ROBBINS, EDITORS
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today.
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today.
Sloterdijk-Rage
?
INSURRECTIONS: CRITICAL STUDIES IN RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CULTURE
? INSURRECTIONS: CRITICAL STUDIES IN RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CULTURE SLAVOJ ZIZEK, CLAYTON CROCKETT, CRESTON DAVIS, JEFFREY W. ROBBINS, EDITORS
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today. It also has the deepest and most wide-ranging impact on the world. Insurrections: Critical Studies in Religion, Politics, and Culture will bring the tools of philosophy and critical theory to the political implications of the religious turn. The series will address a range of religious traditions and political viewpoints in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world. Without advocating any specific religious or theological stance, the series aims nonetheless to be faithful to the radical emancipatory potential of religion.
After the Death of God, John D. Caputo and Gianni Vattimo, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins Nietzsche and Levinas: "After the Death of a Certain God," edited by Bettina Bergo and Jill StaufFer The Politics ofPostsecular Religion: Mourning Secular Futures, Ananda Abeysekara Wondrous Strange: The Closure of Metaphysics and the Opening ofAwe, Mary-Jane Rubenstein Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation, Arvind Mandair
Plasticity at the Dusk of Writing: Dialectic, Destruction, Deconstruction, Catherine Malabou Anatheism: Returning to God After God, Richard Kearney
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHERS SINCE 1893
NEW YORK CHICHESTER, WEST SUSSEX
(Sjy^ 60ETHHHSHTUI
The translation of this work was supported by a grant from the Goethe-Institut which is funded by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Originally published as Zorn und Zeit. Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, (C) 2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main
Translation copyright (C) 2010 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sloterdijk, Peter, 1947-
[Zorn und Zeit. English]
Rage and time: a psychopolitical investigation / Peter Sloterdijk.
p. cm. -- (Insurrections: critical studies in religion, politics, and culture) "Originally published as Zorn und Zeit: Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, C2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main. ,,
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-231-14522-0 (cloth: alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-231-51836-9 (e-book)
1. Anger. 2. Anger--Religious aspects--Christianity. 3. Anger--Religious aspects--Judaism. 4. Thymos (The Greek word) 5. Political science--Philosophy. 6. Capitalism--Philosphy. I. Title. II. Series.
BF575. A5S5613 2010
152. 4*2--dc22
Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. This book is printed on paper with recycled content.
Printed in the United States of America
e
c 10 987654321
2009034870
? CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1 RAGE TRANSIACTIONS 45
THE WRATHFUL GOD
THE DISCOVERY OF THE METAPHYSICAL REVENGE BANK 69
THE RAGE REVOLUTION
ON THE COMMUNIST WORLD BANK OF RAGE 111
THE DISPERSION OF RAGE IN THE ERA OF THE CENTER 183
CONCLUSION: BEYOND RESENTMENT 227 NOTES 231
? INTRODUCTION
EUROPE'S FIRST WORD
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SENTENCE OF THE EUROPEAN tradition, in the first verse of the Iliad, the word "rage" occurs. It appears fatally and solemnly, like a plea, a plea that does not allow for any disagree- ment. As is fitting for a well-formed propositional object, this noun is in the accusative: "Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess. . . . " That it appears at the very beginning loudly and unequivocally announces its heightened pathos. Which kind of relationship to rage is proposed to the listeners in this magical prelude to this heroic song? How does the singer want to bring to language rage? How does he intend to address the par- ticular kind of rage with which everything began in the old Western world? Will he depict it as a form of violence, a violence that will entrap peaceful human beings in atrocious events? Should one attenuate, curb, and repress this most horrible and most human of affects? Should one quickly avoid it as often as it announces itself, in others or in oneself? Should one always sacrifice it to the neutralized better insight?
1
? INTRODUCTION
These are, as one quickly realizes, contemporary questions. They lead far away from the subject matter, the rage of Achilles. The Old World had discovered its own pathways to rage, which can no longer be those of the moderns. Where the moderns consult a therapist or dial the number of the police, those who were knowers back then appealed to the divine world. Homer calls to the goddess in order to let the first word of Europe be heard. He does so in accordance with an old rhapsodic custom: the insight that he who intends something immodest had better start very modestly. Not I, but Homer can secure the success of my song. To sing has meant from time immemorial to open one's mouth so that the higher powers can make them- selves heard. If my song is successful and gains authority, the muses will be responsible for it, and beyond the muses perhaps a god, or the goddess her- self. If the song disappears without being heard, it means the higher powers were not interested in it. In Homer's case, the divine judgment was clear: In the beginning there was the word "rage," and the word was successful:
Menin aiede, thea, Peleiadeo Achileos Oulomenen, he myriAchaiois alge eteke. . .
Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess
that murderous rage which condemned Achaeans to countless agonies and
threw many warrior souls deep into Hades . . .
The verses of appeal in the Iliad unequivocally prescribe the way in which the Greeks, the paradigm people of Western civilization, are sup- posed to confront the entry of rage into the life of mortals: with the kind of amazement that is appropriate for an apparition. The first plea of our cultural tradition--is this "our" still valid? --asks the divine world to sup- port the song of the rage of a unique fighter. What is remarkable is that the singer does not aim for any extenuation. Starting with the first lines, he emphasizes the baleful force of heroic rage: wherever it manifests itself, it unleashes its power on all sides. The Greeks themselves have to suffer even more from it than the Trojans. Already in the very beginning of the unraveling war, Achilles' rage turns against his own people. It is enlisted on the Greek front again only shortly before the decisive battle. The tone of the first verses sets up the program: in contradistinction to their general presentation as mere ghostly shadows, the souls of the beaten heroes, which are mentioned extensively here, descend into Hades. In Hades their lifeless
2
? INTRODUCTION
bodies--Homer refers to these bodies as "they"--are devoured by birds and dogs under the open sky.
The voice of the singer passes over the horizon of existence from which he can report such things. It is a euphoric and balanced voice. To be Greek and to listen to this voice mean the same thing in classical antiquity. When- ever one hears it, one immediately knows that war and peace are names for the phases of a life in which the ultimate significance of death is never in question. Death meets the hero early. This, too, belongs to the messages of the hero's song. If the expression "glorification of violence" ever had a meaning, it would be fitting for this entry into the oldest record of Euro- pean culture. However, this expression would mean almost the opposite of what is implied by its contemporary, inevitably disapproving usage. To sing of rage means to make rage noteworthy, to make it worthy of being thought (denkwurdig). However, what is noteworthy is in proximity to what is impressive and permanently praiseworthy--we could almost say: it is close to the Good. These valuations are so thoroughly opposed to modern ways of thinking and feeling that one probably has to admit that an authen- tic access to the intimate meaning of the Homeric understanding of rage will remain closed off to us.
Only indirect approximations will help us move further. At least we understand that what we are dealing with is not the holy rage of which bibli- cal sources speak. Nor are we confronted with the outrage of the prophet in the face of atrocities against the gods. It is not the rage of Moses, who smashes the tablets while the people bask in front of the golden calf. Nor is it the languishing hatred of the psalmist who cannot wait for the day when the just one will bathe his feet in the blood of the sinners (Psalms 58:10-11). The rage of Achilles also has little in common with the anger of Yahweh, the early and yet rather unsublime God of thunder and deserts, the one who leads the people through their exodus as the "God that bristles with anger" and destroys their persecutors in thunderstorms and floods. 1 However, nei- ther are we confronted by profane fits of human rage, which the later Soph- ists and philosophical teachers of morals have in mind when they preach the ideal of self-restraint.
The truth is that Homer moves within a world that is characterized by an appreciation of war without limitations. However dark the horizon of this universe of battles and deaths might be, the basic tone of the presentation is determined by the pride ofbeing allowed to be a witness to such spectacles and such fates. The illuminating visibility of these spectacles and fates reconciles
3
? INTRODUCTION
with the harshness of reality. This is what Nietzsche referred to as "Apollo- nian. " No modern human being can put himself back into a time where the concepts of war and happiness formed a meaningful constellation. For the first listeners of Homer, however, war and happiness are inseparable. The bond between them is founded upon the ancient cult of heroes. We moderns know this cult only within the square brackets of historical education.
For the ancients this heroism was no subtle attitude but the most vital of all possible responses to the facts of life. A world without heroes would have been worth nothing in their view. Such a world would have meant a state in which human beings would have been exposed to the monarchy of nature without any resistance. In such a world, physis would cause everything while human beings would not be capable of anything. The hero, however, is liv- ing proof that acts and deeds are also to be done by human beings as long as divine favor allows for them. The early heroes are celebrated solely as doers of deeds and achievers of acts. Their deeds testify to what is most valuable. They testify to what mortals, then and now, are able to experi- ence: that a clearing of impotence and indifference has been brushed into the bush of natural condition. In accounts of actions, the first happy mes- sage that shines through is: there is more happening under the sun than what one is indifferent to and what always remains the same. Because true actions have been done the accounts of them answer the question, "Why do human beings do something at all rather than nothing? " Human beings do something so that the world will be expanded through something new and worthy of being praised. Because those that accomplished the new were representatives of humankind, even if extraordinary ones, for the rest as well an access to pride and amazement opens up when they hear about the deeds and sufferings of the heroes.
The new, however, may not appear in the form of the news of the day. In order to be legitimate, it has to disguise itself as the prototypical, oldest, and eternally recurring. It also needs to invoke the long anticipated approval of the gods. If the new presents itself in the form of prehistoric events, myth comes into existence. The epic is the more flexible, broader, and more sol- emn form of myth, a form that is fitting for presentation in castles, on vil- lage squares, and in front of early city audiences. 2
The demand for the hero is the precondition for everything that follows. Only because the terrifying rage of heroes is indispensable may the singer turn to the goddess in order to engage her for twenty-four songs. If this rage, which the goddess is supposed to help to sing to, were not itself of a
4
? INTRODUCTION
higher nature, the thought to appeal to it would already be an act of blas- phemy. Only because there is a form of rage that is granted from above is it legitimate to involve the gods in the fierce affairs of human beings. Who sings under such premises about rage celebrates a force that frees human beings from vegetative numbness. This force elevates human beings, who are covered by a high, watchful sky. The inhabitants of the earth draw breath since they can imagine that the gods are viewers, taking delight in the mundane comedy.
Understanding these circumstances, which have become distant to us, can be simplified by indicating that according to the conception of the ancients the hero and his singer correspond with each other in an authentic religious bond. Religiosity is human beings' agreement with their nature as mediums. It is generally known that mediate talents travel separate paths. These ways can, however, intersect at important junctures. "Media" plural- ism is thus a fact that reaches back to early conditions of culture. However, at these early times media were not technical instruments but human beings themselves, including their organic and spiritual potential. Just as the singer could be the mouthpiece of a singing force, the hero feels himself the arm of rage, the rage that achieved the noteworthy actions. The larynx of the one and the arm of the other together form a hybrid body. The arm to hold the sword belongs more to the god than to the fighter himself. The god influ- ences the human world through the detour of secondary causes. Of course, the arm to hold the sword also belongs to the singer, to whom the hero, and all his weapons, owe the immortal fame. Hence the connection of god- hero-singer constitutes the first effective media network. In the thousand years after Homer, Achilles is a topic in the Mediterranean time and again. People address Achilles' usefulness for the war-loving muses.
It is not necessary to dwell on the fact that nowadays no one is able to think authentically, perhaps with the exception of some inhabitants of the esoteric highlands where the reenchantment of the world has further pro- gressed. We have not only stopped to judge and feel like the peoples of old, we secretly despise them for remaining "children of their time. " We despise them for remaining captivated by a form of heroism that we can only expe- rience as archaic and unfitting. What could one object to Homer from the vantage point of the present and the conventions of the lowlands? Should one accuse him of violating human rights by conceiving individuals all too directly as media of higher commanding beings? Should one accuse him of disregarding the integrity of victims by celebrating the forces that caused
5
? INTRODUCTION
them harm? Or should one accuse him of neutralizing the arbitrary violence of war, of transforming its results immediately into divine judgments? Or would one have to soften the allegation to claim that the god has become a victim of impatience. Would we have to claim that he did not possess the patience to wait until the Sermon on the Mount and that he did not read Seneca's De ira, the exposition of the stoic control of affects, which served as a model for Christian and humanistic ethics?
Within Homer's horizon there is, of course, no point where objections of this kind could successfully gain hold. The song concerning the heroic energy of a warrior, with which the epos of the ancients starts out, elevates rage to the rank of a substance, out of which the world is formed. This requires that we admit that "world" delineates the circle of shapes and scenes of the ancient, Hellenic life of aristocratic warriors during the first millennium before the Christian calendar. One is inclined to think that such a worldview has become obsolete since, at the latest, the time of the Enlightenment. How- ever, to fully reject this image characterized by the priority of struggle will probably be harder for the contemporary realist than the current widespread feeling of pacifism wants to make us believe. Moderns did not fully neglect the task of thinking war. Indeed, this task has for a long time been associ- ated with the male order of cultivation. 3 Students of antiquity have already been measured against the standard of thinking war. This was the case when the upper class of Rome, together with the other Greek models of culture, imported the epic bellicosity of their teachers. The Roman upper class did not at all forget its own rooted militarism. Similarly, since the Renaissance, generation after generation of the youth of Europe learned about this mili- tarism after the exemplary character of the Greeks had again been set up as a guide in the educational system of the newly formed national states. This had far-reaching consequences. Could it be possible that the so-called world wars of the twentieth century also represented, among other things, repetitions of the Trojan War? They were organized by a group of generals, and didn't the leading generals on both sides of the enemy lines understand themselves as virtually the most excellent of the ancients? Didn't these gen- erals understand themselves as the descendents of the raging Achilles and as bearers of an athletic and patriotic vocation to gain victory and enjoy fame by posterity? 4 The immortal hero dies countless times.
The question of whether Homer, just as after him Heraclitus and much later Hegel, believed that war is the father of all things remains open. It is also uncertain--and probably even unlikely--that Homer, the patriarch of
6
? INTRODUCTION
the historiography of war and the teacher of Greek to countless generations, possessed a conception of "history" or "civilization. " The only thing that is certain is that the universe of the Iliad is woven completely out of the deeds and sufferings of rage (menis), just as the somewhat younger Odyssey is an exercise in listing the deeds and sufferings of cunningness (metis). Accord- ing to the ancient ontology, the world is the sum total of the battles that take place in it.
ROBBINS, EDITORS
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today. It also has the deepest and most wide-ranging impact on the world. Insurrections: Critical Studies in Religion, Politics, and Culture will bring the tools of philosophy and critical theory to the political implications of the religious turn. The series will address a range of religious traditions and political viewpoints in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world. Without advocating any specific religious or theological stance, the series aims nonetheless to be faithful to the radical emancipatory potential of religion.
After the Death of God, John D. Caputo and Gianni Vattimo, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins Nietzsche and Levinas: "After the Death of a Certain God," edited by Bettina Bergo and Jill StaufFer The Politics ofPostsecular Religion: Mourning Secular Futures, Ananda Abeysekara Wondrous Strange: The Closure of Metaphysics and the Opening ofAwe, Mary-Jane Rubenstein Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation, Arvind Mandair
Plasticity at the Dusk of Writing: Dialectic, Destruction, Deconstruction, Catherine Malabou Anatheism: Returning to God After God, Richard Kearney
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHERS SINCE 1893
NEW YORK CHICHESTER, WEST SUSSEX
(Sjy^ 60ETHHHSHTUI
The translation of this work was supported by a grant from the Goethe-Institut which is funded by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Originally published as Zorn und Zeit. Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, (C) 2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main
Translation copyright (C) 2010 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sloterdijk, Peter, 1947-
[Zorn und Zeit. English]
Rage and time: a psychopolitical investigation / Peter Sloterdijk.
p. cm. -- (Insurrections: critical studies in religion, politics, and culture) "Originally published as Zorn und Zeit: Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, C2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main. ,,
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-231-14522-0 (cloth: alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-231-51836-9 (e-book)
1. Anger. 2. Anger--Religious aspects--Christianity. 3. Anger--Religious aspects--Judaism. 4. Thymos (The Greek word) 5. Political science--Philosophy. 6. Capitalism--Philosphy. I. Title. II. Series.
BF575. A5S5613 2010
152. 4*2--dc22
Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. This book is printed on paper with recycled content.
Printed in the United States of America
e
c 10 987654321
2009034870
? CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1 RAGE TRANSIACTIONS 45
THE WRATHFUL GOD
THE DISCOVERY OF THE METAPHYSICAL REVENGE BANK 69
THE RAGE REVOLUTION
ON THE COMMUNIST WORLD BANK OF RAGE 111
THE DISPERSION OF RAGE IN THE ERA OF THE CENTER 183
CONCLUSION: BEYOND RESENTMENT 227 NOTES 231
? INTRODUCTION
EUROPE'S FIRST WORD
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SENTENCE OF THE EUROPEAN tradition, in the first verse of the Iliad, the word "rage" occurs. It appears fatally and solemnly, like a plea, a plea that does not allow for any disagree- ment. As is fitting for a well-formed propositional object, this noun is in the accusative: "Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess. . . . " That it appears at the very beginning loudly and unequivocally announces its heightened pathos. Which kind of relationship to rage is proposed to the listeners in this magical prelude to this heroic song? How does the singer want to bring to language rage? How does he intend to address the par- ticular kind of rage with which everything began in the old Western world? Will he depict it as a form of violence, a violence that will entrap peaceful human beings in atrocious events? Should one attenuate, curb, and repress this most horrible and most human of affects? Should one quickly avoid it as often as it announces itself, in others or in oneself? Should one always sacrifice it to the neutralized better insight?
1
? INTRODUCTION
These are, as one quickly realizes, contemporary questions. They lead far away from the subject matter, the rage of Achilles. The Old World had discovered its own pathways to rage, which can no longer be those of the moderns. Where the moderns consult a therapist or dial the number of the police, those who were knowers back then appealed to the divine world. Homer calls to the goddess in order to let the first word of Europe be heard. He does so in accordance with an old rhapsodic custom: the insight that he who intends something immodest had better start very modestly. Not I, but Homer can secure the success of my song. To sing has meant from time immemorial to open one's mouth so that the higher powers can make them- selves heard. If my song is successful and gains authority, the muses will be responsible for it, and beyond the muses perhaps a god, or the goddess her- self. If the song disappears without being heard, it means the higher powers were not interested in it. In Homer's case, the divine judgment was clear: In the beginning there was the word "rage," and the word was successful:
Menin aiede, thea, Peleiadeo Achileos Oulomenen, he myriAchaiois alge eteke. . .
Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess
that murderous rage which condemned Achaeans to countless agonies and
threw many warrior souls deep into Hades . . .
The verses of appeal in the Iliad unequivocally prescribe the way in which the Greeks, the paradigm people of Western civilization, are sup- posed to confront the entry of rage into the life of mortals: with the kind of amazement that is appropriate for an apparition. The first plea of our cultural tradition--is this "our" still valid? --asks the divine world to sup- port the song of the rage of a unique fighter. What is remarkable is that the singer does not aim for any extenuation. Starting with the first lines, he emphasizes the baleful force of heroic rage: wherever it manifests itself, it unleashes its power on all sides. The Greeks themselves have to suffer even more from it than the Trojans. Already in the very beginning of the unraveling war, Achilles' rage turns against his own people. It is enlisted on the Greek front again only shortly before the decisive battle. The tone of the first verses sets up the program: in contradistinction to their general presentation as mere ghostly shadows, the souls of the beaten heroes, which are mentioned extensively here, descend into Hades. In Hades their lifeless
2
? INTRODUCTION
bodies--Homer refers to these bodies as "they"--are devoured by birds and dogs under the open sky.
The voice of the singer passes over the horizon of existence from which he can report such things. It is a euphoric and balanced voice. To be Greek and to listen to this voice mean the same thing in classical antiquity. When- ever one hears it, one immediately knows that war and peace are names for the phases of a life in which the ultimate significance of death is never in question. Death meets the hero early. This, too, belongs to the messages of the hero's song. If the expression "glorification of violence" ever had a meaning, it would be fitting for this entry into the oldest record of Euro- pean culture. However, this expression would mean almost the opposite of what is implied by its contemporary, inevitably disapproving usage. To sing of rage means to make rage noteworthy, to make it worthy of being thought (denkwurdig). However, what is noteworthy is in proximity to what is impressive and permanently praiseworthy--we could almost say: it is close to the Good. These valuations are so thoroughly opposed to modern ways of thinking and feeling that one probably has to admit that an authen- tic access to the intimate meaning of the Homeric understanding of rage will remain closed off to us.
Only indirect approximations will help us move further. At least we understand that what we are dealing with is not the holy rage of which bibli- cal sources speak. Nor are we confronted with the outrage of the prophet in the face of atrocities against the gods. It is not the rage of Moses, who smashes the tablets while the people bask in front of the golden calf. Nor is it the languishing hatred of the psalmist who cannot wait for the day when the just one will bathe his feet in the blood of the sinners (Psalms 58:10-11). The rage of Achilles also has little in common with the anger of Yahweh, the early and yet rather unsublime God of thunder and deserts, the one who leads the people through their exodus as the "God that bristles with anger" and destroys their persecutors in thunderstorms and floods. 1 However, nei- ther are we confronted by profane fits of human rage, which the later Soph- ists and philosophical teachers of morals have in mind when they preach the ideal of self-restraint.
The truth is that Homer moves within a world that is characterized by an appreciation of war without limitations. However dark the horizon of this universe of battles and deaths might be, the basic tone of the presentation is determined by the pride ofbeing allowed to be a witness to such spectacles and such fates. The illuminating visibility of these spectacles and fates reconciles
3
? INTRODUCTION
with the harshness of reality. This is what Nietzsche referred to as "Apollo- nian. " No modern human being can put himself back into a time where the concepts of war and happiness formed a meaningful constellation. For the first listeners of Homer, however, war and happiness are inseparable. The bond between them is founded upon the ancient cult of heroes. We moderns know this cult only within the square brackets of historical education.
For the ancients this heroism was no subtle attitude but the most vital of all possible responses to the facts of life. A world without heroes would have been worth nothing in their view. Such a world would have meant a state in which human beings would have been exposed to the monarchy of nature without any resistance. In such a world, physis would cause everything while human beings would not be capable of anything. The hero, however, is liv- ing proof that acts and deeds are also to be done by human beings as long as divine favor allows for them. The early heroes are celebrated solely as doers of deeds and achievers of acts. Their deeds testify to what is most valuable. They testify to what mortals, then and now, are able to experi- ence: that a clearing of impotence and indifference has been brushed into the bush of natural condition. In accounts of actions, the first happy mes- sage that shines through is: there is more happening under the sun than what one is indifferent to and what always remains the same. Because true actions have been done the accounts of them answer the question, "Why do human beings do something at all rather than nothing? " Human beings do something so that the world will be expanded through something new and worthy of being praised. Because those that accomplished the new were representatives of humankind, even if extraordinary ones, for the rest as well an access to pride and amazement opens up when they hear about the deeds and sufferings of the heroes.
The new, however, may not appear in the form of the news of the day. In order to be legitimate, it has to disguise itself as the prototypical, oldest, and eternally recurring. It also needs to invoke the long anticipated approval of the gods. If the new presents itself in the form of prehistoric events, myth comes into existence. The epic is the more flexible, broader, and more sol- emn form of myth, a form that is fitting for presentation in castles, on vil- lage squares, and in front of early city audiences. 2
The demand for the hero is the precondition for everything that follows. Only because the terrifying rage of heroes is indispensable may the singer turn to the goddess in order to engage her for twenty-four songs. If this rage, which the goddess is supposed to help to sing to, were not itself of a
4
? INTRODUCTION
higher nature, the thought to appeal to it would already be an act of blas- phemy. Only because there is a form of rage that is granted from above is it legitimate to involve the gods in the fierce affairs of human beings. Who sings under such premises about rage celebrates a force that frees human beings from vegetative numbness. This force elevates human beings, who are covered by a high, watchful sky. The inhabitants of the earth draw breath since they can imagine that the gods are viewers, taking delight in the mundane comedy.
Understanding these circumstances, which have become distant to us, can be simplified by indicating that according to the conception of the ancients the hero and his singer correspond with each other in an authentic religious bond. Religiosity is human beings' agreement with their nature as mediums. It is generally known that mediate talents travel separate paths. These ways can, however, intersect at important junctures. "Media" plural- ism is thus a fact that reaches back to early conditions of culture. However, at these early times media were not technical instruments but human beings themselves, including their organic and spiritual potential. Just as the singer could be the mouthpiece of a singing force, the hero feels himself the arm of rage, the rage that achieved the noteworthy actions. The larynx of the one and the arm of the other together form a hybrid body. The arm to hold the sword belongs more to the god than to the fighter himself. The god influ- ences the human world through the detour of secondary causes. Of course, the arm to hold the sword also belongs to the singer, to whom the hero, and all his weapons, owe the immortal fame. Hence the connection of god- hero-singer constitutes the first effective media network. In the thousand years after Homer, Achilles is a topic in the Mediterranean time and again. People address Achilles' usefulness for the war-loving muses.
It is not necessary to dwell on the fact that nowadays no one is able to think authentically, perhaps with the exception of some inhabitants of the esoteric highlands where the reenchantment of the world has further pro- gressed. We have not only stopped to judge and feel like the peoples of old, we secretly despise them for remaining "children of their time. " We despise them for remaining captivated by a form of heroism that we can only expe- rience as archaic and unfitting. What could one object to Homer from the vantage point of the present and the conventions of the lowlands? Should one accuse him of violating human rights by conceiving individuals all too directly as media of higher commanding beings? Should one accuse him of disregarding the integrity of victims by celebrating the forces that caused
5
? INTRODUCTION
them harm? Or should one accuse him of neutralizing the arbitrary violence of war, of transforming its results immediately into divine judgments? Or would one have to soften the allegation to claim that the god has become a victim of impatience. Would we have to claim that he did not possess the patience to wait until the Sermon on the Mount and that he did not read Seneca's De ira, the exposition of the stoic control of affects, which served as a model for Christian and humanistic ethics?
Within Homer's horizon there is, of course, no point where objections of this kind could successfully gain hold. The song concerning the heroic energy of a warrior, with which the epos of the ancients starts out, elevates rage to the rank of a substance, out of which the world is formed. This requires that we admit that "world" delineates the circle of shapes and scenes of the ancient, Hellenic life of aristocratic warriors during the first millennium before the Christian calendar. One is inclined to think that such a worldview has become obsolete since, at the latest, the time of the Enlightenment. How- ever, to fully reject this image characterized by the priority of struggle will probably be harder for the contemporary realist than the current widespread feeling of pacifism wants to make us believe. Moderns did not fully neglect the task of thinking war. Indeed, this task has for a long time been associ- ated with the male order of cultivation. 3 Students of antiquity have already been measured against the standard of thinking war. This was the case when the upper class of Rome, together with the other Greek models of culture, imported the epic bellicosity of their teachers. The Roman upper class did not at all forget its own rooted militarism. Similarly, since the Renaissance, generation after generation of the youth of Europe learned about this mili- tarism after the exemplary character of the Greeks had again been set up as a guide in the educational system of the newly formed national states. This had far-reaching consequences. Could it be possible that the so-called world wars of the twentieth century also represented, among other things, repetitions of the Trojan War? They were organized by a group of generals, and didn't the leading generals on both sides of the enemy lines understand themselves as virtually the most excellent of the ancients? Didn't these gen- erals understand themselves as the descendents of the raging Achilles and as bearers of an athletic and patriotic vocation to gain victory and enjoy fame by posterity? 4 The immortal hero dies countless times.
The question of whether Homer, just as after him Heraclitus and much later Hegel, believed that war is the father of all things remains open. It is also uncertain--and probably even unlikely--that Homer, the patriarch of
6
? INTRODUCTION
the historiography of war and the teacher of Greek to countless generations, possessed a conception of "history" or "civilization. " The only thing that is certain is that the universe of the Iliad is woven completely out of the deeds and sufferings of rage (menis), just as the somewhat younger Odyssey is an exercise in listing the deeds and sufferings of cunningness (metis). Accord- ing to the ancient ontology, the world is the sum total of the battles that take place in it. Epic rage appears like a primary energy to its singer, a primary energy that swells by itself, undeducible, like the storm and the sunlight; it is an active force in quintessential shape. Because this energy can rightly claim the predicate first substance "from itself," it precedes all of its local provoca- tions. The hero and his menis constitute for Homer an inseparable couple. According to this preestablished union, every deduction of rage from its external provocations becomes superfluous.
? INSURRECTIONS: CRITICAL STUDIES IN RELIGION, POLITICS, AND CULTURE SLAVOJ ZIZEK, CLAYTON CROCKETT, CRESTON DAVIS, JEFFREY W. ROBBINS, EDITORS
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today. It also has the deepest and most wide-ranging impact on the world. Insurrections: Critical Studies in Religion, Politics, and Culture will bring the tools of philosophy and critical theory to the political implications of the religious turn. The series will address a range of religious traditions and political viewpoints in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world. Without advocating any specific religious or theological stance, the series aims nonetheless to be faithful to the radical emancipatory potential of religion.
After the Death of God, John D. Caputo and Gianni Vattimo, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins Nietzsche and Levinas: "After the Death of a Certain God," edited by Bettina Bergo and Jill StaufFer The Politics ofPostsecular Religion: Mourning Secular Futures, Ananda Abeysekara Wondrous Strange: The Closure of Metaphysics and the Opening ofAwe, Mary-Jane Rubenstein Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation, Arvind Mandair
Plasticity at the Dusk of Writing: Dialectic, Destruction, Deconstruction, Catherine Malabou Anatheism: Returning to God After God, Richard Kearney
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHERS SINCE 1893
NEW YORK CHICHESTER, WEST SUSSEX
(Sjy^ 60ETHHHSHTUI
The translation of this work was supported by a grant from the Goethe-Institut which is funded by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Originally published as Zorn und Zeit. Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, (C) 2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main
Translation copyright (C) 2010 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sloterdijk, Peter, 1947-
[Zorn und Zeit. English]
Rage and time: a psychopolitical investigation / Peter Sloterdijk.
p. cm. -- (Insurrections: critical studies in religion, politics, and culture) "Originally published as Zorn und Zeit: Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, C2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main. ,,
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-231-14522-0 (cloth: alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-231-51836-9 (e-book)
1. Anger. 2. Anger--Religious aspects--Christianity. 3. Anger--Religious aspects--Judaism. 4. Thymos (The Greek word) 5. Political science--Philosophy. 6. Capitalism--Philosphy. I. Title. II. Series.
BF575. A5S5613 2010
152. 4*2--dc22
Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. This book is printed on paper with recycled content.
Printed in the United States of America
e
c 10 987654321
2009034870
? CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1 RAGE TRANSIACTIONS 45
THE WRATHFUL GOD
THE DISCOVERY OF THE METAPHYSICAL REVENGE BANK 69
THE RAGE REVOLUTION
ON THE COMMUNIST WORLD BANK OF RAGE 111
THE DISPERSION OF RAGE IN THE ERA OF THE CENTER 183
CONCLUSION: BEYOND RESENTMENT 227 NOTES 231
? INTRODUCTION
EUROPE'S FIRST WORD
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SENTENCE OF THE EUROPEAN tradition, in the first verse of the Iliad, the word "rage" occurs. It appears fatally and solemnly, like a plea, a plea that does not allow for any disagree- ment. As is fitting for a well-formed propositional object, this noun is in the accusative: "Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess. . . . " That it appears at the very beginning loudly and unequivocally announces its heightened pathos. Which kind of relationship to rage is proposed to the listeners in this magical prelude to this heroic song? How does the singer want to bring to language rage? How does he intend to address the par- ticular kind of rage with which everything began in the old Western world? Will he depict it as a form of violence, a violence that will entrap peaceful human beings in atrocious events? Should one attenuate, curb, and repress this most horrible and most human of affects? Should one quickly avoid it as often as it announces itself, in others or in oneself? Should one always sacrifice it to the neutralized better insight?
1
? INTRODUCTION
These are, as one quickly realizes, contemporary questions. They lead far away from the subject matter, the rage of Achilles. The Old World had discovered its own pathways to rage, which can no longer be those of the moderns. Where the moderns consult a therapist or dial the number of the police, those who were knowers back then appealed to the divine world. Homer calls to the goddess in order to let the first word of Europe be heard. He does so in accordance with an old rhapsodic custom: the insight that he who intends something immodest had better start very modestly. Not I, but Homer can secure the success of my song. To sing has meant from time immemorial to open one's mouth so that the higher powers can make them- selves heard. If my song is successful and gains authority, the muses will be responsible for it, and beyond the muses perhaps a god, or the goddess her- self. If the song disappears without being heard, it means the higher powers were not interested in it. In Homer's case, the divine judgment was clear: In the beginning there was the word "rage," and the word was successful:
Menin aiede, thea, Peleiadeo Achileos Oulomenen, he myriAchaiois alge eteke. . .
Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess
that murderous rage which condemned Achaeans to countless agonies and
threw many warrior souls deep into Hades . . .
The verses of appeal in the Iliad unequivocally prescribe the way in which the Greeks, the paradigm people of Western civilization, are sup- posed to confront the entry of rage into the life of mortals: with the kind of amazement that is appropriate for an apparition. The first plea of our cultural tradition--is this "our" still valid? --asks the divine world to sup- port the song of the rage of a unique fighter. What is remarkable is that the singer does not aim for any extenuation. Starting with the first lines, he emphasizes the baleful force of heroic rage: wherever it manifests itself, it unleashes its power on all sides. The Greeks themselves have to suffer even more from it than the Trojans. Already in the very beginning of the unraveling war, Achilles' rage turns against his own people. It is enlisted on the Greek front again only shortly before the decisive battle. The tone of the first verses sets up the program: in contradistinction to their general presentation as mere ghostly shadows, the souls of the beaten heroes, which are mentioned extensively here, descend into Hades. In Hades their lifeless
2
? INTRODUCTION
bodies--Homer refers to these bodies as "they"--are devoured by birds and dogs under the open sky.
The voice of the singer passes over the horizon of existence from which he can report such things. It is a euphoric and balanced voice. To be Greek and to listen to this voice mean the same thing in classical antiquity. When- ever one hears it, one immediately knows that war and peace are names for the phases of a life in which the ultimate significance of death is never in question. Death meets the hero early. This, too, belongs to the messages of the hero's song. If the expression "glorification of violence" ever had a meaning, it would be fitting for this entry into the oldest record of Euro- pean culture. However, this expression would mean almost the opposite of what is implied by its contemporary, inevitably disapproving usage. To sing of rage means to make rage noteworthy, to make it worthy of being thought (denkwurdig). However, what is noteworthy is in proximity to what is impressive and permanently praiseworthy--we could almost say: it is close to the Good. These valuations are so thoroughly opposed to modern ways of thinking and feeling that one probably has to admit that an authen- tic access to the intimate meaning of the Homeric understanding of rage will remain closed off to us.
Only indirect approximations will help us move further. At least we understand that what we are dealing with is not the holy rage of which bibli- cal sources speak. Nor are we confronted with the outrage of the prophet in the face of atrocities against the gods. It is not the rage of Moses, who smashes the tablets while the people bask in front of the golden calf. Nor is it the languishing hatred of the psalmist who cannot wait for the day when the just one will bathe his feet in the blood of the sinners (Psalms 58:10-11). The rage of Achilles also has little in common with the anger of Yahweh, the early and yet rather unsublime God of thunder and deserts, the one who leads the people through their exodus as the "God that bristles with anger" and destroys their persecutors in thunderstorms and floods. 1 However, nei- ther are we confronted by profane fits of human rage, which the later Soph- ists and philosophical teachers of morals have in mind when they preach the ideal of self-restraint.
The truth is that Homer moves within a world that is characterized by an appreciation of war without limitations. However dark the horizon of this universe of battles and deaths might be, the basic tone of the presentation is determined by the pride ofbeing allowed to be a witness to such spectacles and such fates. The illuminating visibility of these spectacles and fates reconciles
3
? INTRODUCTION
with the harshness of reality. This is what Nietzsche referred to as "Apollo- nian. " No modern human being can put himself back into a time where the concepts of war and happiness formed a meaningful constellation. For the first listeners of Homer, however, war and happiness are inseparable. The bond between them is founded upon the ancient cult of heroes. We moderns know this cult only within the square brackets of historical education.
For the ancients this heroism was no subtle attitude but the most vital of all possible responses to the facts of life. A world without heroes would have been worth nothing in their view. Such a world would have meant a state in which human beings would have been exposed to the monarchy of nature without any resistance. In such a world, physis would cause everything while human beings would not be capable of anything. The hero, however, is liv- ing proof that acts and deeds are also to be done by human beings as long as divine favor allows for them. The early heroes are celebrated solely as doers of deeds and achievers of acts. Their deeds testify to what is most valuable. They testify to what mortals, then and now, are able to experi- ence: that a clearing of impotence and indifference has been brushed into the bush of natural condition. In accounts of actions, the first happy mes- sage that shines through is: there is more happening under the sun than what one is indifferent to and what always remains the same. Because true actions have been done the accounts of them answer the question, "Why do human beings do something at all rather than nothing? " Human beings do something so that the world will be expanded through something new and worthy of being praised. Because those that accomplished the new were representatives of humankind, even if extraordinary ones, for the rest as well an access to pride and amazement opens up when they hear about the deeds and sufferings of the heroes.
The new, however, may not appear in the form of the news of the day. In order to be legitimate, it has to disguise itself as the prototypical, oldest, and eternally recurring. It also needs to invoke the long anticipated approval of the gods. If the new presents itself in the form of prehistoric events, myth comes into existence. The epic is the more flexible, broader, and more sol- emn form of myth, a form that is fitting for presentation in castles, on vil- lage squares, and in front of early city audiences. 2
The demand for the hero is the precondition for everything that follows. Only because the terrifying rage of heroes is indispensable may the singer turn to the goddess in order to engage her for twenty-four songs. If this rage, which the goddess is supposed to help to sing to, were not itself of a
4
? INTRODUCTION
higher nature, the thought to appeal to it would already be an act of blas- phemy. Only because there is a form of rage that is granted from above is it legitimate to involve the gods in the fierce affairs of human beings. Who sings under such premises about rage celebrates a force that frees human beings from vegetative numbness. This force elevates human beings, who are covered by a high, watchful sky. The inhabitants of the earth draw breath since they can imagine that the gods are viewers, taking delight in the mundane comedy.
Understanding these circumstances, which have become distant to us, can be simplified by indicating that according to the conception of the ancients the hero and his singer correspond with each other in an authentic religious bond. Religiosity is human beings' agreement with their nature as mediums. It is generally known that mediate talents travel separate paths. These ways can, however, intersect at important junctures. "Media" plural- ism is thus a fact that reaches back to early conditions of culture. However, at these early times media were not technical instruments but human beings themselves, including their organic and spiritual potential. Just as the singer could be the mouthpiece of a singing force, the hero feels himself the arm of rage, the rage that achieved the noteworthy actions. The larynx of the one and the arm of the other together form a hybrid body. The arm to hold the sword belongs more to the god than to the fighter himself. The god influ- ences the human world through the detour of secondary causes. Of course, the arm to hold the sword also belongs to the singer, to whom the hero, and all his weapons, owe the immortal fame. Hence the connection of god- hero-singer constitutes the first effective media network. In the thousand years after Homer, Achilles is a topic in the Mediterranean time and again. People address Achilles' usefulness for the war-loving muses.
It is not necessary to dwell on the fact that nowadays no one is able to think authentically, perhaps with the exception of some inhabitants of the esoteric highlands where the reenchantment of the world has further pro- gressed. We have not only stopped to judge and feel like the peoples of old, we secretly despise them for remaining "children of their time. " We despise them for remaining captivated by a form of heroism that we can only expe- rience as archaic and unfitting. What could one object to Homer from the vantage point of the present and the conventions of the lowlands? Should one accuse him of violating human rights by conceiving individuals all too directly as media of higher commanding beings? Should one accuse him of disregarding the integrity of victims by celebrating the forces that caused
5
? INTRODUCTION
them harm? Or should one accuse him of neutralizing the arbitrary violence of war, of transforming its results immediately into divine judgments? Or would one have to soften the allegation to claim that the god has become a victim of impatience. Would we have to claim that he did not possess the patience to wait until the Sermon on the Mount and that he did not read Seneca's De ira, the exposition of the stoic control of affects, which served as a model for Christian and humanistic ethics?
Within Homer's horizon there is, of course, no point where objections of this kind could successfully gain hold. The song concerning the heroic energy of a warrior, with which the epos of the ancients starts out, elevates rage to the rank of a substance, out of which the world is formed. This requires that we admit that "world" delineates the circle of shapes and scenes of the ancient, Hellenic life of aristocratic warriors during the first millennium before the Christian calendar. One is inclined to think that such a worldview has become obsolete since, at the latest, the time of the Enlightenment. How- ever, to fully reject this image characterized by the priority of struggle will probably be harder for the contemporary realist than the current widespread feeling of pacifism wants to make us believe. Moderns did not fully neglect the task of thinking war. Indeed, this task has for a long time been associ- ated with the male order of cultivation. 3 Students of antiquity have already been measured against the standard of thinking war. This was the case when the upper class of Rome, together with the other Greek models of culture, imported the epic bellicosity of their teachers. The Roman upper class did not at all forget its own rooted militarism. Similarly, since the Renaissance, generation after generation of the youth of Europe learned about this mili- tarism after the exemplary character of the Greeks had again been set up as a guide in the educational system of the newly formed national states. This had far-reaching consequences. Could it be possible that the so-called world wars of the twentieth century also represented, among other things, repetitions of the Trojan War? They were organized by a group of generals, and didn't the leading generals on both sides of the enemy lines understand themselves as virtually the most excellent of the ancients? Didn't these gen- erals understand themselves as the descendents of the raging Achilles and as bearers of an athletic and patriotic vocation to gain victory and enjoy fame by posterity? 4 The immortal hero dies countless times.
The question of whether Homer, just as after him Heraclitus and much later Hegel, believed that war is the father of all things remains open. It is also uncertain--and probably even unlikely--that Homer, the patriarch of
6
? INTRODUCTION
the historiography of war and the teacher of Greek to countless generations, possessed a conception of "history" or "civilization. " The only thing that is certain is that the universe of the Iliad is woven completely out of the deeds and sufferings of rage (menis), just as the somewhat younger Odyssey is an exercise in listing the deeds and sufferings of cunningness (metis). Accord- ing to the ancient ontology, the world is the sum total of the battles that take place in it.
ROBBINS, EDITORS
The intersection of religion, politics, and culture is one of the most discussed areas in theory today. It also has the deepest and most wide-ranging impact on the world. Insurrections: Critical Studies in Religion, Politics, and Culture will bring the tools of philosophy and critical theory to the political implications of the religious turn. The series will address a range of religious traditions and political viewpoints in the United States, Europe, and other parts of the world. Without advocating any specific religious or theological stance, the series aims nonetheless to be faithful to the radical emancipatory potential of religion.
After the Death of God, John D. Caputo and Gianni Vattimo, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins Nietzsche and Levinas: "After the Death of a Certain God," edited by Bettina Bergo and Jill StaufFer The Politics ofPostsecular Religion: Mourning Secular Futures, Ananda Abeysekara Wondrous Strange: The Closure of Metaphysics and the Opening ofAwe, Mary-Jane Rubenstein Religion and the Specter of the West: Sikhism, India, Postcoloniality, and the Politics of Translation, Arvind Mandair
Plasticity at the Dusk of Writing: Dialectic, Destruction, Deconstruction, Catherine Malabou Anatheism: Returning to God After God, Richard Kearney
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
PUBLISHERS SINCE 1893
NEW YORK CHICHESTER, WEST SUSSEX
(Sjy^ 60ETHHHSHTUI
The translation of this work was supported by a grant from the Goethe-Institut which is funded by the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Originally published as Zorn und Zeit. Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, (C) 2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main
Translation copyright (C) 2010 Columbia University Press
All rights reserved
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sloterdijk, Peter, 1947-
[Zorn und Zeit. English]
Rage and time: a psychopolitical investigation / Peter Sloterdijk.
p. cm. -- (Insurrections: critical studies in religion, politics, and culture) "Originally published as Zorn und Zeit: Politisch-psychologischer Versuch, C2006 Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main. ,,
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-231-14522-0 (cloth: alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-0-231-51836-9 (e-book)
1. Anger. 2. Anger--Religious aspects--Christianity. 3. Anger--Religious aspects--Judaism. 4. Thymos (The Greek word) 5. Political science--Philosophy. 6. Capitalism--Philosphy. I. Title. II. Series.
BF575. A5S5613 2010
152. 4*2--dc22
Columbia University Press books are printed on permanent and durable acid-free paper. This book is printed on paper with recycled content.
Printed in the United States of America
e
c 10 987654321
2009034870
? CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1 RAGE TRANSIACTIONS 45
THE WRATHFUL GOD
THE DISCOVERY OF THE METAPHYSICAL REVENGE BANK 69
THE RAGE REVOLUTION
ON THE COMMUNIST WORLD BANK OF RAGE 111
THE DISPERSION OF RAGE IN THE ERA OF THE CENTER 183
CONCLUSION: BEYOND RESENTMENT 227 NOTES 231
? INTRODUCTION
EUROPE'S FIRST WORD
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST SENTENCE OF THE EUROPEAN tradition, in the first verse of the Iliad, the word "rage" occurs. It appears fatally and solemnly, like a plea, a plea that does not allow for any disagree- ment. As is fitting for a well-formed propositional object, this noun is in the accusative: "Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess. . . . " That it appears at the very beginning loudly and unequivocally announces its heightened pathos. Which kind of relationship to rage is proposed to the listeners in this magical prelude to this heroic song? How does the singer want to bring to language rage? How does he intend to address the par- ticular kind of rage with which everything began in the old Western world? Will he depict it as a form of violence, a violence that will entrap peaceful human beings in atrocious events? Should one attenuate, curb, and repress this most horrible and most human of affects? Should one quickly avoid it as often as it announces itself, in others or in oneself? Should one always sacrifice it to the neutralized better insight?
1
? INTRODUCTION
These are, as one quickly realizes, contemporary questions. They lead far away from the subject matter, the rage of Achilles. The Old World had discovered its own pathways to rage, which can no longer be those of the moderns. Where the moderns consult a therapist or dial the number of the police, those who were knowers back then appealed to the divine world. Homer calls to the goddess in order to let the first word of Europe be heard. He does so in accordance with an old rhapsodic custom: the insight that he who intends something immodest had better start very modestly. Not I, but Homer can secure the success of my song. To sing has meant from time immemorial to open one's mouth so that the higher powers can make them- selves heard. If my song is successful and gains authority, the muses will be responsible for it, and beyond the muses perhaps a god, or the goddess her- self. If the song disappears without being heard, it means the higher powers were not interested in it. In Homer's case, the divine judgment was clear: In the beginning there was the word "rage," and the word was successful:
Menin aiede, thea, Peleiadeo Achileos Oulomenen, he myriAchaiois alge eteke. . .
Of the rage of Achilles, son of Peleus, sing Goddess
that murderous rage which condemned Achaeans to countless agonies and
threw many warrior souls deep into Hades . . .
The verses of appeal in the Iliad unequivocally prescribe the way in which the Greeks, the paradigm people of Western civilization, are sup- posed to confront the entry of rage into the life of mortals: with the kind of amazement that is appropriate for an apparition. The first plea of our cultural tradition--is this "our" still valid? --asks the divine world to sup- port the song of the rage of a unique fighter. What is remarkable is that the singer does not aim for any extenuation. Starting with the first lines, he emphasizes the baleful force of heroic rage: wherever it manifests itself, it unleashes its power on all sides. The Greeks themselves have to suffer even more from it than the Trojans. Already in the very beginning of the unraveling war, Achilles' rage turns against his own people. It is enlisted on the Greek front again only shortly before the decisive battle. The tone of the first verses sets up the program: in contradistinction to their general presentation as mere ghostly shadows, the souls of the beaten heroes, which are mentioned extensively here, descend into Hades. In Hades their lifeless
2
? INTRODUCTION
bodies--Homer refers to these bodies as "they"--are devoured by birds and dogs under the open sky.
The voice of the singer passes over the horizon of existence from which he can report such things. It is a euphoric and balanced voice. To be Greek and to listen to this voice mean the same thing in classical antiquity. When- ever one hears it, one immediately knows that war and peace are names for the phases of a life in which the ultimate significance of death is never in question. Death meets the hero early. This, too, belongs to the messages of the hero's song. If the expression "glorification of violence" ever had a meaning, it would be fitting for this entry into the oldest record of Euro- pean culture. However, this expression would mean almost the opposite of what is implied by its contemporary, inevitably disapproving usage. To sing of rage means to make rage noteworthy, to make it worthy of being thought (denkwurdig). However, what is noteworthy is in proximity to what is impressive and permanently praiseworthy--we could almost say: it is close to the Good. These valuations are so thoroughly opposed to modern ways of thinking and feeling that one probably has to admit that an authen- tic access to the intimate meaning of the Homeric understanding of rage will remain closed off to us.
Only indirect approximations will help us move further. At least we understand that what we are dealing with is not the holy rage of which bibli- cal sources speak. Nor are we confronted with the outrage of the prophet in the face of atrocities against the gods. It is not the rage of Moses, who smashes the tablets while the people bask in front of the golden calf. Nor is it the languishing hatred of the psalmist who cannot wait for the day when the just one will bathe his feet in the blood of the sinners (Psalms 58:10-11). The rage of Achilles also has little in common with the anger of Yahweh, the early and yet rather unsublime God of thunder and deserts, the one who leads the people through their exodus as the "God that bristles with anger" and destroys their persecutors in thunderstorms and floods. 1 However, nei- ther are we confronted by profane fits of human rage, which the later Soph- ists and philosophical teachers of morals have in mind when they preach the ideal of self-restraint.
The truth is that Homer moves within a world that is characterized by an appreciation of war without limitations. However dark the horizon of this universe of battles and deaths might be, the basic tone of the presentation is determined by the pride ofbeing allowed to be a witness to such spectacles and such fates. The illuminating visibility of these spectacles and fates reconciles
3
? INTRODUCTION
with the harshness of reality. This is what Nietzsche referred to as "Apollo- nian. " No modern human being can put himself back into a time where the concepts of war and happiness formed a meaningful constellation. For the first listeners of Homer, however, war and happiness are inseparable. The bond between them is founded upon the ancient cult of heroes. We moderns know this cult only within the square brackets of historical education.
For the ancients this heroism was no subtle attitude but the most vital of all possible responses to the facts of life. A world without heroes would have been worth nothing in their view. Such a world would have meant a state in which human beings would have been exposed to the monarchy of nature without any resistance. In such a world, physis would cause everything while human beings would not be capable of anything. The hero, however, is liv- ing proof that acts and deeds are also to be done by human beings as long as divine favor allows for them. The early heroes are celebrated solely as doers of deeds and achievers of acts. Their deeds testify to what is most valuable. They testify to what mortals, then and now, are able to experi- ence: that a clearing of impotence and indifference has been brushed into the bush of natural condition. In accounts of actions, the first happy mes- sage that shines through is: there is more happening under the sun than what one is indifferent to and what always remains the same. Because true actions have been done the accounts of them answer the question, "Why do human beings do something at all rather than nothing? " Human beings do something so that the world will be expanded through something new and worthy of being praised. Because those that accomplished the new were representatives of humankind, even if extraordinary ones, for the rest as well an access to pride and amazement opens up when they hear about the deeds and sufferings of the heroes.
The new, however, may not appear in the form of the news of the day. In order to be legitimate, it has to disguise itself as the prototypical, oldest, and eternally recurring. It also needs to invoke the long anticipated approval of the gods. If the new presents itself in the form of prehistoric events, myth comes into existence. The epic is the more flexible, broader, and more sol- emn form of myth, a form that is fitting for presentation in castles, on vil- lage squares, and in front of early city audiences. 2
The demand for the hero is the precondition for everything that follows. Only because the terrifying rage of heroes is indispensable may the singer turn to the goddess in order to engage her for twenty-four songs. If this rage, which the goddess is supposed to help to sing to, were not itself of a
4
? INTRODUCTION
higher nature, the thought to appeal to it would already be an act of blas- phemy. Only because there is a form of rage that is granted from above is it legitimate to involve the gods in the fierce affairs of human beings. Who sings under such premises about rage celebrates a force that frees human beings from vegetative numbness. This force elevates human beings, who are covered by a high, watchful sky. The inhabitants of the earth draw breath since they can imagine that the gods are viewers, taking delight in the mundane comedy.
Understanding these circumstances, which have become distant to us, can be simplified by indicating that according to the conception of the ancients the hero and his singer correspond with each other in an authentic religious bond. Religiosity is human beings' agreement with their nature as mediums. It is generally known that mediate talents travel separate paths. These ways can, however, intersect at important junctures. "Media" plural- ism is thus a fact that reaches back to early conditions of culture. However, at these early times media were not technical instruments but human beings themselves, including their organic and spiritual potential. Just as the singer could be the mouthpiece of a singing force, the hero feels himself the arm of rage, the rage that achieved the noteworthy actions. The larynx of the one and the arm of the other together form a hybrid body. The arm to hold the sword belongs more to the god than to the fighter himself. The god influ- ences the human world through the detour of secondary causes. Of course, the arm to hold the sword also belongs to the singer, to whom the hero, and all his weapons, owe the immortal fame. Hence the connection of god- hero-singer constitutes the first effective media network. In the thousand years after Homer, Achilles is a topic in the Mediterranean time and again. People address Achilles' usefulness for the war-loving muses.
It is not necessary to dwell on the fact that nowadays no one is able to think authentically, perhaps with the exception of some inhabitants of the esoteric highlands where the reenchantment of the world has further pro- gressed. We have not only stopped to judge and feel like the peoples of old, we secretly despise them for remaining "children of their time. " We despise them for remaining captivated by a form of heroism that we can only expe- rience as archaic and unfitting. What could one object to Homer from the vantage point of the present and the conventions of the lowlands? Should one accuse him of violating human rights by conceiving individuals all too directly as media of higher commanding beings? Should one accuse him of disregarding the integrity of victims by celebrating the forces that caused
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? INTRODUCTION
them harm? Or should one accuse him of neutralizing the arbitrary violence of war, of transforming its results immediately into divine judgments? Or would one have to soften the allegation to claim that the god has become a victim of impatience. Would we have to claim that he did not possess the patience to wait until the Sermon on the Mount and that he did not read Seneca's De ira, the exposition of the stoic control of affects, which served as a model for Christian and humanistic ethics?
Within Homer's horizon there is, of course, no point where objections of this kind could successfully gain hold. The song concerning the heroic energy of a warrior, with which the epos of the ancients starts out, elevates rage to the rank of a substance, out of which the world is formed. This requires that we admit that "world" delineates the circle of shapes and scenes of the ancient, Hellenic life of aristocratic warriors during the first millennium before the Christian calendar. One is inclined to think that such a worldview has become obsolete since, at the latest, the time of the Enlightenment. How- ever, to fully reject this image characterized by the priority of struggle will probably be harder for the contemporary realist than the current widespread feeling of pacifism wants to make us believe. Moderns did not fully neglect the task of thinking war. Indeed, this task has for a long time been associ- ated with the male order of cultivation. 3 Students of antiquity have already been measured against the standard of thinking war. This was the case when the upper class of Rome, together with the other Greek models of culture, imported the epic bellicosity of their teachers. The Roman upper class did not at all forget its own rooted militarism. Similarly, since the Renaissance, generation after generation of the youth of Europe learned about this mili- tarism after the exemplary character of the Greeks had again been set up as a guide in the educational system of the newly formed national states. This had far-reaching consequences. Could it be possible that the so-called world wars of the twentieth century also represented, among other things, repetitions of the Trojan War? They were organized by a group of generals, and didn't the leading generals on both sides of the enemy lines understand themselves as virtually the most excellent of the ancients? Didn't these gen- erals understand themselves as the descendents of the raging Achilles and as bearers of an athletic and patriotic vocation to gain victory and enjoy fame by posterity? 4 The immortal hero dies countless times.
The question of whether Homer, just as after him Heraclitus and much later Hegel, believed that war is the father of all things remains open. It is also uncertain--and probably even unlikely--that Homer, the patriarch of
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the historiography of war and the teacher of Greek to countless generations, possessed a conception of "history" or "civilization. " The only thing that is certain is that the universe of the Iliad is woven completely out of the deeds and sufferings of rage (menis), just as the somewhat younger Odyssey is an exercise in listing the deeds and sufferings of cunningness (metis). Accord- ing to the ancient ontology, the world is the sum total of the battles that take place in it. Epic rage appears like a primary energy to its singer, a primary energy that swells by itself, undeducible, like the storm and the sunlight; it is an active force in quintessential shape. Because this energy can rightly claim the predicate first substance "from itself," it precedes all of its local provoca- tions. The hero and his menis constitute for Homer an inseparable couple. According to this preestablished union, every deduction of rage from its external provocations becomes superfluous.
