LD difference goes public is to become a media topic. For in- stance, a Newsweek cover story on children with dyslexia--those "otherwise intelligent children"--makes a point of explaining that "their brains weren't defective, just different. " Yet in doing so, such media accounts perpetuate stereotypes and rehearse the obligatory narratives of the victim, the struggle and overcoming, and the "famous and successful dyslexics. "10 The media also offer a deceptively cheery message, which White describes as the relentless nar- ratives of "overcoming"--stories that fail to note that "successful adults with [learning disabilities] are those with less severe impairments, from affluent fam- ilies, who had a positive educational experience (often in private schools). "11 Other images are more accusatory. For some educational conservatives, the
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exponential growth of diagnoses of learning disabilities is a faddish function of political correctness. As the president of Boston University describes it, stu- dents "'swaddled for years in the comforting illusions of learning disabled theory' [then] enter higher education and lower its standards. "12 Although language and self-definition have become a central focus of the disability move- ment, media labeling dies hard and thematic conventions even harder. 13
Medicalized
Medical diagnosis has emerged as a scientific alternative to older, invidious popular representations. Early-nineteenth-century perceptions of low-achiev- ing children (and/or low literate immigrants) talked about a "dunce," "loafer," or "reprobate," who was not only "stupid" but "depraved," "wayward," and "incorrigible. "14 As Hull and colleagues put it, "some of these labels imply that the students lacked intelligence, but the majority reflect a flawed charac- ter. "15 Later, with the growth of the IQ movement, diagnoses based on defects of character were replaced by notions of intellectual deficits and abnormal development. The pseudo-scientific measurement of IQ offered a "unitary mea- sure of cognitive--and human--worth. "16
Contemporary research has replaced the unitary image of a deficient per- son with an increasingly local account of specific neurological differences that can produce a variety of difficulties in perception, in integrating information (such as organizing and abstracting), in memory, and in production (such as expressing what you do know on demand). 17 Many students will have labored since third grade (when language-processing disabilities often show up) with the growing burden of an inexplicable, unnamed difference, with seeing their friends in school effortlessly "get it" while they must wrestle jumbles of letters, numbers, or spoken instructions into a meaningful pattern. Soon the process inside one's head turns into a problem in social relations: parents scold, teach- ers make failure public, peers laugh, and the child copes through the use of withdrawal, silence, attitude, or diverting behavior.
