This cause,
precedes; ill changes but tubjectiv tly, as the highest member in the and in consciousness, the representa
tion oftime, like every other, given series of the causes of cosmical
aolely occasion of perception.
precedes; ill changes but tubjectiv tly, as the highest member in the and in consciousness, the representa
tion oftime, like every other, given series of the causes of cosmical
aolely occasion of perception.
Kant - Critique of Pure Reason
I Antithesis.
' concept ion of a given object of
external intuition (of the com posite), but we were obliged to prove it from the relation of a given object to a possible
i experience in general. Ojbsebtations on the Second Antinomy.
I.
On the Thesis.
II.
On the Antithesis.
? When I speak of a whole,
which necessarily consists of infinite subdivisibility of mat simple parts, I understand ter, whose ground of proof is thereby only a substantial purely mathematical, objec whole, as the true composite ; tions have been alleged by the that is to say, I understand Monadists. These objections that contingent unity of the lay themselves open, at first manifold which is given as per sight, to suspicion, from the fectly isolated (at least in fact that they do not recog thought), placed in reciprocal nize the clearest mathematical connection, and thus consti proofs as propositions relating tuted a unity. Space ought to the constitution of space, in not to be called a compositum so far as it is really the formal but a totum, for its parts are condition of the possibility of possible in the whole, and not all matter, but regard them the whole by means of the merely as inferences from ab
parts. It might perhaps be stract but arbitrary concep called a compositum ideate, but tions, which cannot have any not a compositum reale. But application to real things. this is of no importance. As Just as if it were possible to space is not a composite of imagine another mode of in ? tibstances (and not even of tuition than that given in the real accidents), if I abstract primitive intuition of space ; all composition therein, -- no and just as if its << priori de thing, not even a point, re terminations did not apply to mains ; for a point is possible everything, the existence of only as the limit of a space, -- . which is possible, from the fact
consequently of a composite. : alone of its filling space. If we Space arid time, therefore, do listen to them, we shall find
Against the assertion of the
? ? ? OBaEBVATtONS ON TUB SECOND AKTIXOlir.
Thetis. Antithesis.
275
not consist of simple parts. ourselves required to cogitate, That which belongs only to in addition to the mathemati the condition or state of a cal point, which is simple -- substance, even although it not, however, a part, but a possesses a quantity (motion mere limit of space -- physical or change, for example), like points, wkich are indeed like wise does not consist of simple wise simple, but possess the parts. That is to say, a cer peculiar property, as parts of tain degree of change does not space, of filling it merely by originate from the addition of their aggregation. I shall not many simple changes. Our repeat here the common and inference of the simple from clear refutations of this ab the composite is valid only of surdity, which are to be found self-subsisting things. But everywhere in numbers : every the accidents of a state are not one knows that it is impossi self-subsistent. The proof, ble to undermine the evidence then, for the necessity of the of mathematics by mere dis simple, as the component part cursive conceptions ; I shall of all that is substantial and only remark, that, if in this composite, may prove a failure, case philosophy endeavours to and the whole case of this the gain an advantage over mathe sis be lost, if we carry the pro matics by sophistical artifices, position too far, and wish to it is because it forgets that the make it valid of everything discussion relates solely to phe that is composite without dis nomena and their conditions. tinction --as indeed has really It is not sufficient to find the now and then happened. Be conception of the simple for
sides, I am here speaking only the pure conception of the com of the simple, in so far as it posite, but we must discover is necessarily given in the com for the intuition of the compo posite -- the latter being capa site (matter), the intuition of ble of solution into the former the simple. Now this, ac as its component parts. The cording to the laws of sensi proper signification of the bility, and consequently in the word monas (as employed by case of objects of sense, is ut
? ought to relate to terly impossible. In the case the simple, given immediately of a whole composed of sub as simple substance (for ex stances, which is cogitated ample, in consciousness), and solely by the pure understand not as an elemeut of the ing, it may be necessary to ba
Leibnitz)
? ? ? 376
Thetis.
composite. As an element, the term atomus* would be
Antithesis.
in possession of the simple W fore composition is possible.
TRAWSCKNDEKTAL DIALECTIC.
more appropriate. And as I
wish to prove the existence of
simple substances, only in re nomenon, which, as an empi lation to, and as the elements rical intuition in space, pos
of, the composite, I might
term the antithesis of the se
cond Antinomy, transcenden
tal Atomistic. But as this
word has long been employed
to designate a particular theory
of corporeal pbenomena (mo- this difficulty, by presupposing leculte), and thus presupposes intuition and the dynamical a basis of empirical concep relation of substances as the tions, I prefer calling it the condition of the possibility of dialectical principle of Mona-
dology.
? A inaicaline formed by Kant,
instead of the common neuter ato- bodies. Now we have con
mon, which is generally translated
in the scholastic philosophy by the
terms imeparaiite, inditeernibile,
timpltx. Kant wished to have a
term opposed to moruu, and so hit ns the condition of all external upon this U7ra? Xiyi/ifvov. With phenomena. The evasion
Drmocriti s aropoc, and with Cicero therefore in vain as, indeed, alomuM is feminine. --Nttt *y Ko- we have sufficiently shown in
tnUtrauM.
our ^Esthetic. If bodies were things in thems, ies, the proof of the Monadists would be un exceptionable.
The second dialectical as sertion possesses the peculi arity of having opposed to dogmatical proposition, which, among all such sophistical statements, the only one that undertakes to prove the case of an object of experience,
But this does not hold good
of the Totum substantiate phe
sesses the necessary property of containing no simple part, for the very reason, that no
? part of space is simple. Mean while, the Monadists have been subtle enough to escape from
space, instead of regarding space as the condition of the possibility of the objects of
intuition, that of
external
ception of bodies only as phe-
nomena, and, as such, necessarily presuppose space
they
? ? 1
in
it a
a is, is
is
.
;
? OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECOND ANTINOMY 277
Thcss.
Antithesis.
that which is properly a trans
cendental idea -- the absolute
simplicity of substance. The } proposition that the object
of the internal sense, the think ing Ego, an absolute simple substance. Without at present entering upon this subject -- as has been considered at length in former chapter -- shall merely remark, that, something cogitated merely as an object, without the addi tion of any synthetical determi nation of its intuition -- as hap pens the case of the bare representation, --ifls certain that no manifold and no com position can be perceived such representation. As, moreover, the predicates where
cogitate this object are merely intuitions of the in ternal sense, there cannot be discovered in them anything to prove the existence of manifold whose parts are ex ternal to each other, and con. sequently, nothing to prove the existence of real compo sition. Consciousness, there fore, so constituted, that, inasmuch as the thinking sub ject at the same time its own object, cannot divide itself--although can divide . ts inhering determinations.
For every object in relation to itself absolute unity. Never theless, the subject re-
? ? ? if
is
is
is,
is
is isis
a in
it I it
by I
it a
a h\ ifI
? 278
TRAtfflCEKDEXTAi DIALECTIC.
Antithesis.
( gsrded externally, as an object I of intuitioD, it must, in its
character of
possess the property of com position. And it must always be regarded in this manner, if we wish to know, whether there is or is not contained in it a manifold whose parts are external to each other.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. THIBI) CONFLICT OF TRANSCEKDENTAIi IDEAS.
Thesis.
Causality according to the laws of nature, is not the only
causality operating to originate the phenomena of the world. A causality of freedom is also necessary to account fully for these phenomena.
Pbooj.
causality, operating to produce events in the world -- a faculty,
that is to say, of originating a state, and consequently a series ofconsequences fromthatstate. In this case, not only the series originated by this spontaneity,
spontaneity itself to the pro duction of the series, that is to say, the causality itself must have au absolute commence,
phenomenon,
? Antithesis.
There is no such thing as
freedom, but everything in the
world happens solely accord ing to the laws of nature.
Proof.
Granted, that there does ex
istfreedom in the transcenden
tal sense, as a peculiar kind of
Let it be supposed, that there
is no other kind of causality
than that according to the laws
of nature. Consequently, every
thing that happens presuppo
ses a previous condition, which
it follows with absolute certain
ty, in eonformity with a rule. but the determination of this But this previous condition
must itself be something that
has happened (that has arisen
in time, as it did not exist be
fore), for, if it has always been ment, such, that nothing can in existence, its consequence precede to determine this action or effect would not thus origi according to unvarying laws.
nate for the first time, but | But every beginning of action
? ? ? Thesis.
would likewise have always ex
isted. The causality, there
fore, of a cause, whereby some
presupposes the acting cause state of inaction and
namically primal beginning of
THIBD AirriNOMT. 279 Antithesis.
thing happens, is itself a thing action presupposes state,
that lias happened. Now this which has no connection --as
again presupposes, in confor regards causality -- with the mity with the law of nature, a preceding state of the cause, previous condition and its caus --which does not, that in ality, and this another anterior any wise result from it. Tran to the former, and so on. If, scendental freedom therefore then. everythinghappens solely opposed to the natural law of in accordance with the laws of cause and effect, and such nature, there cannot be any conjunction of successive states real first beginning of things, effective causes destructive but only a subaltern or com of the possibility of unity in parative beginning. There experience, and for that reason cannot, therefore, be a com not to be found in experience pleteness of series on the side --isconsequentlya mere fiction of the causes which originate of thought.
? the one from the other. But We have, therefore, nothing the law of nature that no but nature, to which we must thing can happen without look for connection and order sufficient a priori determined in cosmical events. Freedom -- cause. The proposition, there independence of the laws of fore -- all causality possible nature -- certainly deliver only in accordance with the ance from restraint, but
laws of nature -- when stated also relinquishing of the gui in this unlimited and general dance of law and rule. For manner, self-contradictory. cannot be alleged, that, in follows that this cannot be the stead of the laws of nature, only kind of causality. laws of freedom may be intro
From what has been said, duced into the causality of the follows that causality must course of nature. For, free be admitted, means of which dom were determined accord something happens, without ing to laws, would be no its cause being determined ac longer freedom, but merely cording to necessary laws by nature. Nature, therefore, and some other cause preceding. transcendental freedom are dis That to say, there must ex- tinguishable as conformity to Ut an absolute spontaneity of law and lawlessness. The for.
? ? is
if
by a
it
if
in
is,
is
is,
itIt a it
in
a
a
is
a
a
a
it
is a
is,
is
is
;
dy
? 280 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
Thesis. Antithesis.
cause, which of itself origi uier imposes upon understand nates a series of phenomena ing the difficulty of seeking which proceeds according to the origin of events ever higher natural laws, -- consequently and higher in the series of transcendental freedom, with causes, inasmuch as causality out which even in the course of is always conditioned thereby ; nature the succession of phe whileit compensates this labour nomena on the side of causes by the guarantee of a unity
is never complete.
[ complete and in conformity with law. The latter, on the contrary, holds out to the un-
| derstanding the promise of a point of rest in the chain of causes, by conducting it to an unconditioned causality, which professes to have the power of spontaneous origination, but which, in its own utter blind ness, deprives it of the guidance of rules, by which alone a completely connected experi ence is possible.
? Obskrvitions ok mi Third Antinomy.
I. II.
On the Thesis. On the Antithesis
The transcendental idea of The assertor of the nll-suf
freedom is far from constitut ficiency of nature in regard tc
ing the entire content of the causality (transcendental Phy-
psychological conception so siocracy), in opposition to the termed, which is for the most doctrine of freedom, would de
part empirical. It merely pre fend his view of the question
sents us with the conception of somewhat in the
following of action, as the manner. He would say, in an
spontaneity
proper ground for imputing swer to the sophistical argu freedom to the cause of a ments of the opposite party certain class of objects. Jt If you do not accept mathe however, the true stumbling- matical first, in relation to stone to philosophy, which time, you have no need to seek meets with unconquerable dif- dynnmitnl fi'st, regard to
? ? is, a
in
a
:
? OB8EKTATION8 ON THH TIIIRD AKTINOUT. 281
Thetis. Antithesis.
ficulties in the way of its ad causality. Who compelled yon mitting this kind of uncondi to imagine an absolutely pri
tioned causality. That ele ment in the question of the freedom of the will, which has for so long a time placed
mal condition of the world, and therewith an absolute be ginning of the gradually pro
mena -- and, as some founda perplexity, is properly only tion for this fancy of yours, transcendental, and concerns to set bounds to unlimited
speculative
reason in such
the question, whether there
must be held to exist a fa
culty of spontaneous origi
nation of a series of successive unity of experience renders things or states. How such a I such a supposition quite neces faculty is possible, is not a I sary --there is no difficulty in necessary inquiry ; for in the believing also, that the changes case of natural causality it- in the conditions of these sub self, we are obliged to content stances have always existed ; ourselves with the a priori and, consequently, that a first knowledge that such a causa beginning, mathematical or lity must be presupposed, al dynamical, is by no means re
though we are quite incapable quired. The possibility of of comprehending how the such an infinite derivation, being of one thing is possible without any initial member through the being of another, from which all the others but must for this information result, is certainly quite in look entirely to experience. comprehensible. But if you Now we have demonstrated are rash enough to deny the this necessity of a free first enigmatical secrets of nature beginning of a series of phse- for this reason, you will nomena, only in so far as it i find yourselves obliged to is required for the compre- ' deny also the existence of hension of an origin of the many fundamental properties world, all following states of natural objects (such as being regarded as a succession fundamental forces), which according to laws of nature you can just as little compre alone. But, as there has thus hend ; and even the possi been proved the existence of bility of so simple a concep
a faculty which can of itself tion as that of change must originate a series in tims -- al- present to y? u insuperable dif-
gressing successions of pheno-
nature? Inasmuch as the substancss in the world have always existed--at least the
? ? ? ? 282 TRANBCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
Then*. Antithetic.
though ire are unable to ex Acuities. For if experience plain how it can exist --we did not teach you that it w<<s feel ourselves authorised to ad real, you never could conceive mit, even in the midst of the a priori the possibility of this natural course of events, a be ceaseless sequence of being and ginning, as regards causality, non-being.
of different successions of phe But if the existence of a nomena, and at the same time transcendental faculty of free to attribute to all substances dom is granted --a faculty of n faculty of free action. But
we ought in this case not to
allow ourselves to fall into
a common misunderstanding,
and to suppose that, because
a successive series in the
world can only have a compara
tively first beginning --another
state or condition of things exists an object which cannot always preceding -- an abso be presented in any possible lutely first beginning of a series perception. But, to attribute in the course of nature is im to substances in the world it possible. For we are not self such a faculty, is quite speaking here of an absolutely inadmissible ; for, in this case, first beginning in relation to the connection of phsenomena time, but as regards causality reciprocally determining and alone. When, for example, I, determined according to gene- completely of my own free I ral laws, which is termed na will, and independently of the ture, and along with it the necessarily determinative in criteria of empirical truth, fluence of natural causes, rise which enable us to distinguish from my chair, there com experience from mere visionary mences with this event, includ dreaming, would almost en ing its material consequences tirely disappear. In proxi in infinitum, an absolutely new mity with such a law less fa series ; although, in relation to culty of freedom, a system of time, this event is merely the nature is hardly cogitable ; continuation of a preceding for the laws of the latter would series. For this resolution be continually subject to the and act of mine do not form intrusive influences of the
part of the succession of effects 1 former, and the gf ' course
originating changes in the world--this faculty must at least exist out of and apart from the world ; although it is certainly a bold assump tion, that, over and above the complete content of all pos sible intuitions, there still
? ? ? ? OBSERVATIONS ON THE THIRD ANTINOMY. 283
Thesis. Antithesis.
in nature, and are not mere phenomena,whichwould other- continuations of it; on the wise proceed regularly and uni- contrary, the determining formly, would become there-
causes of nature cease to ope- rate in reference to this event, which certainly succeeds the acts of nature, but does not proceed from them. For these reasons, the action of a free agent must be termed, in re gard to causality, if not in re lation to time, an absolutely primal beginning of a series of phenomena.
The justification of this need of reason to rest upon a free act as the first beginning of the series of natural causes, is evident from the fact, that all philosophers of antiquity
curean school) felt themselves
by confused and disconnected,
? when constructing t theory of the motions of the universe, to accept a prime
mover, that freely acting cause, which spontaneously and prior to all other causes evolved this series of states.
obliged,
felt the need of mere nature,
They always
going beyond
for the purpose of making
first beginning comprehensi- ble.
? ? a
is, a
? 284 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON.
FOUBTH CONFLICT OF TH<< TBAN8CENDENTAL IDEA*.
Thesis.
There exists either in, or in An absolutely necessary being
connection with the world-- does not exist, either in the
either as n part of or as the cause of -- an absolutely ne cessary being.
Pboof.
The world of sense, as the
world, or outof --as its cause.
Pboof.
Grant that either the world
itself necessary, or that there
contained in necessa-y
sum-total of all phenomena, existence. Two cases are pos
contains series of changes. sible. First, there must either For, without such series, the he in the series of cosmical mental representation of the changes beginning, which series of time itself, as the con unconditionally necessary, and dition of the possibility of the therefore uncaused --which sensuous world, could not be at variance with the dynamical presented to us. * But every law of the determination of all change stands under its con phsenomena in time; or se dition, which precedes condly, the series itself with time and renders neces out beginning, and, although sary. Now the existence of contingent and conditioned
ditioned, which alone ab self-oontradictory. For the solutely necessary. fol existence of an aggregate can lows that something that not be necessary, no single absolutely necessary must exist, part of possesses necessary
given conditions presuppose
complete series of conditions absolutely necessary and un up to the absolutely uncon conditioned as whole --which
existence.
quence. But this necessary Grant on the other hand,
that an absolutely necessary Objectively, time, as the formal cause eiists out of and apart condition of the possibility of change, from the world.
This cause,
precedes; ill changes but tubjectiv tly, as the highest member in the and in consciousness, the representa
tion oftime, like every other, given series of the causes of cosmical
aolely occasion of perception. changes, must originate or be-
*
change exists as its conse
Antithesis.
? all its parts, nevertheless
? ? by
is
It is
it
;
if
is aain is
is
it a
a if
is
it a
it
is
iu isis
a
it,
a it
it
is
? roumn antinomy, 385
Thesis. | Antithesis.
tiling itself belongs to the gin* the existence of the latter sensuous world. For suppose and their series. In this caso it to exist out of and apart must also begin to act, and from the series of cosmical its causality would therefore changes would receive from belong to time, and conse
beginning, and yet this ne quently to the sura-total of cessary cause would not itself phsenomena, that to the belong to the world of sense. world. follows that the
cause cannot be out of the world which contradictory to the hypothesis. Therefore, neither in the world, nor out
But this impossible. For, as
the beginning of series in
time determined only that
which precedes time, the
supreme condition of the be of (but in causal connec ginning of series of changes tion with it), does there ex must exist in the time which
? this series itself did not exist
for beginning supposes time
preceding, in which the thing
ist aBy absolutely necessary being.
that begins to be was not
existence. The causality of being regarded as beginning series
the necessary cause of changes, and consequently the cause self, must for these reasons he- long to time--and to phseno-
mena, time being possible only as the form of phenomena.
therefore, contained in the
world, something that abso
lutelynecessary-- whether be the whole cosmical series iUelf, or only a part of it.
of conditions as its effect (infil). 1'he second passive --the causality in the cause itself beginning to 01<<- rate (Jit). reason here from he first to the second.
It may be doubted whether there any passage to be found in the Latin Classics where infil em ployed in any other than neuter sense, as in Plautus, " Infil me per- contarier. " The second significa tion of iryin (anfangen) we shoul4 rather term aeuier. -- 7K
Consequently,
cogitated as separated from the world of sense, --the sum- total of all phenomena. There
cannot be
The word begin taken in two senses. The first active --the cause
? ? is it
a in ;
in by
is,
a
it,
a
is
a f
it
it
it
it
f* is
it
I is
It
I
is
is
is
is,
a
is
is
a
a in
it
;
? 286 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC. Observations on the Fourth Antinomt.
II.
On the Antithesis.
To demonstrate the exist
ence of a necessary being, I us, in our attempt to rise through cannot be permitted in this the scries of phsenomena to the place to employ any other existence of an absolutely ne than the cosmological argu cessary supreme cause, must ment, which ascends from the not originate from our inabi conditioned in phsenomena to lity to establish the truth of the unconditioned in concep our mere conceptions of the tion --the unconditioned being necessary existence of a thing. considered the necessary con That is to say, our objec dition of the absolute totality tions must not be ontological, of the series. The proof, but must be directed against from the mere idea of a su the causal connection with a preme being, belongs to ano series of phsenomena of a con ther principle of reason, and dition which is itself uncon requires separate discussion. ditioned. In one word, they
I.
On the Thesis.
The pure cosmological proof must be cosmological, and re demonstrates the existence of late to empirical laws. We a necessary being, but nt the must show that the regress in same time leaves it quite un the series of causes (in the settled, -whether this being is
the world itself, or quite dis
tinct from it. To establish
the truth of the latter view,
principles are requisite, which
are not cosmological, and do
not proceed in the series of
phsenomena. We should re --does not justify us in ac
cepting a first cause, that prime originator of the cos
mical series.
The reader will observein this
to introduce into our
quire
proof conceptions
of contin
ing, and also a principle which
gent beings -- regarded merely as objects of the understand
antinomy very remarkable enables us to connect these, contrast. Theverysamegrounda
by means of mere conceptions, of proof which established with a necessary being. But the thesis the existence of su
The difficulties which meet
? world of sense) cannot con clude with an empirically un conditioned condition, and that the
cosmological argument from the contingency of the cosmical state --a contingency alleged to arise from change
? ? a
in
is,
a
a
? OBSEBVAtlOttS OS I1IE fOUMH AUTlNOMf. 287
Thesis. Antithesis.
the proper place for all such preme being, demonstrated in arguments is a transcendent the antithesis --and with equal philosophy, which has unhap strictness --the non-existence pily not yet heen established. of such a being. We found,
But, if we begin our proof first, that a necessary being cosmologically, by laying at exists, because the whole time the foundation of it the series past contains the series of all of phenomena, and the regress conditions, and with there in it according to empirical fore, the unconditioned (the laws of causality, we are not at necessary) secondly, that iiberty to break off from this there does not exist any neces mode of demonstration and to sary being, for the same reason, pass over to something which that the whole time past con is not itself a member of the tains the series of all condi series. The condition must tions -- which are themselves be taken in exactly the same therefore, in the
? aggregate, signification as the relation of conditioned. The cause of the conditioned to its condi this seeming incongruity as
tion in the series has been follows. We attend, iu the taken, for the series must con first argument, solely to the duct us in an unbroken re absolute totality of the series gress to this supreme condi of conditions, the one of which tion. But if this relation is determines the other in time, sensuous, and belongs to the and thus arrive at
necessary possible empirical employment unconditioned. In the second, of the understanding, the su we consider, on the contrary,
preme condition or cause must the contingency of everything close the regressive series ac that determined in the series cording to the laws of sensi time -- for every event bility, and consequently must preceded time, in which belong to the series of time. the condition itself must be It follows that this necessary determined as conditioned --
existence must be regarded as the highest member of the cosmical series.
and thus everything that unconditioned or absolutely necessary disappears. In both, the mode of proof quite in
Certaiu philosophers have,
nevertheless, allowed them accordance with the common selves the liberty of making procedure of human reason, such a sail us (jitrafiatit ilf which often falls into discord aXX* From the changes with itself, from considering
? ? is
a
is
is
[
of
by a
;
is
is
it,
? 288 f ttA>>8CE>>DE>>tAL DIALECTIC
Thesis. Antithetu.
in the world they have con an object from two different cluded their empirical contin points of view. Herr von gency, that their depend Mairan regarded the contro ence on empirically-determined versy between two celebrated causes, and they thus admitted astronomers, which arose from an ascending series of empi similar difficulty as to thf rical conditions and in this choice of proper stand-point, they are quite right. But as as phenomenon of sufficient they could not find in this importance to warrant sepa series any primal begiuning rate treatise on the subject. or any highest member, they The one concluded the moon passed suddenly from the em revolves on its own axis, be pirical conception of contin cause constantly presents gency to the pure category, the same side to the earth which--presents us with the other declared that the series not sensuous, but intel moon does not revolve on iti
? lectual -- whose completeness
does certainly rest upon the
existence of an absolutely ne
cessary cause. Nay, more, this intellectual series not tied to
any sensuous conditions and sidered.
therefore free from the con dition of time, which requires
spontaneously to begin its causality in time. -- But such
inad missible, as will be made plain
procedure perfectly
from what follows.
In the pure sense of the
categories, that contingent, the contradictory opposite of which possible. Now we cannot reason from empirical
to intellectual. The opposite of that which
contingency
chsnged -- the opposite of its state -- actual at (mother time, and therefore possible. Consequently, is not the
own axis, for the same reason. B. th conclusions were per fectly correct, according to the point of view from which the motions of the moot were con
? ? is is it
is
is is
is,
;
is a! a
it is
is
;
it
:
a
:
a a
a
? OBSBBVATIONS ON THE FOURTH ANTIWOMT.
289
Thesis. eontradicfDry opposite of the
,
Antithesis.
former state.
is necessary that in the same 1 time in which the preceding state existed, its opposite could have existed in its place ; but such u cognition is not given
us in the mere phenomenon of change. A body that was in motion=^/, comes into a state of rest= non-A. Now it can not be concluded from the
lowed the state of motion; con sequently, that was also pos sible. But motion at one time, and rest at another time, arc not contradictorily opposed to each other.
follows front what has been said, thatthe suc
cession of opposite determina
tions, that
demonstrate the fact of con
tingency as represented the conceptions of the pure under
standing and that cannot,
To be that, it |
? fact that a state opposite to the state A follows that the contradictory opposite of possible and that A there fore
contingent. To prove this, we should require to know
that the state
have existed in the very same time in which the motion took place. Now we know nothing more than that the state of rest was actual in the time that fol
of rest could
change, does not
therefore,
fact of the existence of ne
cessary being.
Change proves
conduct us to the
? ? ;; is,
it
a in
it,
It
it
is
A is
? SM TRAK8CEKDENTAI.
Thesis.
merely empirical contingency, that is to say, that the new state could not have existed without a cause, which belongs to the preceding time. This cause --even although it is re garded as absolutely necessary --must be presented to us in time, and must belong to the scries of phenomena.
DIALECTIC. Antithesis.
? ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Thibd.
Of the Interest of Reason in these Self-contradictions.
We have thus completely before us the dialectical procedure of the cosmological ideas. No possible experience can present us with an object adequate to them in extent. Nay, more, reason itself eannot cogitate them as according with the general laws of experience. And yet they are not arbitrary fictions of thought. On the contrary, reason, in its uninterrupted pro gress in the empirical synthesis, is necessarily conducted to tliem, when it endeavours to free from all conditions and to comprehend in its unconditioned totality, that which can only be determined conditionally in accordance with the laws of ex
perience. These dialectical propositions are so many attempts to solve four natural and unavoidable problems of reason. --There are neither more, nor can there be less, than this number, because there are no other series of synthetical hy potheses, limiting & priori the empirical synthesis.
The brilliant claims of reason striving to extend its do minion beyond the limits of experience, have been represented above only in dry formule, which contain merely the ground* of its pretensions. They have, besides, in conformity with the character of a transcendental philosophy, been freed from every empirical element ; although the full splendour of the promises they hold out, and the anticipations they excite, mani fests itself only when in connection with empirical cognitions.
In ' he application of tlicm, however, and in the advancing eu
? ? ? OF TUV. INTEHEST OK REABON IK THE ANTINOMIES. 291
largement of the employment of reason, while struggling to rise from the region of experience And to soar to those sub lime ideas, philosophy discovers a value and a dignity, which, if it could but mak* good its assertions, would raise it far above all other departments of human knowledge -- professing, as it does, to present a sure foundation for our highest hopes and the ultimate aims of all the exertions of reason. The questions : whether the world has a beginning and a limit to its extension in space ; whether there exists anywhere, or per haps, in my own thinking Self an indivisible and indestructible unity--or whether nothing but what is divisible and transitory exists ; whether I am a free agent, or, like other beings, am bound in the chains of nature and fate ; whether, finally, there is a supreme cause of the world, or all our thought and spe culation must end with nature and the order of external things --are questions, for the solution of which the mathematician would willingly exchange his whole science ; for in it there is no satisfaction for the highest aspirations and most ardent desires of humanity. Nay, it may even be said that the true value of mathematics --that pride of human reason -- con sists in this : that she guides reason to the knowledge of nature --in her greater, as well as in her less manifestations -- in her beautiful order and regularity, -- guides her, moreover, to an insight into the wonderful unity of the moving forces in the operations of nature, far beyond the expectations of a
experience ; and that she thus encourages philosophy to extend the province of reason beyond all experience, and at the same time provides it with the most
excellent materials for supporting its investigations, in so far as their nature admits, by adequate and accordant intui
tions. --
? but perhaps fortunately for the practical interests of humanity -- reasin, in the midst of her highest anticipations, finds herself hemmed in by a press of opposite and contradictory conclusions, from which neither
her honour nor her safety wUl permit her to draw back. Nor nan she regard these conflicting trains of reasoning with in difference as mere passages at arms, still less can she command peace ; for in the subject of the conflict she has a deep inte rest. There is no other course left open to her, than to reflect with herself upon the origin of this disunion in reason --
V2
Unfortunately for speculation
? ? ? 292
TBAJTSCENDEKTAL DIALECTIC.
whether it may not arise from a mere misunderstanding. Aftet such an inquiry, arrogant claims would have to be given up on both sides ; but the sovereignty of reason over understanding and sense would be based upon a sure foundation.
We shall at present defer this radical inquiry, and in the meantime consider for a little --what side in the controversy we should most willingly take, if we were obliged to become partisans at nll. As, in this case, we leave out of sight alto gether the logical criterion of truth, and merely consult our own interest in reference to the question, these considerations, although inadequate to settle the question of right in either party, will enable us to comprehend, how those who have taken part in the struggle, adopt the one view rather than the other
? --no special insight into the subject, however, having influenced their choice. They will, at the same time, explain to us many
other things by the way--for example, the fiery zeal on the one side and the cold maintenance of their cause on the other ; why the one party has met with the warmest approbations, and the other has always been repulsed by irrecoucilenble preju dices.
There is one thing, however, that determines the proper point of view, from which alone this preliminary inquiry can be instituted and carried on with the proper completeness, -- and that is the comparison of the principles, from which both sides -- thesis and antithesis, proceed. My readers would re mark in the propositions of the antithesis a complete uniformity in the mode of thought and a perfect unity of principle. Iti principle was that of pure empiricism, not only in the explica tion of the phsenomena in the world, but also in the solution of the transcendental ideas, even of that of the universe itself. The affirmations of the thesis on the contrary, were based, in addition to the empirical mode of explanation employed in the series of phenomena, on intellectual propositions ; and its principles were in so far not simple. I shall term the thesis, in view of its essential characteristic, the dogmatism of pure reason.
On the side of dogmatism, or of the thesis, therefore, hi the 'letermination of the cosmological ideas, we find :
I. A. practical interest, which must be very dear to ever; right-thinking man. That the world has a beginning, --that the nature of my thinking self is simple, and therefore in
? ? ? OF TI1E INTEREST OF RF. ASOX TTT THE ANTIKOMI1S. 293
destructible, --that I nm a free agent, and raised above the compulsion of nature and her laws, -- and, finally, that the entire order of things, which form the world, is dependent upon a Supreme--Being, from whom the whole receives unity and connection, these are so many foundation-stones of mo rality and religion. The antithesis deprives us of all these supports,-- or, at least, seems so to deprive us.
2. A speculative interest of reason manifests itself on tin? side. For, ifwe take the transcendental ideas and employ them in the manner which the thesis directs, we can exhibit completely & priori the entire chain of conditions, and under stand the derivation of the conditioned -- beginning from the unconditioned. This the antithesis does not do ; and for this reason does not meet with so welcome a reception. For it can give no answer to our questions respecting the conditions of its synthesis --except such as must be supplemented by another question, and so on to infinity. According to we must rice from given beginning to one still higher every part conducts us to still smaller one every event pre ceded by another event which its cause and the conditions of existence rest always upon other and still higher conditions, and find neither end nor basis in some self-subsistent thing as the primal being.
3. This side has also the advantage of popularity and this constitutes no small part of its claim to favour. The common understanding does not find the least difficulty in the idea of the unconditioned beginning of all synthesis --ac customed, as rather to follow out consequences, than to seek for proper basis for cognition. In the conception of an absolute first, moreover --the possibility of which does not inquire into-- highly gratified to find firmly-esta
blished point of departure for its attempts at theory while the restless and continuous ascent from the conditioned to the tondition, always with one foot in the air, can find no satisfaction.
On the side of the Antithesis, or Empiricism in the deter mination of the cosmological ideas
Wecannotdiscover any such practical interest arising from pure principles of reason, as morality and religion present. On ihe contrary, pure empiricism seems to empty them of all thcit power and influence. If there does not exist Supreme Being
? ? ? a
1.
:
it
;
a
is, it
is
it in
;
is ;
it,
a
it
a a
is
;
;
? 294 TRAN8CENDENTAI. DIAI. ECTIO.
distinct from the world, -- if the world is without beginning,
without a Creator,-- if our wills are not free, and the soul is divisible and subject to corruption just like matter, --the ideas and principles of morality lose all validity; and fall with the transcendental ideas which constituted their theoretical support.
2. But empiricism, in compensation, holds out to reason, in its speculative interests, certain important advantages, far ex ceeding any that the dogmatist can promise us. For, when employed by the empiricist, understanding is always upon its proper ground of investigation --the field of possible experi ence, the laws of which it can explore, and thus extend its cognition securely and with clear intelligence without being stopped by limits in any direction. Here can it and ought it to find and present to intuition its proper object --not only in itself, but in all its relations ; or, if it employ conceptions, upon this ground it can always present the corresponding images in clear and unmistakable intuitions. It is quite un necessary for it to renounce the guidance of nature, to attach itself to ideas, the objects of which it cannot know ; because, as mere intellectual entities, they cannot be presented in any intuition. On the contrary, it is not even permitted to aban don its proper occupation, under the pretence that it lias been brought to a conclusion, (for it never can be,) and to pass into the region of idealizing reason and transcendent conceptions,
where it is not required to observe and explore the laws of nature, but merely to think and to imagine -- secure from being contradicted by facts, because they have not been called as witnesses, but passed by, or perhaps subordinated to the so-called higher interests and considerations of pure reason.
Hence the empiricist will never allow himself to nccept any epoch of nature for the first -- the absolutely primal state ; he will not believe that there can be limits to his out-look into her wide domains, nor pass from the objects of nature, which he can satisfactorily explain by means of observation and mathematical thought --which he can determine synthetically in intuition, to those which neither sense nor imaginatiou can ever present in concreto; he will not concede the existence of a faculty in nature, operating independently of the laws oi nature -- a concession which would introduce uncertainty iut<< the procedure of the understanding, which is puiJcd hvnecet
consequently
? ? ? ? Or THE INTEREST OF BEA. SON IN THE ANTINOMIES. 295
snry laws to the observation of phenomena ; nor, finally, will he permit himself to seek a cause beyond nature, inasmuch as v/e know nothing but and from alone receive an objective basis for all our conceptions and instruction in the unvarying laves of things.
In truth, the empirical philosopher had no other purpose in the establishment of his antithesis, than to check the pre sumption of reason which mistakes its true destination, which ooasts of its insight and its knowledge, just where all insight and knowledge cease to exist, and regards that which valid only in relation to practical interest, as an advancement of the speculative interests of the mind (in order, when con venient for itself, to break the thread of our physical investi- gations, and, under pretence of extending our cognition, con nect them with transcendental ideas, means of which we really know ouly that we know nothing,) -- say. the em piricist rested satisfied with this benefit, the principle ad vanced him would be maxim recommending moderation in the pretensions of reason and modesty in its affirmations, and at the same time would direct us to the right mode of extend ing the province of the understanding, the help of the only true teacher, experience. In obedience to this advice, intel lectual hypotheses and faith would not be called in aid of our practical interests nor should we introduce them under the pompous titles of science and insight. For specula tive cognition cannot find an objective basis any other where than in experience and, when we overstep its limits, our synthesis, which requires ever new cognitions independent of experience, has no substratum of intuition upon which to
--
? build. -- But
empiricism, in relation to ideas, becomes itself dogmatic, and boldly denies that which above the sphere of its phenomenal cognition, falls itself into the
as often happens
error of intemperance --an error which here all the mors reprehensible, as thereby the practical interest of reason re ceives an irreparable injury.
And this constitutes the opposition between Epicureanism* and Platonism.
? It however, still matter of doubt whether Epicurus ever pro- pounded these principles as directions for the objectite em ploy men ol the understanding. If, indeed, they were nothing more than maxim) for
? ?
' concept ion of a given object of
external intuition (of the com posite), but we were obliged to prove it from the relation of a given object to a possible
i experience in general. Ojbsebtations on the Second Antinomy.
I.
On the Thesis.
II.
On the Antithesis.
? When I speak of a whole,
which necessarily consists of infinite subdivisibility of mat simple parts, I understand ter, whose ground of proof is thereby only a substantial purely mathematical, objec whole, as the true composite ; tions have been alleged by the that is to say, I understand Monadists. These objections that contingent unity of the lay themselves open, at first manifold which is given as per sight, to suspicion, from the fectly isolated (at least in fact that they do not recog thought), placed in reciprocal nize the clearest mathematical connection, and thus consti proofs as propositions relating tuted a unity. Space ought to the constitution of space, in not to be called a compositum so far as it is really the formal but a totum, for its parts are condition of the possibility of possible in the whole, and not all matter, but regard them the whole by means of the merely as inferences from ab
parts. It might perhaps be stract but arbitrary concep called a compositum ideate, but tions, which cannot have any not a compositum reale. But application to real things. this is of no importance. As Just as if it were possible to space is not a composite of imagine another mode of in ? tibstances (and not even of tuition than that given in the real accidents), if I abstract primitive intuition of space ; all composition therein, -- no and just as if its << priori de thing, not even a point, re terminations did not apply to mains ; for a point is possible everything, the existence of only as the limit of a space, -- . which is possible, from the fact
consequently of a composite. : alone of its filling space. If we Space arid time, therefore, do listen to them, we shall find
Against the assertion of the
? ? ? OBaEBVATtONS ON TUB SECOND AKTIXOlir.
Thetis. Antithesis.
275
not consist of simple parts. ourselves required to cogitate, That which belongs only to in addition to the mathemati the condition or state of a cal point, which is simple -- substance, even although it not, however, a part, but a possesses a quantity (motion mere limit of space -- physical or change, for example), like points, wkich are indeed like wise does not consist of simple wise simple, but possess the parts. That is to say, a cer peculiar property, as parts of tain degree of change does not space, of filling it merely by originate from the addition of their aggregation. I shall not many simple changes. Our repeat here the common and inference of the simple from clear refutations of this ab the composite is valid only of surdity, which are to be found self-subsisting things. But everywhere in numbers : every the accidents of a state are not one knows that it is impossi self-subsistent. The proof, ble to undermine the evidence then, for the necessity of the of mathematics by mere dis simple, as the component part cursive conceptions ; I shall of all that is substantial and only remark, that, if in this composite, may prove a failure, case philosophy endeavours to and the whole case of this the gain an advantage over mathe sis be lost, if we carry the pro matics by sophistical artifices, position too far, and wish to it is because it forgets that the make it valid of everything discussion relates solely to phe that is composite without dis nomena and their conditions. tinction --as indeed has really It is not sufficient to find the now and then happened. Be conception of the simple for
sides, I am here speaking only the pure conception of the com of the simple, in so far as it posite, but we must discover is necessarily given in the com for the intuition of the compo posite -- the latter being capa site (matter), the intuition of ble of solution into the former the simple. Now this, ac as its component parts. The cording to the laws of sensi proper signification of the bility, and consequently in the word monas (as employed by case of objects of sense, is ut
? ought to relate to terly impossible. In the case the simple, given immediately of a whole composed of sub as simple substance (for ex stances, which is cogitated ample, in consciousness), and solely by the pure understand not as an elemeut of the ing, it may be necessary to ba
Leibnitz)
? ? ? 376
Thetis.
composite. As an element, the term atomus* would be
Antithesis.
in possession of the simple W fore composition is possible.
TRAWSCKNDEKTAL DIALECTIC.
more appropriate. And as I
wish to prove the existence of
simple substances, only in re nomenon, which, as an empi lation to, and as the elements rical intuition in space, pos
of, the composite, I might
term the antithesis of the se
cond Antinomy, transcenden
tal Atomistic. But as this
word has long been employed
to designate a particular theory
of corporeal pbenomena (mo- this difficulty, by presupposing leculte), and thus presupposes intuition and the dynamical a basis of empirical concep relation of substances as the tions, I prefer calling it the condition of the possibility of dialectical principle of Mona-
dology.
? A inaicaline formed by Kant,
instead of the common neuter ato- bodies. Now we have con
mon, which is generally translated
in the scholastic philosophy by the
terms imeparaiite, inditeernibile,
timpltx. Kant wished to have a
term opposed to moruu, and so hit ns the condition of all external upon this U7ra? Xiyi/ifvov. With phenomena. The evasion
Drmocriti s aropoc, and with Cicero therefore in vain as, indeed, alomuM is feminine. --Nttt *y Ko- we have sufficiently shown in
tnUtrauM.
our ^Esthetic. If bodies were things in thems, ies, the proof of the Monadists would be un exceptionable.
The second dialectical as sertion possesses the peculi arity of having opposed to dogmatical proposition, which, among all such sophistical statements, the only one that undertakes to prove the case of an object of experience,
But this does not hold good
of the Totum substantiate phe
sesses the necessary property of containing no simple part, for the very reason, that no
? part of space is simple. Mean while, the Monadists have been subtle enough to escape from
space, instead of regarding space as the condition of the possibility of the objects of
intuition, that of
external
ception of bodies only as phe-
nomena, and, as such, necessarily presuppose space
they
? ? 1
in
it a
a is, is
is
.
;
? OBSERVATIONS ON THE SECOND ANTINOMY 277
Thcss.
Antithesis.
that which is properly a trans
cendental idea -- the absolute
simplicity of substance. The } proposition that the object
of the internal sense, the think ing Ego, an absolute simple substance. Without at present entering upon this subject -- as has been considered at length in former chapter -- shall merely remark, that, something cogitated merely as an object, without the addi tion of any synthetical determi nation of its intuition -- as hap pens the case of the bare representation, --ifls certain that no manifold and no com position can be perceived such representation. As, moreover, the predicates where
cogitate this object are merely intuitions of the in ternal sense, there cannot be discovered in them anything to prove the existence of manifold whose parts are ex ternal to each other, and con. sequently, nothing to prove the existence of real compo sition. Consciousness, there fore, so constituted, that, inasmuch as the thinking sub ject at the same time its own object, cannot divide itself--although can divide . ts inhering determinations.
For every object in relation to itself absolute unity. Never theless, the subject re-
? ? ? if
is
is
is,
is
is isis
a in
it I it
by I
it a
a h\ ifI
? 278
TRAtfflCEKDEXTAi DIALECTIC.
Antithesis.
( gsrded externally, as an object I of intuitioD, it must, in its
character of
possess the property of com position. And it must always be regarded in this manner, if we wish to know, whether there is or is not contained in it a manifold whose parts are external to each other.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. THIBI) CONFLICT OF TRANSCEKDENTAIi IDEAS.
Thesis.
Causality according to the laws of nature, is not the only
causality operating to originate the phenomena of the world. A causality of freedom is also necessary to account fully for these phenomena.
Pbooj.
causality, operating to produce events in the world -- a faculty,
that is to say, of originating a state, and consequently a series ofconsequences fromthatstate. In this case, not only the series originated by this spontaneity,
spontaneity itself to the pro duction of the series, that is to say, the causality itself must have au absolute commence,
phenomenon,
? Antithesis.
There is no such thing as
freedom, but everything in the
world happens solely accord ing to the laws of nature.
Proof.
Granted, that there does ex
istfreedom in the transcenden
tal sense, as a peculiar kind of
Let it be supposed, that there
is no other kind of causality
than that according to the laws
of nature. Consequently, every
thing that happens presuppo
ses a previous condition, which
it follows with absolute certain
ty, in eonformity with a rule. but the determination of this But this previous condition
must itself be something that
has happened (that has arisen
in time, as it did not exist be
fore), for, if it has always been ment, such, that nothing can in existence, its consequence precede to determine this action or effect would not thus origi according to unvarying laws.
nate for the first time, but | But every beginning of action
? ? ? Thesis.
would likewise have always ex
isted. The causality, there
fore, of a cause, whereby some
presupposes the acting cause state of inaction and
namically primal beginning of
THIBD AirriNOMT. 279 Antithesis.
thing happens, is itself a thing action presupposes state,
that lias happened. Now this which has no connection --as
again presupposes, in confor regards causality -- with the mity with the law of nature, a preceding state of the cause, previous condition and its caus --which does not, that in ality, and this another anterior any wise result from it. Tran to the former, and so on. If, scendental freedom therefore then. everythinghappens solely opposed to the natural law of in accordance with the laws of cause and effect, and such nature, there cannot be any conjunction of successive states real first beginning of things, effective causes destructive but only a subaltern or com of the possibility of unity in parative beginning. There experience, and for that reason cannot, therefore, be a com not to be found in experience pleteness of series on the side --isconsequentlya mere fiction of the causes which originate of thought.
? the one from the other. But We have, therefore, nothing the law of nature that no but nature, to which we must thing can happen without look for connection and order sufficient a priori determined in cosmical events. Freedom -- cause. The proposition, there independence of the laws of fore -- all causality possible nature -- certainly deliver only in accordance with the ance from restraint, but
laws of nature -- when stated also relinquishing of the gui in this unlimited and general dance of law and rule. For manner, self-contradictory. cannot be alleged, that, in follows that this cannot be the stead of the laws of nature, only kind of causality. laws of freedom may be intro
From what has been said, duced into the causality of the follows that causality must course of nature. For, free be admitted, means of which dom were determined accord something happens, without ing to laws, would be no its cause being determined ac longer freedom, but merely cording to necessary laws by nature. Nature, therefore, and some other cause preceding. transcendental freedom are dis That to say, there must ex- tinguishable as conformity to Ut an absolute spontaneity of law and lawlessness. The for.
? ? is
if
by a
it
if
in
is,
is
is,
itIt a it
in
a
a
is
a
a
a
it
is a
is,
is
is
;
dy
? 280 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
Thesis. Antithesis.
cause, which of itself origi uier imposes upon understand nates a series of phenomena ing the difficulty of seeking which proceeds according to the origin of events ever higher natural laws, -- consequently and higher in the series of transcendental freedom, with causes, inasmuch as causality out which even in the course of is always conditioned thereby ; nature the succession of phe whileit compensates this labour nomena on the side of causes by the guarantee of a unity
is never complete.
[ complete and in conformity with law. The latter, on the contrary, holds out to the un-
| derstanding the promise of a point of rest in the chain of causes, by conducting it to an unconditioned causality, which professes to have the power of spontaneous origination, but which, in its own utter blind ness, deprives it of the guidance of rules, by which alone a completely connected experi ence is possible.
? Obskrvitions ok mi Third Antinomy.
I. II.
On the Thesis. On the Antithesis
The transcendental idea of The assertor of the nll-suf
freedom is far from constitut ficiency of nature in regard tc
ing the entire content of the causality (transcendental Phy-
psychological conception so siocracy), in opposition to the termed, which is for the most doctrine of freedom, would de
part empirical. It merely pre fend his view of the question
sents us with the conception of somewhat in the
following of action, as the manner. He would say, in an
spontaneity
proper ground for imputing swer to the sophistical argu freedom to the cause of a ments of the opposite party certain class of objects. Jt If you do not accept mathe however, the true stumbling- matical first, in relation to stone to philosophy, which time, you have no need to seek meets with unconquerable dif- dynnmitnl fi'st, regard to
? ? is, a
in
a
:
? OB8EKTATION8 ON THH TIIIRD AKTINOUT. 281
Thetis. Antithesis.
ficulties in the way of its ad causality. Who compelled yon mitting this kind of uncondi to imagine an absolutely pri
tioned causality. That ele ment in the question of the freedom of the will, which has for so long a time placed
mal condition of the world, and therewith an absolute be ginning of the gradually pro
mena -- and, as some founda perplexity, is properly only tion for this fancy of yours, transcendental, and concerns to set bounds to unlimited
speculative
reason in such
the question, whether there
must be held to exist a fa
culty of spontaneous origi
nation of a series of successive unity of experience renders things or states. How such a I such a supposition quite neces faculty is possible, is not a I sary --there is no difficulty in necessary inquiry ; for in the believing also, that the changes case of natural causality it- in the conditions of these sub self, we are obliged to content stances have always existed ; ourselves with the a priori and, consequently, that a first knowledge that such a causa beginning, mathematical or lity must be presupposed, al dynamical, is by no means re
though we are quite incapable quired. The possibility of of comprehending how the such an infinite derivation, being of one thing is possible without any initial member through the being of another, from which all the others but must for this information result, is certainly quite in look entirely to experience. comprehensible. But if you Now we have demonstrated are rash enough to deny the this necessity of a free first enigmatical secrets of nature beginning of a series of phse- for this reason, you will nomena, only in so far as it i find yourselves obliged to is required for the compre- ' deny also the existence of hension of an origin of the many fundamental properties world, all following states of natural objects (such as being regarded as a succession fundamental forces), which according to laws of nature you can just as little compre alone. But, as there has thus hend ; and even the possi been proved the existence of bility of so simple a concep
a faculty which can of itself tion as that of change must originate a series in tims -- al- present to y? u insuperable dif-
gressing successions of pheno-
nature? Inasmuch as the substancss in the world have always existed--at least the
? ? ? ? 282 TRANBCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
Then*. Antithetic.
though ire are unable to ex Acuities. For if experience plain how it can exist --we did not teach you that it w<<s feel ourselves authorised to ad real, you never could conceive mit, even in the midst of the a priori the possibility of this natural course of events, a be ceaseless sequence of being and ginning, as regards causality, non-being.
of different successions of phe But if the existence of a nomena, and at the same time transcendental faculty of free to attribute to all substances dom is granted --a faculty of n faculty of free action. But
we ought in this case not to
allow ourselves to fall into
a common misunderstanding,
and to suppose that, because
a successive series in the
world can only have a compara
tively first beginning --another
state or condition of things exists an object which cannot always preceding -- an abso be presented in any possible lutely first beginning of a series perception. But, to attribute in the course of nature is im to substances in the world it possible. For we are not self such a faculty, is quite speaking here of an absolutely inadmissible ; for, in this case, first beginning in relation to the connection of phsenomena time, but as regards causality reciprocally determining and alone. When, for example, I, determined according to gene- completely of my own free I ral laws, which is termed na will, and independently of the ture, and along with it the necessarily determinative in criteria of empirical truth, fluence of natural causes, rise which enable us to distinguish from my chair, there com experience from mere visionary mences with this event, includ dreaming, would almost en ing its material consequences tirely disappear. In proxi in infinitum, an absolutely new mity with such a law less fa series ; although, in relation to culty of freedom, a system of time, this event is merely the nature is hardly cogitable ; continuation of a preceding for the laws of the latter would series. For this resolution be continually subject to the and act of mine do not form intrusive influences of the
part of the succession of effects 1 former, and the gf ' course
originating changes in the world--this faculty must at least exist out of and apart from the world ; although it is certainly a bold assump tion, that, over and above the complete content of all pos sible intuitions, there still
? ? ? ? OBSERVATIONS ON THE THIRD ANTINOMY. 283
Thesis. Antithesis.
in nature, and are not mere phenomena,whichwould other- continuations of it; on the wise proceed regularly and uni- contrary, the determining formly, would become there-
causes of nature cease to ope- rate in reference to this event, which certainly succeeds the acts of nature, but does not proceed from them. For these reasons, the action of a free agent must be termed, in re gard to causality, if not in re lation to time, an absolutely primal beginning of a series of phenomena.
The justification of this need of reason to rest upon a free act as the first beginning of the series of natural causes, is evident from the fact, that all philosophers of antiquity
curean school) felt themselves
by confused and disconnected,
? when constructing t theory of the motions of the universe, to accept a prime
mover, that freely acting cause, which spontaneously and prior to all other causes evolved this series of states.
obliged,
felt the need of mere nature,
They always
going beyond
for the purpose of making
first beginning comprehensi- ble.
? ? a
is, a
? 284 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC.
ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON.
FOUBTH CONFLICT OF TH<< TBAN8CENDENTAL IDEA*.
Thesis.
There exists either in, or in An absolutely necessary being
connection with the world-- does not exist, either in the
either as n part of or as the cause of -- an absolutely ne cessary being.
Pboof.
The world of sense, as the
world, or outof --as its cause.
Pboof.
Grant that either the world
itself necessary, or that there
contained in necessa-y
sum-total of all phenomena, existence. Two cases are pos
contains series of changes. sible. First, there must either For, without such series, the he in the series of cosmical mental representation of the changes beginning, which series of time itself, as the con unconditionally necessary, and dition of the possibility of the therefore uncaused --which sensuous world, could not be at variance with the dynamical presented to us. * But every law of the determination of all change stands under its con phsenomena in time; or se dition, which precedes condly, the series itself with time and renders neces out beginning, and, although sary. Now the existence of contingent and conditioned
ditioned, which alone ab self-oontradictory. For the solutely necessary. fol existence of an aggregate can lows that something that not be necessary, no single absolutely necessary must exist, part of possesses necessary
given conditions presuppose
complete series of conditions absolutely necessary and un up to the absolutely uncon conditioned as whole --which
existence.
quence. But this necessary Grant on the other hand,
that an absolutely necessary Objectively, time, as the formal cause eiists out of and apart condition of the possibility of change, from the world.
This cause,
precedes; ill changes but tubjectiv tly, as the highest member in the and in consciousness, the representa
tion oftime, like every other, given series of the causes of cosmical
aolely occasion of perception. changes, must originate or be-
*
change exists as its conse
Antithesis.
? all its parts, nevertheless
? ? by
is
It is
it
;
if
is aain is
is
it a
a if
is
it a
it
is
iu isis
a
it,
a it
it
is
? roumn antinomy, 385
Thesis. | Antithesis.
tiling itself belongs to the gin* the existence of the latter sensuous world. For suppose and their series. In this caso it to exist out of and apart must also begin to act, and from the series of cosmical its causality would therefore changes would receive from belong to time, and conse
beginning, and yet this ne quently to the sura-total of cessary cause would not itself phsenomena, that to the belong to the world of sense. world. follows that the
cause cannot be out of the world which contradictory to the hypothesis. Therefore, neither in the world, nor out
But this impossible. For, as
the beginning of series in
time determined only that
which precedes time, the
supreme condition of the be of (but in causal connec ginning of series of changes tion with it), does there ex must exist in the time which
? this series itself did not exist
for beginning supposes time
preceding, in which the thing
ist aBy absolutely necessary being.
that begins to be was not
existence. The causality of being regarded as beginning series
the necessary cause of changes, and consequently the cause self, must for these reasons he- long to time--and to phseno-
mena, time being possible only as the form of phenomena.
therefore, contained in the
world, something that abso
lutelynecessary-- whether be the whole cosmical series iUelf, or only a part of it.
of conditions as its effect (infil). 1'he second passive --the causality in the cause itself beginning to 01<<- rate (Jit). reason here from he first to the second.
It may be doubted whether there any passage to be found in the Latin Classics where infil em ployed in any other than neuter sense, as in Plautus, " Infil me per- contarier. " The second significa tion of iryin (anfangen) we shoul4 rather term aeuier. -- 7K
Consequently,
cogitated as separated from the world of sense, --the sum- total of all phenomena. There
cannot be
The word begin taken in two senses. The first active --the cause
? ? is it
a in ;
in by
is,
a
it,
a
is
a f
it
it
it
it
f* is
it
I is
It
I
is
is
is
is,
a
is
is
a
a in
it
;
? 286 TRANSCENDENTAL DIALECTIC. Observations on the Fourth Antinomt.
II.
On the Antithesis.
To demonstrate the exist
ence of a necessary being, I us, in our attempt to rise through cannot be permitted in this the scries of phsenomena to the place to employ any other existence of an absolutely ne than the cosmological argu cessary supreme cause, must ment, which ascends from the not originate from our inabi conditioned in phsenomena to lity to establish the truth of the unconditioned in concep our mere conceptions of the tion --the unconditioned being necessary existence of a thing. considered the necessary con That is to say, our objec dition of the absolute totality tions must not be ontological, of the series. The proof, but must be directed against from the mere idea of a su the causal connection with a preme being, belongs to ano series of phsenomena of a con ther principle of reason, and dition which is itself uncon requires separate discussion. ditioned. In one word, they
I.
On the Thesis.
The pure cosmological proof must be cosmological, and re demonstrates the existence of late to empirical laws. We a necessary being, but nt the must show that the regress in same time leaves it quite un the series of causes (in the settled, -whether this being is
the world itself, or quite dis
tinct from it. To establish
the truth of the latter view,
principles are requisite, which
are not cosmological, and do
not proceed in the series of
phsenomena. We should re --does not justify us in ac
cepting a first cause, that prime originator of the cos
mical series.
The reader will observein this
to introduce into our
quire
proof conceptions
of contin
ing, and also a principle which
gent beings -- regarded merely as objects of the understand
antinomy very remarkable enables us to connect these, contrast. Theverysamegrounda
by means of mere conceptions, of proof which established with a necessary being. But the thesis the existence of su
The difficulties which meet
? world of sense) cannot con clude with an empirically un conditioned condition, and that the
cosmological argument from the contingency of the cosmical state --a contingency alleged to arise from change
? ? a
in
is,
a
a
? OBSEBVAtlOttS OS I1IE fOUMH AUTlNOMf. 287
Thesis. Antithesis.
the proper place for all such preme being, demonstrated in arguments is a transcendent the antithesis --and with equal philosophy, which has unhap strictness --the non-existence pily not yet heen established. of such a being. We found,
But, if we begin our proof first, that a necessary being cosmologically, by laying at exists, because the whole time the foundation of it the series past contains the series of all of phenomena, and the regress conditions, and with there in it according to empirical fore, the unconditioned (the laws of causality, we are not at necessary) secondly, that iiberty to break off from this there does not exist any neces mode of demonstration and to sary being, for the same reason, pass over to something which that the whole time past con is not itself a member of the tains the series of all condi series. The condition must tions -- which are themselves be taken in exactly the same therefore, in the
? aggregate, signification as the relation of conditioned. The cause of the conditioned to its condi this seeming incongruity as
tion in the series has been follows. We attend, iu the taken, for the series must con first argument, solely to the duct us in an unbroken re absolute totality of the series gress to this supreme condi of conditions, the one of which tion. But if this relation is determines the other in time, sensuous, and belongs to the and thus arrive at
necessary possible empirical employment unconditioned. In the second, of the understanding, the su we consider, on the contrary,
preme condition or cause must the contingency of everything close the regressive series ac that determined in the series cording to the laws of sensi time -- for every event bility, and consequently must preceded time, in which belong to the series of time. the condition itself must be It follows that this necessary determined as conditioned --
existence must be regarded as the highest member of the cosmical series.
and thus everything that unconditioned or absolutely necessary disappears. In both, the mode of proof quite in
Certaiu philosophers have,
nevertheless, allowed them accordance with the common selves the liberty of making procedure of human reason, such a sail us (jitrafiatit ilf which often falls into discord aXX* From the changes with itself, from considering
? ? is
a
is
is
[
of
by a
;
is
is
it,
? 288 f ttA>>8CE>>DE>>tAL DIALECTIC
Thesis. Antithetu.
in the world they have con an object from two different cluded their empirical contin points of view. Herr von gency, that their depend Mairan regarded the contro ence on empirically-determined versy between two celebrated causes, and they thus admitted astronomers, which arose from an ascending series of empi similar difficulty as to thf rical conditions and in this choice of proper stand-point, they are quite right. But as as phenomenon of sufficient they could not find in this importance to warrant sepa series any primal begiuning rate treatise on the subject. or any highest member, they The one concluded the moon passed suddenly from the em revolves on its own axis, be pirical conception of contin cause constantly presents gency to the pure category, the same side to the earth which--presents us with the other declared that the series not sensuous, but intel moon does not revolve on iti
? lectual -- whose completeness
does certainly rest upon the
existence of an absolutely ne
cessary cause. Nay, more, this intellectual series not tied to
any sensuous conditions and sidered.
therefore free from the con dition of time, which requires
spontaneously to begin its causality in time. -- But such
inad missible, as will be made plain
procedure perfectly
from what follows.
In the pure sense of the
categories, that contingent, the contradictory opposite of which possible. Now we cannot reason from empirical
to intellectual. The opposite of that which
contingency
chsnged -- the opposite of its state -- actual at (mother time, and therefore possible. Consequently, is not the
own axis, for the same reason. B. th conclusions were per fectly correct, according to the point of view from which the motions of the moot were con
? ? is is it
is
is is
is,
;
is a! a
it is
is
;
it
:
a
:
a a
a
? OBSBBVATIONS ON THE FOURTH ANTIWOMT.
289
Thesis. eontradicfDry opposite of the
,
Antithesis.
former state.
is necessary that in the same 1 time in which the preceding state existed, its opposite could have existed in its place ; but such u cognition is not given
us in the mere phenomenon of change. A body that was in motion=^/, comes into a state of rest= non-A. Now it can not be concluded from the
lowed the state of motion; con sequently, that was also pos sible. But motion at one time, and rest at another time, arc not contradictorily opposed to each other.
follows front what has been said, thatthe suc
cession of opposite determina
tions, that
demonstrate the fact of con
tingency as represented the conceptions of the pure under
standing and that cannot,
To be that, it |
? fact that a state opposite to the state A follows that the contradictory opposite of possible and that A there fore
contingent. To prove this, we should require to know
that the state
have existed in the very same time in which the motion took place. Now we know nothing more than that the state of rest was actual in the time that fol
of rest could
change, does not
therefore,
fact of the existence of ne
cessary being.
Change proves
conduct us to the
? ? ;; is,
it
a in
it,
It
it
is
A is
? SM TRAK8CEKDENTAI.
Thesis.
merely empirical contingency, that is to say, that the new state could not have existed without a cause, which belongs to the preceding time. This cause --even although it is re garded as absolutely necessary --must be presented to us in time, and must belong to the scries of phenomena.
DIALECTIC. Antithesis.
? ANTINOMY OF PURE REASON. Section Thibd.
Of the Interest of Reason in these Self-contradictions.
We have thus completely before us the dialectical procedure of the cosmological ideas. No possible experience can present us with an object adequate to them in extent. Nay, more, reason itself eannot cogitate them as according with the general laws of experience. And yet they are not arbitrary fictions of thought. On the contrary, reason, in its uninterrupted pro gress in the empirical synthesis, is necessarily conducted to tliem, when it endeavours to free from all conditions and to comprehend in its unconditioned totality, that which can only be determined conditionally in accordance with the laws of ex
perience. These dialectical propositions are so many attempts to solve four natural and unavoidable problems of reason. --There are neither more, nor can there be less, than this number, because there are no other series of synthetical hy potheses, limiting & priori the empirical synthesis.
The brilliant claims of reason striving to extend its do minion beyond the limits of experience, have been represented above only in dry formule, which contain merely the ground* of its pretensions. They have, besides, in conformity with the character of a transcendental philosophy, been freed from every empirical element ; although the full splendour of the promises they hold out, and the anticipations they excite, mani fests itself only when in connection with empirical cognitions.
In ' he application of tlicm, however, and in the advancing eu
? ? ? OF TUV. INTEHEST OK REABON IK THE ANTINOMIES. 291
largement of the employment of reason, while struggling to rise from the region of experience And to soar to those sub lime ideas, philosophy discovers a value and a dignity, which, if it could but mak* good its assertions, would raise it far above all other departments of human knowledge -- professing, as it does, to present a sure foundation for our highest hopes and the ultimate aims of all the exertions of reason. The questions : whether the world has a beginning and a limit to its extension in space ; whether there exists anywhere, or per haps, in my own thinking Self an indivisible and indestructible unity--or whether nothing but what is divisible and transitory exists ; whether I am a free agent, or, like other beings, am bound in the chains of nature and fate ; whether, finally, there is a supreme cause of the world, or all our thought and spe culation must end with nature and the order of external things --are questions, for the solution of which the mathematician would willingly exchange his whole science ; for in it there is no satisfaction for the highest aspirations and most ardent desires of humanity. Nay, it may even be said that the true value of mathematics --that pride of human reason -- con sists in this : that she guides reason to the knowledge of nature --in her greater, as well as in her less manifestations -- in her beautiful order and regularity, -- guides her, moreover, to an insight into the wonderful unity of the moving forces in the operations of nature, far beyond the expectations of a
experience ; and that she thus encourages philosophy to extend the province of reason beyond all experience, and at the same time provides it with the most
excellent materials for supporting its investigations, in so far as their nature admits, by adequate and accordant intui
tions. --
? but perhaps fortunately for the practical interests of humanity -- reasin, in the midst of her highest anticipations, finds herself hemmed in by a press of opposite and contradictory conclusions, from which neither
her honour nor her safety wUl permit her to draw back. Nor nan she regard these conflicting trains of reasoning with in difference as mere passages at arms, still less can she command peace ; for in the subject of the conflict she has a deep inte rest. There is no other course left open to her, than to reflect with herself upon the origin of this disunion in reason --
V2
Unfortunately for speculation
? ? ? 292
TBAJTSCENDEKTAL DIALECTIC.
whether it may not arise from a mere misunderstanding. Aftet such an inquiry, arrogant claims would have to be given up on both sides ; but the sovereignty of reason over understanding and sense would be based upon a sure foundation.
We shall at present defer this radical inquiry, and in the meantime consider for a little --what side in the controversy we should most willingly take, if we were obliged to become partisans at nll. As, in this case, we leave out of sight alto gether the logical criterion of truth, and merely consult our own interest in reference to the question, these considerations, although inadequate to settle the question of right in either party, will enable us to comprehend, how those who have taken part in the struggle, adopt the one view rather than the other
? --no special insight into the subject, however, having influenced their choice. They will, at the same time, explain to us many
other things by the way--for example, the fiery zeal on the one side and the cold maintenance of their cause on the other ; why the one party has met with the warmest approbations, and the other has always been repulsed by irrecoucilenble preju dices.
There is one thing, however, that determines the proper point of view, from which alone this preliminary inquiry can be instituted and carried on with the proper completeness, -- and that is the comparison of the principles, from which both sides -- thesis and antithesis, proceed. My readers would re mark in the propositions of the antithesis a complete uniformity in the mode of thought and a perfect unity of principle. Iti principle was that of pure empiricism, not only in the explica tion of the phsenomena in the world, but also in the solution of the transcendental ideas, even of that of the universe itself. The affirmations of the thesis on the contrary, were based, in addition to the empirical mode of explanation employed in the series of phenomena, on intellectual propositions ; and its principles were in so far not simple. I shall term the thesis, in view of its essential characteristic, the dogmatism of pure reason.
On the side of dogmatism, or of the thesis, therefore, hi the 'letermination of the cosmological ideas, we find :
I. A. practical interest, which must be very dear to ever; right-thinking man. That the world has a beginning, --that the nature of my thinking self is simple, and therefore in
? ? ? OF TI1E INTEREST OF RF. ASOX TTT THE ANTIKOMI1S. 293
destructible, --that I nm a free agent, and raised above the compulsion of nature and her laws, -- and, finally, that the entire order of things, which form the world, is dependent upon a Supreme--Being, from whom the whole receives unity and connection, these are so many foundation-stones of mo rality and religion. The antithesis deprives us of all these supports,-- or, at least, seems so to deprive us.
2. A speculative interest of reason manifests itself on tin? side. For, ifwe take the transcendental ideas and employ them in the manner which the thesis directs, we can exhibit completely & priori the entire chain of conditions, and under stand the derivation of the conditioned -- beginning from the unconditioned. This the antithesis does not do ; and for this reason does not meet with so welcome a reception. For it can give no answer to our questions respecting the conditions of its synthesis --except such as must be supplemented by another question, and so on to infinity. According to we must rice from given beginning to one still higher every part conducts us to still smaller one every event pre ceded by another event which its cause and the conditions of existence rest always upon other and still higher conditions, and find neither end nor basis in some self-subsistent thing as the primal being.
3. This side has also the advantage of popularity and this constitutes no small part of its claim to favour. The common understanding does not find the least difficulty in the idea of the unconditioned beginning of all synthesis --ac customed, as rather to follow out consequences, than to seek for proper basis for cognition. In the conception of an absolute first, moreover --the possibility of which does not inquire into-- highly gratified to find firmly-esta
blished point of departure for its attempts at theory while the restless and continuous ascent from the conditioned to the tondition, always with one foot in the air, can find no satisfaction.
On the side of the Antithesis, or Empiricism in the deter mination of the cosmological ideas
Wecannotdiscover any such practical interest arising from pure principles of reason, as morality and religion present. On ihe contrary, pure empiricism seems to empty them of all thcit power and influence. If there does not exist Supreme Being
? ? ? a
1.
:
it
;
a
is, it
is
it in
;
is ;
it,
a
it
a a
is
;
;
? 294 TRAN8CENDENTAI. DIAI. ECTIO.
distinct from the world, -- if the world is without beginning,
without a Creator,-- if our wills are not free, and the soul is divisible and subject to corruption just like matter, --the ideas and principles of morality lose all validity; and fall with the transcendental ideas which constituted their theoretical support.
2. But empiricism, in compensation, holds out to reason, in its speculative interests, certain important advantages, far ex ceeding any that the dogmatist can promise us. For, when employed by the empiricist, understanding is always upon its proper ground of investigation --the field of possible experi ence, the laws of which it can explore, and thus extend its cognition securely and with clear intelligence without being stopped by limits in any direction. Here can it and ought it to find and present to intuition its proper object --not only in itself, but in all its relations ; or, if it employ conceptions, upon this ground it can always present the corresponding images in clear and unmistakable intuitions. It is quite un necessary for it to renounce the guidance of nature, to attach itself to ideas, the objects of which it cannot know ; because, as mere intellectual entities, they cannot be presented in any intuition. On the contrary, it is not even permitted to aban don its proper occupation, under the pretence that it lias been brought to a conclusion, (for it never can be,) and to pass into the region of idealizing reason and transcendent conceptions,
where it is not required to observe and explore the laws of nature, but merely to think and to imagine -- secure from being contradicted by facts, because they have not been called as witnesses, but passed by, or perhaps subordinated to the so-called higher interests and considerations of pure reason.
Hence the empiricist will never allow himself to nccept any epoch of nature for the first -- the absolutely primal state ; he will not believe that there can be limits to his out-look into her wide domains, nor pass from the objects of nature, which he can satisfactorily explain by means of observation and mathematical thought --which he can determine synthetically in intuition, to those which neither sense nor imaginatiou can ever present in concreto; he will not concede the existence of a faculty in nature, operating independently of the laws oi nature -- a concession which would introduce uncertainty iut<< the procedure of the understanding, which is puiJcd hvnecet
consequently
? ? ? ? Or THE INTEREST OF BEA. SON IN THE ANTINOMIES. 295
snry laws to the observation of phenomena ; nor, finally, will he permit himself to seek a cause beyond nature, inasmuch as v/e know nothing but and from alone receive an objective basis for all our conceptions and instruction in the unvarying laves of things.
In truth, the empirical philosopher had no other purpose in the establishment of his antithesis, than to check the pre sumption of reason which mistakes its true destination, which ooasts of its insight and its knowledge, just where all insight and knowledge cease to exist, and regards that which valid only in relation to practical interest, as an advancement of the speculative interests of the mind (in order, when con venient for itself, to break the thread of our physical investi- gations, and, under pretence of extending our cognition, con nect them with transcendental ideas, means of which we really know ouly that we know nothing,) -- say. the em piricist rested satisfied with this benefit, the principle ad vanced him would be maxim recommending moderation in the pretensions of reason and modesty in its affirmations, and at the same time would direct us to the right mode of extend ing the province of the understanding, the help of the only true teacher, experience. In obedience to this advice, intel lectual hypotheses and faith would not be called in aid of our practical interests nor should we introduce them under the pompous titles of science and insight. For specula tive cognition cannot find an objective basis any other where than in experience and, when we overstep its limits, our synthesis, which requires ever new cognitions independent of experience, has no substratum of intuition upon which to
--
? build. -- But
empiricism, in relation to ideas, becomes itself dogmatic, and boldly denies that which above the sphere of its phenomenal cognition, falls itself into the
as often happens
error of intemperance --an error which here all the mors reprehensible, as thereby the practical interest of reason re ceives an irreparable injury.
And this constitutes the opposition between Epicureanism* and Platonism.
? It however, still matter of doubt whether Epicurus ever pro- pounded these principles as directions for the objectite em ploy men ol the understanding. If, indeed, they were nothing more than maxim) for
? ?
