No More Learning

In the 'Philosophy of the History of
Man he represented the whole history of mankind as a succession of
national organisms: each revolving around its own axis; each living
out its own spirit; each creating individual forms of language, reli-
gion, society, literature, art; and each by this very individualization of
national types helping to enrich and develop the human type as a
whole. In the Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität' (Letters for
the Furthering of Humanistic Studies: 1793-97), finally, he held up the
ideal of perfect manhood to his own time and people, thus rounding
out his life by applying his highest inspirations to the immediate
demands of national progress.
Herder's influence on German culture cannot easily be overesti-
mated. He was the first among modern thinkers to whom every
individual appeared as a public character, as an heir of all the ages,
as an epitome of a whole nation. He first considered man in the
fullness of his instincts, in the endless variety of his relations to the
larger organisms of which he is a part. He first attempted on a
large scale to represent all history as an unbroken chain of cause
and effect, or rather as a grand living whole in whose development
no atom is lost, no force is wasted. Without him, Goethe would have
lacked the most inspiring teacher and the safest guide of his youth.
Without him, the brothers Grimm would have had no foundations
whereon to build the science of folk-lore. Without him, the whole
Romantic school would probably have been nothing but a repetition
of the Storm and Stress movement. Without him, there would have
been no Ranke. Without him, the theory of evolution would be
without one of its most exalted apostles.
Kuno Francke


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7264
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
From the Philosophy of the History of Man'
NºT
or only has the philosopher exalted human reason to an
independency on the senses and organs, and the possession
of an original simple power; but even the common man
imagines, in the dream of life, that of himself he has become
everything that he is. This imagination is easily explained, par-
ticularly in the latter. The sense of spontaneity given him by
the Creator excites him to action, and rewards him with the
pleasing recompense of a deed performed in obedience to his
The days of his childhood are forgotten; the seeds
which he then received and still daily receives are dormant in
his mind; he sees and enjoys only the budding plant, and is
pleased with its flourishing growth, with its fruitful branches.
The philosopher, however, who studies the origin and progress
of a man's life in the book of experience, and can trace through
history the whole chain of the formation of our species, must, I
think, as everything brings dependence to his mind, soon quit
his ideal world, in which he feels himself alone and all-sufficient,
for our world of realities.
As man at his natural birth springs not from himself, equally
remote is he from being self-born in the use of his mental fac-
ulties. Not only is the germ of our internal disposition genetic,
as well as our bodily frame, but every development of this germ
depends on fate, which planted us in this place or in that, and
supplied us with the means by which we were formed, accord-
ing to time and circumstances. Even the eye must learn to see,
the ear to hear; and no one can be ignorant with what art
language, the principal instrument of our thought, is acquired.
Nature has evidently calculated our whole mechanism, with the
condition and duration of each period of our lives, for this for-
eign aid. The brain of infants is soft, and suspended from the
skull; its strata are slowly formed; it grows firmer with increas-
ing years, and gradually hardens till at length it will receive.
no more new impressions. It is the same with the organs and
with the faculties of a child: those are tender and formed for
imitation, these imbibe what they see and hear with wonderfully
active attention and internal vital power. Thus man is an arti-
ficial machine: endued with a genetic disposition, it is true, and


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7265
plenitude of life; but the machine does not work itself, and the
ablest of mankind must learn how to work it. Reason is an
aggregate of the experiences and observations of the mind; the
sum of the education of man, which the pupil ultimately finishes
in himself, as an extraneous artist, after certain extraneous
models.
In this lies the principle of the history of mankind, without
which no such history could exist. Did man receive everything
from himself and develop everything independently of external
circumstances, we might have a history of an individual indeed,
but not of the species. But as our specific character lies in this,
that born almost without instinct, we are formed to manhood
only by the practice of a whole life, and both the perfectibility
and corruptibility of our species depend on it,-the history of
mankind is necessarily a whole; that is, a chain of socialness and
plastic tradition, from the first link to the last.
There is an education therefore of the human species, since
every one becomes a man only by means of education, and the
whole species lives solely in this chain of individuals. It is true,
should any one say that the species is educated, not the indi-
vidual, he would speak unintelligibly to my comprehension; for
species and genus are only abstract ideas except so far as they
exist in individuals: and were I to ascribe to this abstract idea
all the perfections of human nature, the highest cultivation
and most enlightened intellect that an abstract idea will admit,— I
should have advanced as far towards a real history of our species
as if I were to speak of animal-kind, stone-kind, metal-kind, in
general, and decorate them with all the noblest qualities, which
could not subsist together in one individual.
Our philosophy of history shall not wander in this path of the
Averroëan system; according to which the whole human species
possesses but one mind, and that indeed of a very low order, dis-
tributed to individuals only piecemeal. On the other hand, were
I to confine everything to the individual, and deny the existence
of the chain that connects each to others and to the whole, I
should run equally counter to the nature of man and his evident
history. For no one of us became man of himself: the whole
structure of his humanity is connected by a spiritual birth with
education, with his parents, teachers, friends; with all the circum-
stances of his life, and consequently with his countrymen and
their forefathers; and lastly with the whole chain of the human
XIII-455
-
――


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7266
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
species, some link or other of which is continually acting on his
mental faculties. Thus nations may be traced up to families;
families to their founders; the stream of history contracts itself
as we approach its source, and all our habitable earth is ulti-
mately converted into the school of our family, containing indeed
many divisions, classes, and chambers, but still with one plan of
instruction, which has been transmitted from our ancestors, with
various alterations and additions, to all their race. Now, if we
give the limited understanding of a teacher credit for not having
made a separate division of his scholars without some grounds,
and perceive that the human species everywhere finds a kind of
artificial education, adapted to the wants of the time and place,-
what man of understanding, who contemplates the structure of
our earth and the relation man bears to it, would not incline to
think that the Father of our race, who has determined how far
and how wide nations should spread, has also determined this, as
the general teacher of us all? Will he who views a ship deny
the purpose of its builder? and who that compares the artificial
frame of our nature with every climate of the habitable earth,
will reject the notion that the climatic diversity of various man
was an end of the creation, for the purpose of educating his
mind? But as the place of abode alone does not effect every-
thing, since living beings like ourselves contribute to instruct us,
fashion us, and form our habits, there appears to me an educa-
tion of the species and a philosophy of the history of man, as
certainly and as truly as there is a human nature; that is, a
co-operation of individuals, which alone makes us men.
Hence the principles of this philosophy become as evident,
simple, and indubitable as the natural history of man itself is;
they are called tradition and organic powers. All education must
spring from imitation and exercise, by means of which the model
passes into the copy; and how can this be more aptly expressed
than by the term "tradition"? But the imitator must have
powers to receive what is communicated or communicable, and
convert it into his own nature as the food by means of which he
lives. Accordingly, what and how much he receives, whence he
derives it, and how he uses, applies it, and makes it his own,
must depend on his own, the receptive powers. So that the
education of our species is in a double sense genetic and organic:
genetic, inasmuch as it is communicated; organic, as what is
communicated is received and applied. Whether we name this
-


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7267
second genesis of man cultivation from the culture of the ground,
or enlightening from the action of light, is of little import: the
chain of light and cultivation reaches to the end of the earth.
Even the inhabitant of California or Tierra del Fuego learns to
make and use the bow and arrow; he has language and ideas,
practices and arts, which he learned as we learn them: so far
therefore he is actually cultivated and enlightened, though in the
lowest order. Thus the difference between enlightened and un-
enlightened, cultivated and uncultivated nations, is not specific;
it is only in degree. This part of the picture of nations has infi-
nite shades, changing with place and time: and like other pictures,
much depends on the point of view from which we examine it.
If we take the idea of European cultivation for our standard, this
is to be found only in Europe; and if we establish arbitrary dis-
tinctions between cultivation and the enlightening of the mind,—
neither of which, if it be genuine, can exist independently of
the other, we are losing ourselves still more in the clouds.
But if we keep close to the earth and take a general view of
what Nature-to whom the end and character of her creatures
must be best known-herself exhibits to our eyes as forming
man, this is no other than the tradition of an education to some
form or other of human happiness and the economy of life. This
is as general as the human species; and often the most active
among savages, though in a narrower circle. If a man remain
among men, he cannot avoid this improving or vitiating cultiva-
tion: tradition lays hold of him, forms his head, and fashions his
limbs. As that is, and as these are fashioned, so is the man, so
is he formed. Even children whom chance has thrown among
beasts have acquired some human cultivation when they have
lived for a time among men, as most known instances show;
while a child brought up from the moment of his birth by a
brute would be the only uncultivated man upon earth.
What follows from this fixed point of view, confirmed as it
is by the whole history of our species? First a principle con-
solatory and animating to our lives, and inspiring this reflection:
namely, that as the human species has not arisen of itself, and as
there are dispositions in its nature for which no admiration can
be too high, the Creator must have appointed means, conceived
by his paternal goodness, for the development of these disposi-
tions. Is the corporal eye so beautifully formed in vain? does
it not find before it the golden beams of the sun, which were
---


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7268
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
created for it as the eye for them, and fulfill the wisdom of its
design? It is the same with all the senses, with all the organs:
they find the means of their development, the medium for which
they were created. And can it be otherwise with the spiritual
senses and organs, on the use of which the character of man, and
the kind and measure of his happiness, depend? Shall the Cre-
ator have failed here of attaining his purpose; the purpose, too,
of all nature as far as it depends on the use of human powers ?
Impossible! Every such conjecture must arise from ourselves;
either attributing erroneous ends to the Creator, or endeavoring
as much as in us lies to frustrate his purposes. But as this
endeavor must have its limits, and no design of the All-wise can
be thwarted by a creature of his thoughts, let us rest secure in
the certainty, that whatever is God's purpose with regard to the
human species upon earth remains evident even in the most per-
plexing parts of its history. All the works of God have this
property: that although they belong to a whole which no eye can
scan, each is in itself a whole, and bears the Divine characters
of its destination. It is so with the brute and with the plant:
can it be otherwise with man? Can it be that thousands are
made for one? all the generations that have passed away, merely
for the last? every individual, only for the species,—that is, for
the image of an abstract name? The All-wise sports not in this
manner; he invents no fine-spun shadowy dreams; he lives and
feels in each of his children with paternal affection, as though
it were the only creature in the world. All his means are
ends; all his ends are means to higher ends, in which the Infinite,
filling all, reveals himself. What every man, therefore, attains
or can attain must be the end of the species; and what is this?
Humanity and happiness, on this spot, in this degree, as this
link and no other of the chain of improvement that extends
through the whole kind. Whatever and wherever thou wast born,
O man, there thou art and there thou shouldst be: quit not the
chain, set not thyself above it, but adhere to it firmly. Life and
happiness exist for thee only in its integrity, in what thou receiv-
est or impartest, in thy activity in each.
Secondly: Much as it may flatter man that the Deity has
admitted him as an assistant, and left the forming him here be-
low to himself and his fellow-creatures, the very choice of these
means shows the imperfection of our earthly existence, inasmuch
as we are not yet men, but are daily becoming so.
How poor


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7269
must the creature be who has nothing of himself, but receives
everything from imitation, instruction, and practice, by which he
is molded like wax! Let the man who is proud of his reason
contemplate the theatre of his fellow-beings throughout the wide
world, or listen to their many-toned dissonant history. Is there
any species of barbarity to which some man, some nation, nay,
frequently a number of nations, have not accustomed themselves,
so that many, perhaps most, have even fed on the flesh of
their fellow-creatures? Is there a wild conception the mind can
frame, which has not been actually rendered sacred by heredi-
tary tradition in one place or another? No creature therefore
can stand lower than man; for throughout his whole life he is
not only a child in reason, but a pupil of the reason of others.
Into whatever hands he falls, by them he is formed; and I am
persuaded, no form of human manners is possible which some
nation or some individual has not adopted. In history every
mode of vice and cruelty is exhausted, while here and there only
a nobler train of human sentiments and virtues appears. From
the means chosen by the Creator, that our species should be
formed only by our species, it could not possibly be otherwise;
follies must be inherited, as well as the rare treasures of wisdom:
the way of man resembles a labyrinth, abounding on all sides
with divergent passages, while but few footsteps lead to the
innermost chamber. Happy the mortal who reaches it himself
or leads others to it; whose thoughts, inclinations, and wishes,
or even the beams of whose silent example, have promoted the
humanity of his brethren! God acts upon earth only by means
of superior, chosen men; religion and language, art and science,
nay, governments themselves, cannot be adorned with a nobler
crown than the laurels gathered from the moral improvement of
human minds. Our body molders in the grave, and our name
soon becomes a shadow upon the earth; but incorporated in the
voice of God, in plastic tradition, we shall live actively in the
minds of our posterity, even though our name be no more.
Thirdly: The philosophy of history, therefore, which follows
the chain of tradition, is, to speak properly, the true history of
mankind, without which all the outward occurrences of this
world are but clouds or revolting deformities. It is a melancholy
prospect to behold nothing in the revolutions of our earth but
wreck upon wreck, eternal beginnings without end, changes of cir-
cumstance without any fixed purpose.
The chain of improvement


## p. 7270 (#56) ############################################

7270
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
alone forms a whole of these ruins, in which human figures in-
deed vanish, but the spirit of mankind lives and acts immortally.
Glorious names, that shine in the history of cultivation as genii
of the human species, as brilliant stars in the night of time! Be
it that with the lapse of ages many of your edifices decay, and
much of your gold is sunk in the slough of forgetfulness: the
labors of your lives were not in vain, for such of your works as
Providence thought fit to save have been saved in other forms.
In any other way, no human monument can endure wholly and
eternally upon earth; being formed in the succession of genera-
tions by the hand of time for temporal use, and evidently preju-
dicial to posterity as soon as it renders unnecessary or retards
their further exertion. Thus the mutable form and imperfection
of all human operations entered into the plan of the Creator.
Folly must appear, that wisdom might surmount it; decaying
fragility even of the noblest works was an essential property of
their materials, that men might have an opportunity of exerting
fresh labors in improving or building upon their ruins; for we
are all here in a state of exercise. Every individual must depart;
and as it will then be indifferent to him what posterity may
do with his works, it would be repugnant to a good mind to
condemn succeeding generations to venerate them with inactive
stupidity, and undertake nothing of their own. This new labor
he wishes them; for what he carries with him out of the world
is his strengthened power, the internal ripe fruit of his human
activity.
Golden chain of improvement, that surroundest the earth and
extendest through all individuals to the throne of Providence,
since I perceived thee and traced thee in thy finest links, the
feelings of the parent, the friend, and the preceptor, history no
longer appears to me what it once did,- an abominable series of
desolations on a sacred earth. A thousand deeds of shame stand
there veiled with detestable praise, and thousands in their native
ugliness, to set off the rare true merit of active humanity; which
has ever proceeded on its way quietly and obscurely, seldom
aware of the consequences that Providence would educe from its
life, as the leaven from the dough. Only amid storms can the
noble plant flourish; only by opposing struggles against false pre-
tensions can the sweet labors of man be victorious. Nay, men
frequently appear to sink under their honest purposes; but it is
only in appearance: the seed germinates more beautifully in a


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7271
subsequent period from the ashes of the good, and when irrigated
with blood seldom fails to shoot up to an unfading flower. I
am no longer misled, therefore, by the mechanism of revolutions;
it is as necessary to our species as the waves to the stream,
that it become not a stagnant pool. The genius of humanity
blooms in continually renovated youth, and is regenerated as it
proceeds, in nations, generations, and families.
Translation of T. Churchill.
APOTHEOSIS OF HUMANITY
From the Philosophy of the History of Man'
N°
O SOPHISTICAL argument can lead us to deny that our earth
has grown older in the course of some thousands of years;
and that this wanderer round the sun is greatly altered
since its origin. In its bowels we perceive how it once was con-
stituted; and we need but look around us to see its present con-
stitution. The ocean foams no longer,—it has subsided peaceably
into its bed; the wandering streams have found their shores; and
plants and animals have run through a progressive series of years
in their different races. As not a sunbeam has been lost upon
our earth since its creation, so no falling leaf, no wasted seed,
no carcass of a decaying animal, and still less an action of any
living being, has been without effect. Vegetation, for example,
has increased, and extended itself as far as it could; every living
race has spread within the limits nature assigned it, through the
means of others; and even the senseless devastations of man, as
well as his industry, have been active implements in the hand of
Time. Fresh harvests have waved over the ruins of the cities
he has destroyed; the elements have strewed the dust of oblivion
upon them; and soon new generations have arisen, who have
erected new buildings upon the old, and even with their ancient
remains. Omnipotence itself cannot ordain that effects shall not
be effects; it cannot restore the earth to what it was thousands
of years ago, so that these thousands of years, with all their con-
sequences, shall not have been.
Already, therefore, a certain progress of the human species is
inseparable from the progress of Time, as far as man is included
in the family of Time and Earth. Were the progenitor of man-
kind now to appear and view his descendants, how would he be


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
astonished! His body was formed for a youthful earth; his frame,
his ideas, and his way of life, must have been adapted to that
constitution of the elements which then prevailed; and consider-
able alteration in this must have taken place in the course of six
thousand years or upwards. In many parts, America is no longer
what it was when discovered; two thousand years hence its an-
cient history will have the air of romance. Thus we read the
history of the siege of Troy, and seek in vain the spot where it
stood; in vain the grave of Achilles, or the godlike hero himself.
Were a collection of all the accounts that have been given of the
size and figure of the ancients, of the kind and quantity of their
food, of their daily occupations and amusements, and of their
notions of love and marriage, the virtues and the passions, the
purpose of life and a future existence, made with discriminating.
accuracy and with regard to time and place, it would be of no
small advantage toward a history of man. Even in this short
period, an advancement of the species would be sufficiently con-
spicuous to evince both the consistency of ever-youthful Nature
and the progressive changes of our old mother Earth. Earth
nurses not man alone; she presses all her children to one bosom,
embraces all in the same maternal arms: and when one changes
all must undergo change.
It is undeniable, too, that this progress of time has influenced
the mode of thinking of the human species. Bid a man now
invent, now sing, an Iliad; bid him write like Eschylus, like
Sophocles, like Plato: it is impossible. The childish simplicity,
the unprejudiced mode of seeing things,-in short, the youthful
period of the Greeks, is gone by. It is the same with the
Hebrews and the Romans; while on the other hand, we are
acquainted with a number of things of which both the Romans
and the Hebrews were ignorant. One day teaches another, one
century instructs another century; tradition is enriched; the muse
of Time, History, herself sings with a hundred voices, speaks
with a hundred tongues. Be there as much filth, as much con-
fusion, as there will, in the vast snowball rolled up by Time, yet
this very confusion is the offspring of ages, which could have
arisen only from the unwearied rolling on of one and the same
thing. Thus every return to the ancient times, even the cele-
brated Year of Plato, is a fiction; is, from the ideas of the world
and of time, an impossibility. We float onward; but the stream
that has once flowed returns no more to its source.


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7273
Where are the times when people dwelt as troglodytes, dis-
persed about in caves behind their walls, and every stranger was
an enemy? Merely from the course of time, no cave, no wall,
afforded security. Men must learn to know one another; for
collectively they are but one family, on one planet of no great
extent. It is a melancholy reflection that everywhere they first
learned to know one another as enemies, and beheld each other
with astonishment as so many wolves; but such was the order of
nature. The weak feared the strong; the deceived, the deceiver;
he who had been expelled, him who could again expel him; the
inexperienced child, every stranger. This infantile fear, however,
and all its abuses, could not alter the course of nature; the bond
of union between nations was knit, though in a rough manner
owing to the rude state of man. Growing reason may burst the
knots, but cannot untwist the band, and still less undo the dis-
coveries that have once been made. What are the geologies of
Moses and Orpheus, Homer and Herodotus, Strabo and Pliny,
compared with ours? What was the commerce of the Phoenicians,
Greeks, and Romans, to the trade of Europe? Thus, with what
has hitherto been effected, the clue to the labyrinth of what is to
be done is given us. Man, while he continues man, will not
cease from wandering over his planet till it is completely known
to him: from this neither storms nor shipwreck, nor those vast
mountains of ice, nor all the perils of either Pole, will deter him;
no more than they have deterred him from the first most diffi-
cult attempts, even when navigation was very defective. The
incentive to all these enterprises lies in his own breast, lies in
man's nature. Curiosity, and the insatiable desire of wealth,
fame, discovery, and increase of strength, and even new wants
and discontents, inseparable from the present course of things,
will impel him; and they by whom dangers have been sur-
mounted in former times, his celebrated and successful predeces-
sors, will animate him. Thus the will of Providence will be
promoted both by good and bad incentives, till man knows and
acts upon the whole of his species. To him the earth is given;
and he will not desist till it is wholly his own, at least as far as
regards knowledge and use. Are we not already ashamed that
one hemisphere of our planet remained for so long a time as
unknown to us as if it had been the other side of the moon?
How vast the progress from the first raft that floated on the
water, to an European ship! Neither the inventor of the former,


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
nor the many inventors of the various arts and sciences that
contribute to navigation, ever formed the least conception of
what would arise from the combination of their discoveries; each
obeyed his particular impulse of want or curiosity: but it is
inherent in the nature of the human intellect, and of the general
connection of all things, that no attempt, no discovery, can be
made in vain. Those islanders who had never seen a European
vessel beheld the monster with astonishment, as some prodigy of
another world; and were still more astonished when they found
that men like themselves could guide it at pleasure over the
trackless ocean. Could their astonishment have been converted
into rational reflection on every great purpose and every little
mean of this floating world of art, how much higher would their
admiration of the human mind have arisen! Whither do not the
hands of Europeans at present reach, by means of this single
implement? Whither may they not reach hereafter?
Besides this art, others innumerable have been invented within
the space of a few years by mankind, that extend their sway
over air and water, over earth and heaven. And when we
reflect that but few nations were engaged in this contest of men-
tal activity, while the greater part of the rest slumbered in the
lap of ancient custom; when we reflect that almost all our inven-
tions were made at very early periods, and scarcely any trace,
scarcely any ruin of an ancient structure or an ancient institu-
tion exists, that is not connected with our early history,— what
a prospect does this historically demonstrated activity of the
human mind give us for the infinity of future ages! In the few
centuries during which Greece flourished, in the few centuries
of modern improvement, how much has been perceived, invented,
done, reduced to order, and preserved for future ages, in Eu-
rope, the least quarter of the globe, and almost in its smallest
parts! How prolific the seeds that art and science have copiously
shed, while one nourishes, one animates and excites, the other!
As when a string is touched, not only everything that has music
resounds to it, but all its harmonious tones re-echo the sound till
it becomes imperceptible, so the human mind has invented and
created when a harmonious point of its interior has been hit.
When a new concord was struck in a creation where everything
is connected, innumerable new concatenations followed of course.
But it may be asked, How have all these arts and inventions
been applied? have practical reason and justice, and consequently


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JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
7275
the true improvement and happiness of the human species, been
promoted by them? In reply, I refer to what has recently been
urged respecting the progress of disorder throughout the whole
creation: that according to an intrinsic law of nature, nothing
can attain durability, which is the essential aim of all things,
without order. A keen knife in the hand of a child may wound
it; yet the art that invented and sharpened the knife is one of
the most indispensable of arts. All that use such a knife are
not children; and even the child will be taught by pain to use it
better. Artificial power in the hand of a despot, foreign luxury
in a nation without controlling laws, are such pernicious imple-
ments; but the very mischief they do will render men wiser, and
soon or late the art that created luxury as well as despotism
will first confine both within due bonds, and then convert them
into real benefits. The heavy plowshare wears itself out by long
use; the slight teeth of new watch-work gain, merely by their
revolution, the more suitable and artful form of the epicycloid.
Thus, in human powers, abuses carried to excess wear themselves
down to good practices, extreme oscillations from side to side.
necessarily settle in the desirable mean of lasting fitness in a
regular movement Whatever is to take place among mankind
will be effected by men; we suffer under our faults till we learn
of ourselves the better use of our faculties, without the assist-
ance of miracles from Heaven.
We have not the least reason, therefore, to doubt that every
good employment of the human understanding necessarily must
and will, at some time or other, promote humanity. Since agri-
culture has prevailed, men and acorns have ceased to be food
Man found that he could live better, more decently, and more
humanely, on the pleasing gifts of Ceres, than on the flesh of his
fellows or the fruits of the oak; and was compelled so to live by
the laws of men wiser than himself. After men had learned to
build houses and towns they ceased to dwell in caves; under the
laws of a commonweal, the poor stranger was no longer liable to
death. Thus trade brought nations together; and the more its
advantages were generally understood, the less murders, oppres
sions, and deceptions, which are always signs of ignorance in
commerce, would necessarily be practiced. Every addition to
the useful arts secures men's property, diminishes their labor,
extends their sphere of activity, and necessarily lays therewith the
foundations of further cultivation and humanity What labor was


## p. 7276 (#62) ############################################

7276
JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER
saved, for example, by the single invention of printing! what
an extensive circulation of men's ideas, arts, and sciences, did it
promote! Were a European Kang-Ti now to attempt to eradi-
cate the literature of this quarter of the globe, he would find it
impossible. Had the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, the Greeks
and Romans, possessed this art, the destruction of their literature
would not have been so easy to their spoilers, if it could by any
means have been accomplished. Let savage nations burst in
upon Europe, they could not withstand our tactics; and no Attila
will again extend his march from the shores of the Black Sea
and the Caspian to the plains of Catalonia. Let monks, sybarites,
fanatics, and tyrants arise as they will, it is no longer in their
power to bring back the night of the Middle Ages. Now, as no
greater benefit can be conceived to arise from any art, Divine or
human, than not merely to bestow on us light and order but
from its very nature to extend and secure them, let us thank the
Creator that he conferred understanding on mankind, and made
art essential to it. In them we possess the secret and the means
of securing order in the world.
Neither need we any way repine that many excellently con-
ceived theories, of morals not excepted, have remained so long
without being carried into practice among mankind. The child
learns much which the man alone can apply; but he has not
therefore learned in vain. The youth heedlessly forgets what at
some future period he must take pains to recollect, or learn a
second time. So, no truth that is treasured up, nay, no truth
that is discovered, among a race continually renovating, is wholly
in vain: future circumstances will render necessary what is now
despised; and in the infinity of things, every case must occur that
can in any way exercise the human species. As in the creation
we first conceive the power that formed chaos, and then disposing
wisdom, and harmonious goodness, so the natural order of man-
kind first develops rude powers; disorder itself must guide them
into the path of understanding: and the further the understanding
pursues its work, the more it perceives that goodness alone can
bestow on it durability, perfection, and beauty.


## p. 7277 (#63) ############################################

7277
JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
(1842-)
BY MAURICE FRANCIS EGAN
T
Is generally supposed that the sonnet had its origin in
Sicily. Sainte-Beuve, who himself wrote sonnets, admits
that the sonnet was Italian first: "Du Bellay, le premierque
l'apporta de Florence. " But before Petrarch was Thibaut, King of
Navarre. Some Italian writers claim for Ludovico della Vernaccia
(1200) the honor of having written the first sonnet in their language.
The secretary of Frederick the Second of Sicily wrote the celebrated
'Pero' ch' amore.
' The Provençals say that
the rhymes of the sonnet are imitations of
the recurring tinkling of the sheep-bells;
hence the name sonnette. At any rate, the
French have loved the sonnet almost as
well as the Italians, although they see it
from a somewhat different point of view.
When the famous Madame De Longueville
needed excitement, after the turmoil of a
furious life, she made a party for Voiture,
a sonneteer of the seventeenth century,
against another, Benserade. The rivalry

was fierce; all Paris was divided. The
interest in the rivals was as intense as,
later, between the Classicists and Roman-
ticists when Victor Hugo wrote 'Hernani. ' But for two centuries
France had not announced the possession of a great sonnet-writer,
when suddenly the Academy admitted José de Hérédia to a seat
among the Immortals. He was elected on February 22d, 1894, in
place of M. Mazade, receiving nineteen votes out of thirty-two; and
he was welcomed by M. François Coppée.
HÉRÉDIA
José-Maria de Hérédia was born on November 22d, 1842, at Fortuna-
Cafeyere, near Santiago de Cuba. He began his studies at the college
of St. Vincent at Senlis, in France, and continued them at the Uni-
versity of Havana, and in Paris at the École des Chartes. He trans-
lated and edited Bernal Diaz's 'Conquests in New Spain,' with notes
which gave him a reputation for acute and scrupulous research and


## p. 7278 (#64) ############################################

7278
JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
intelligent application of it. From the year 1862 he had, beginning
with the Revue de Paris, contributed to the leading Parisian period-
icals, including the Temps, the Journal des Débats, and the Revue des
Deux Mondes. He disappointed the hopes of admirers who thirsted
for the results of his studies in the École des Chartes and wanted
more light on South-American history; but he delighted the literary
circles by his poems 'Les Trophées' and 'Les Conquérants. ' The
volume containing these poems has already reached its fifteenth edi-
tion.
Such a demand for verse of no "popular" quality is remarkable.
In truth, Hérédia despises what is called "popularity. " He makes
no concessions to it, and keeps himself as much as possible in the
mood of Maurice de Guérin, who disliked to have a poem read out-
side of his intimate circle. He seems to rejoice in overcoming dif-
ficulties in form for the sake of overcoming them, and at the same
time making his thought or mood permeate the form. The divisions
of 'Les Trophées' show the specially literary quality of the mind of
Hérédia. It opens with 'Greece and Sicily'; this series of sonnets
including 'Hercules and the Centaurs,' 'Artemis and the Nymphs,'
and 'Perseus and Andromeda. ' The series that follows is called
'Rome and the Barbarians,' including the sonnets suggested by Catul-
lus in the group 'Hortorum Deus. ' Then come The Middle Age and
the Renaissance,' 'The Orient and the Tropics,' and 'Les Conqué-
rants. ' 'The Conquerors of Gold' and 'Romancero' are not in the
sonnet form. Some of the most exquisite sonnets written in France
are to be found in 'Les Trophées. ' It was no surprise to the readers
of Hérédia when he was elected to the Academy,-which, although
Daudet may parody it and outsiders revile it, cares more for quality
than quantity. But to most of the English-speaking world it was
a matter of amazement. The London critics, anxious to celebrate the
new Academician, were at first in doubt as to who he was. They
were equally amazed to find that this slim book, 'Les Trophées,'
had gone through at least ten editions; but since his election Hérédia
is better known, and his poems are appreciated by those who love
to see human knowledge and human feeling preserved like roses
in a block of imperishable crystal, carved in a thousand forms of
beauty.
Hérédia's impression of the sonnet is somewhat different from
the Italian, but not less difficult. In form it is Petrarcan as to the
octave, and it has no affinity with that English sonnet which closes
with the snappy couplet. The Italian sonnet is a syllogism, more or
less carefully concealed in a mist of sentiment. The French form,
while it holds to the quatrain followed by the two tercets, demands
a veiled climax in the second tercet. It must have a certain element


## p. 7279 (#65) ############################################

JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
7279
of surprise. The tercet adds a glow to the stately quatrain. In Ital-
ian, the sextet draws the conclusion or applies the principle suggested
by the quatrain. Henri Taine loved the music of Hérédia, who has
the Miltonic quality of so mingling sonorous proper names in his
sonnets that they make the chords to the lighter treble of the more
melodious phrases of his music. This is evident in 'Epiphany,' where
the names of the Magi are used both in the first line of the quatrain
and the last of the sextet.
"C'est ainsi qu'autrefois, sous Augustus Cæsar,
Sont venus, presentant l'or, l'encens et la myrrhe,
Les Rois Mages Gaspar, Melchior et Balthazar. »
(In other days under Augustus Cæsar
Came, presenting gold, incense, and myrrh,
The magi Gaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar. )
His management of the climax. which must, in the French form,
have an element of surprise, yet not be abrupt is admirable. The
sonnet to Rossi is a good example of this. Here, having dwelt in
the quatrains on the physical aspect of Rossi as Hamlet, Othello, and
Macbeth, he turns in the sextet to the spiritual effect of the actor's
recitation of parts of the 'Inferno,' and cries out that, trembling to
the depth of his soul, he has seen
"Alighieri, living, chant of hell. »
Hérédia varies the sextet by rhyming the first two lines, the third
and the fifth and the fourth and the sixth; and sometimes the third
with the sixth, couplets intervening. In the translation of the sonnet
'On an Antique Medal,' the Petrarcan sextet has been used. In the
'Setting Sun' one of Hérédia's forms has been followed. The other
sonnets, too, are of the mold of the originals.
manne Francis Eggan
-
-


## p. 7280 (#66) ############################################

7280
JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
THE CONQUERORS
F
ALCONS fierce they are from charnel nest,
Weary of flight and burdens of their woe;
From Palos of Moguer they spell-bound go,
Heroic dreams and coarse their minds invest.
Far in deep mines the precious gold-veins rest
Waiting for them; and as the trade-winds blow
Filling their sails, they drive them all too slow
To that mysterious shore,-world of the West.
The phosphorescent blue of tropic seas
Colored their dreams when in the languid breeze
They slept each eve in hope of morrows bright,—
Of epic morrows; or in unknown skies,
Leaning entranced, they saw from carvels white
From out the ocean, strange new stars arise.
THE SAMURAI
"It was a man with two swords »
HE bîva in her hand claims thought no more;
THE
Some sounds she thrums, as through the lattice
light
Of twist' bamboo, she sees, where all is bright
On the flat plain, her love and conqueror.
Swords at his sides comes he,- her eyes adore,—
His fan held high, red girdle: splendid sight!
Deep scarlet on dark armor; and unite
Great blazons on his shoulder, feared in war.
Like huge crustacean, shining black and red,
Lacquer and silk and bronze from feet to head,
Plated and brilliant is this loved one.
He sees her, smiles beneath his bearded masque;
And as he hastens, glitter in the sun
The gold antennæ trembling on his casque.


## p. 7281 (#67) ############################################

JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
7281
ON PIERRE RONSARD'S BOOK OF LOVE
IN
N BOURGUEIL'S pleasaunce many a lover's hand
Wrote many a name in letters big and bold
On bark of shady tree; beneath the gold
Of Louvre's ceiling, love by smiles was fanned.
What matters it? Gone all the maddened band!
Four planks of wood their bodies did enfold;
None now disputes their love, or longs to hold
Their dried-up dust,- part of the grassy land.
All dead. Marie, Hélène, Cassandra proud,
Your bodies would be nothing in their shroud,—
Lilies and roses were not made to last,-
If Ronsard, on the yellow Loire or Seine,
Had not upon your brows his garlands cast
Of myrtle and of laurel not in vain.
ON AN ANTIQUE MEDAL
THE
HE wine which gave the antique ecstasy
To great Theocritus, in purple gold
Still ripens on Mount Etna;
The gracious girls he sang in Sicily!
Greek Arethusa, slave or mistress free,
- none can hold
SUNSET
-
Lost the pure profile of ancestral mold,
Mixed in her veins of Angevin, proud and bold,
And Saracenic, burning furiously.
Time goes; all dies; marble itself decays;
A shadow Agrigentum! Syracuse
Sleeps, still in death, beneath her kind sky's shades; -
But the hard metal guards through all the days-
Silver grown docile unto love's own use
The immortal beauty of Sicilian maids.
THE
HE sunlit brush light to the dark rock lends,
And gilds the summit of the mountain dome
Where sets the sun; beyond - a bar of foam
The endless sea begins where the earth ends:
XIII-456


## p. 7282 (#68) ############################################

7282
JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
Beneath me, night and silence; tired man wends
To where the smoking chimney marks his home.
The Angelus, deadened by the mists that roam,
In the vast murmur of the ocean blends.
As from the depth of an abyss, the sound
Of far-off voices in the space around
Comes from belated herdsmen with their clan.
The western sky is clothed in shadows gray;
The sun on rich dark clouds sinks slow away
And shuts the gold sticks of his crimson fan.
TO THE TRAGEDIAN ROSSI
TRAIL
RAILING thy mantle black, I've seen thee break,
O Rossi, weak Ophelia's saddened heart,
And, as the love-mad Moorish tiger, start
Strangling the sobs thy victim could not wake;
I Lear, Macbeth have seen, and seen thee take
The last cold kiss in love's supremest part
Of older Italy; -high flights of art! -
Yet greater triumphs have I seen thee make:
For I did taste of joy and woe sublime
When I did hear thee speak the triple rhyme,-
In voice of gold you rang its iron knell;
And red, in reflex of the infernal fire,
My very soul moved by deep horror dire
Saw Alighieri, living, chant of hell!
MICHELANGELO
YES,
ES, he was darkly haunted, we may say,
When in the Sixtine, far from festal Rome,
Alone he painted wall or floating dome
With sibyls, prophets, and the Judgment Day.
He heard within him, weeping hard alway,
The Titan he would chain 'bove eagles' home,-
Love, country, glory and defeat,-like foam
In face of conquering death; his marble-falsest clay!
As well those heavy giants languid with strength,
Those slaves imprisoned in a stone vein's length,
As if he twisted them in their strange birth;


## p. 7283 (#69) ############################################

JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
7283
And in the marble cold had thrust his soul,
Making a fearful shiver through it roll,—
The anger of a god down-borne by earth.
AFTER PETRARCH
L
EAVING the church, with gesture tender, sweet,
Your noble hands throw gold unto the poor;
Your beauty brightens all the porch obscure,
And fills with Heaven's gold the dazzled street.
Saluting you, I humbly at your feet
Throw down my heart: yet you so proud and pure
Turn quick away; your veil you fast secure
In anger o'er your eyes, mine not to meet!
But love, which conquers hearts that most rebel,
Will not permit me in the gloom to dwell,—
The source of light to me refusing day;
You were so slow to draw the graceful shade
Of tremulous eyelash, which deep shadows made
That from the darkness shot a star's long ray.
EPITAPH
After the Verses of Henri III.
ERE sleeps, O passer, Hyacinth the Lord
Of Maugiron, dead, gone, at rest:
May God absolve and keep him near his breast;
Fallen to earth, he lies in holy sward.
None-even Quélus-wore the pearly cord,
Η
The plumèd cap, or ruff more meetly prest;
Behold by a new Myron well exprest
A spray of hyacinth in marble scored.
And having kissed him and most tenderly
Placed him in coffin, Henry willed that he
At Saint-Germain be laid;- fair, wan, he lies.
And wishing that such grief should never die,
He made in church, all changes to defy,
This sweet, sad symbol of Apollo's sighs.
-


## p. 7284 (#70) ############################################

7284
JOSÉ-MARIA DE HÉRÉDIA
"TIS NOON; THE LIGHT IS FIERCE »
'T¹5
Is noon; the light is fierce; the air is fire;
The ancient river rolls its waves of lead;
Direct from Heaven day falls overhead,—
Phra covers Egypt in relentless ire.
The eyes of the great sphinx that never tire-
The sphinx that bathes in dust of golden-red-
Follow with mystic looks the unmeasurèd
And needle-pointed pyramidal spire.
A darkened spot is on the sky of white,-
An endless flight of circling vulture wings;
A flame immense makes drowsy all earth's things.
The ardent soil is sparkling; full in sight
A brass Anubis, silent, still, and stark,
Turns to the sun its never-ending bark.
All the above translations are by Maurice Francis Egan, for 'A Library of the
World's Best Literature ›


## p. 7284 (#71) ############################################



## p. 7284 (#72) ############################################


YYYY
W
HERODOTUS.
20


## p. 7284 (#73) ############################################

7. 85
T
1.
ash
mest de Tetul storya fer bears, star gɔ to say the tive
f the "thor of a', tory,” The aft ཙཱུ ' story de 15. first
d in the ace of epic poetry, pased into the hangs
hets of the sixth ad with cent es, to whom must
the plan. cly a and rather starting discov ry that
b) a meirim of ht katue of their works we have little
The borderlad's of the Orient, vei in materials of fam-
6. tradition, of mythology, gen slogy, theogany, of diverse
Ps. 12 at a cistom, fumed them the natural straks to
The material hal o, grown the staid restramt of the
C and hurting the traditional akes, it read its i abroad
Ist fag
ik.
』ཟླ
at.
II
10
:
(.
PT
tre's of plebeian proe, Herein both the historical prose
cph'sophieal fund their source.
tus sted on the berer-line betw log orpay and b
Athriselt in to the logogr phers, art locked back
ther to I'mer as the head of his spild. In entitling his
*sed the word hi toria in the sense of story-teing, "tathi
Chvat r of s comp siten loto signe once es bi tory.
to de tie
Cicero,
v uren the fact that he was the first to shope solve-
its 10 we portrayal of a great historical pro ru 11g, 80
plot. The proccd. gwch h chose as his
: s proved to be one of pre itoportan e n the total pistory
les cydiza lor. It was the confiet betyren Grecoɛ a… 2 P 1.
father of history," fi: tawar I bi
w it w
1:1
Nog'r
of the 7th century B (--a great crisis and
ng history of that strange between Orientalis:n
which ever since bun. nr cord began, as been
progress by the shores of the Egean The
Ins therefore, wh the Eastern Question
is. "
meta y
!
HERODOTUS
600 ? 425 ? B. C. ,
BY BENJAMIN IDE WAFFLEP
7
T
६८
outs's par",
born in 1 ad
me was such as to sugest to him his then e
aruussus, a Doze city on the sontlig torn e ast
abort 450 B. C. , and died, probably at Tour in italy,
tau bet ve 428 and 426. It's life covers thas the pered
1. .
s. 11 wars to the Peloponnesian War, ard is ero *. -
period of Athers's bloom. He was born, vi 15


## p. 7284 (#74) ############################################

HEROLOT!
* J


## p. 7285 (#75) ############################################

7285
HERODOTUS
(490-426? B. C. )
BY BENJAMIN IDE WHEELER
HIS most delightful story-teller bears, strange to say, the title
of the "father of history. " The art of story-telling, first
fashioned in the usage of epic poetry, passed into the hands
of the logographers of the sixth and fifth centuries, to whom must
be accredited the relatively late and rather startling discovery that
prose could be a medium of literature. Of their works we have little
or nothing. The borderlands of the Orient, rich in materials of fam-
ily and city tradition, of mythology, genealogy, theogony, of diverse
national usage and custom, furnished them the natural stimulus to
their work. The material had outgrown the staid restraint of the
genteel epic, and bursting the traditional dikes, it spread itself abroad
in great levels of plebeian prose. Herein both the historical prose
style and the philosophical found their source.
Herodotus stood on the border-line between logography and his-
tory. He felt himself akin to the logographers, and looked back
through them to Homer as the head of his guild. In entitling his
work, he used the word historia in the sense of story-telling; but lifted
it by the character of his composition into its significance as history.
His claim to the title "father of history," first awarded him by Cicero,
rests primarily upon the fact that he was the first to shape a collec-
tion of stories into the portrayal of a great historical proceeding, so
as to endow it with a plot. The proceeding which he chose as his
subject has proved to be one of prime importance in the total history
of human civilization. It was the conflict between Greece and Per-
sia in the beginning of the fifth century B. C. ,—a great crisis and
turning-point in the long history of that struggle between Orientalism
and Occidentalism, which, ever since human record began, has been
almost perpetually in progress by the shores of the Ægean.
writing of history begins, therefore, with the Eastern Question.
The
Herodotus's early home was such as to suggest to him his theme.
He was born in Halicarnassus, a Doric city on the southwestern coast
of Asia Minor, about 490 B. C. , and died, probably at Thurii in Italy,
at some time between 428 and 426. His life covers thus the period
from the Persian wars to the Peloponnesian War, and is commen-
surate with the period of Athens's bloom. He was born, if we may


## p. 7286 (#76) ############################################

7286
HERODOTUS
trust Suidas's evidence, of a highly respectable Halicarnassian family;
and among his near relatives, probably his uncle, was Panyasis,—
a collector of myths and folk-lore, and an epic poet of considerable
distinction, whose influence in determining his younger kinsman's
tastes may well have been decisive. A revolution in the government
of the city, probably of the year 468, occasioned the death of Panyasis
and the exile of Herodotus. It is significant for the later attitude of
Herodotus, as shown in his writings, that in this affair he sided with
the democracy. After an exile of several years, part of which at
least he is said to have spent in Samos, he returned to his native
city, where later-at some time prior to 454-he participated in the
overthrowing of the tyrant Lygdamis. Continued political disturb-
ances caused him finally to withdraw permanently from the city. The
Jealousy of the mob, which had now joined itself to the hatred of the
aristocracy, had made his longer stay impossible.
From this time until 443, when he joined in founding the Athenian
colony of Thurii in Italy, he was a homeless, cityless wanderer on
the face of the earth. Athens, ever hospitable to strangers, afforded
him the nearest approach to a home, and here he naturally made his
abode at the end of his successive voyages. There is no good reason
for rejecting the information that in the year 445 he gave a public
reading of some portion of his history, and received therefor a vote
of thanks from the Athenian Council and a reward of ten talents.
The greater part of his travels was accomplished before this date;
for two years later, in search of a home and rest,—and probably too
of the leisure to complete his work,- he withdrew to Thurii. The
most probable order of his travels is that which takes him first along
the coasts of Asia Minor to the northern islands, Thrace, the Sea of
Marmora, Byzantium, and the coasts of the Black Sea; then at some
time after 445 brings him to the south, along the southern shores
of Asia Minor to Cyprus and the Syrian coast, and into the interior
through Syria and Mesopotamia to Babylon. Egypt he visited almost
certainly after 449, and Kyrene in northern Africa may well have
come next in order. The exploration of Greece proper,-where he
visited Dodona, Zakynthos, Delphi, Thebes, Platæa, Thermopylæ, and
various places in the Peloponnesus, including Corinth, Tegea, Sparta,
and probably Olympia,- belongs in the last years before his depart-
ure for Thurii.
There are not lacking those who, on the basis of inaccuracies in
our author's reports, deny that his itinerary ever took him far from
the coast line of the Egean and eastern Mediterranean. Thus Pro-
fessor Sayce, in his Introduction to Books i. -iii. , limits Herodotus's
travels to coasting trips along the shores of Thrace from Athos to
Byzantium, to Palestine and Syria, among the islands of the Ægean,


## p. 7287 (#77) ############################################

HERODOTUS
7287
with visits to Lower Egypt and certain sites in Greece. Though
Herodotus distinctly says he visited Egyptian Thebes, and pushed on
up the Nile as far as Elephantine, Mr. Sayce prefers to brand our
good friend as a deliberate liar, forsooth, because he calls Elephan-
tine a village instead of an island, and does not wax warm enough in
praise of the wonders of Thebes! To those who have read the pages
of Herodotus as they were meant to be read, and have not used them
exclusively as material for seminary criticism, the genial simplicity of
the writer is likely to be too well known to suffer his being made an
arrant rogue on slight evidence. He loved a good story, and surely
would not let it take harm in his hands; but plain lying was not his
forte. There really exists no sufficient reason for supposing he did
not visit the places he actually says he did.
After settling at Thurii, he may on occasion have taken up again
the wander-staff; but direct evidence does not exist. It is not even
certain that he visited Athens again. His mention of the Propylaia
(Book v. , 77) refers by no means certainly to the Propylaia of Mne-
sicles, completed in 432, but more probably to the older structure on
the same site. His allusion to events in Athenian history occurring
after the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (431) does not necessi-
tate the hypothesis of residence in Athens. His whole attitude, on
the contrary, toward the issues and events involved in that struggle,
betrays the feeling of one observing from a distance, rather than of
an eye-witness and participant.
Pitifully little it is, therefore, that we know about the man him-
self. When after a period of relative neglect his writings sprang
again into attention in the second century B. C. , the facts of his life
had so far been forgotten- fate of a man without a country! - that
even the busy gleaning of the grammarians failed to find materials
sufficient to construct a fair biography. He lives only in his writ-
ings. Whether he wrote anything else than the nine books of history
that have come down to us under his name is not perfectly certain,
though he in two different passages promises to return to a subject
in his 'Assyrian Notes. ' Aristotle in his Animal History' cites a
remark of Herodotus that may well have had a place in such a work,
and certainly is not taken from his existing writings; but there is no
other evidence that any such book existed. The theory that he wrote
it and intended ultimately to incorporate it in his history, much as
he did the Egyptian Notes' which constitute the second book, is
rendered improbable by the evident completeness of plan characteriz-
ing the existing work.
(
The History as we have it is divided into nine books, named from
the nine Muses. This division, not mentioned by any one before Dio-
doros (who lived in the first century B. C. ), and not presupposed by
-


## p. 7288 (#78) ############################################

7288
HERODOTUS
the author himself in referring to other parts of his history, may
have been the handiwork of the Alexandrine grammarian; but was
fittingly made, and corresponds to real lines of division which must
have been present to the author's mind and purpose. In spite of the
bewildering variety of the material brought together in the single
books, and in spite of digressions and excursuses, each book will be
found to contribute its distinct and appropriate part to the plan of
the whole, and steadily to lead the subject up to its complete unfold-
ing.