No More Learning

l. 0 ii 0 ii 0 3 0 2 0 8 '! )' 4 *3 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 OldAge ~0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Physical Danger 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 . li 0 3 3 0 3 0 14 3 3 1 0 0 0 0
Superiority Taska Uncongenial ?
Environment
&. rhese fifteen variables showed the highest reliability (. 63 to . 83) between scores of. two independent raters
(seep. ).
Note: Underlining indicates that there is a notable difference in total scores for the variable in question between subjects scoring low and those scoring high ? on the Ethnocentrism scale. Where a score is underlined once, the variable is more pronounced in stories of low scorers; where underlined twice. the variable is lll)re pronounced in stories of high scorers. ?
Succorance
Afflictiona
Birth-offspring 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 ~ 0
. II. 0 ll 0 0 0 0 0 J. . 0 3
t
0 'U 0
~
0 0 1 0 12 0 0 0 3 0 ~ 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 ii 0 0 0 0 0 8 3 2 0 "iii 0 1! 2 14 0 :l1 0 . m 0 ~ 1 . ! l! . 0 . l! . 1 1 3 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 2 =zy 0 ;a 0 27 g 28 ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 0 0 3 2
? NeedVariables:
Abasement
n on n on l9 4 19 3 16 0 14 0
39 i6 0 8 8 1. :Ill
? 0 l! ! , 0 12 1 14 2
n on 6 0
39 0 il 5 16 3
6 12 8 ? . 3 5
n on
n on n on n on n on 9 0 I2 0 184 +152 . 2! 1.
Press Variables: p op p op
pop pop pop
/basement
Acquisition
Affiliation
Aggression
Cognizance
Deference
Dominance
Excitance
Exposition
Nurturance
Rejection
Sex
Succorance
AfflictiOD
Birth-offspring
BadLuck
Claustrum
DeatbofHero ll. 3 ! . 3 DeathofObjoct
~ 0 1! I 0 0 0 3 3 0 0 0 18 0 7 2 13 0 4 l! ! ! . 1? . 8
THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST TABLE . 5 (XIV) 8
INTEl'ISITIIlS OF NEliD AND PRESS VARIA! LilS AS EJa>RESSm IN SIDRIIlS TOLD BY 111l11EN
Picture 7 Picture a Picture 9 Picture to Totals 10 Pictures
Low H i g h Low H i g h Low H i g h Low H i g h Low H i g h
&x>rers &x>rers &x>rers Scorers Scorers &x>rers &x>rers &x>rers Scorers Scorers
Achievement
Acquisition 31 5
Affiliation Ti 3
Aggression 11 5
Autonomy ! ? . ,!
Blamavoidance 0 l! 1. 2 0 0 0 Blamescape
{l)gnizance
Construction
Counteraction
Deference
Defendance
Dominance
Excitance
Exposition
Harmavoidance 0 0 0 0
Infavoidance 0 0 4 0
Nurturance
Nutriance
Passivity
Play
Recognition
Rejection
Retention
Seclusion
Sentience
Sex
Succorance
Understanding ""1 0 . ! ! . 0 li 0
31 1 11 2 148 91 5 0 0 3 2 122 23 ~ 31 4 2 3 0 164 13 139 16 ~ 0 l01 46 136 45 4 0 ill ~ 1! 2 il 4 0 34 ! ! . 35 ! ! . 0 0 15 . ! 1. 31 1 Zl 0 ill 5 112 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 2 ~ 2 30 30 7 0 4ii l! 53 ! ! . 18 0 ;u 0 31 0 128 6 100 7
r 0 t 0 12 0 9 3 6 0 2 2
6 0 7 3
2 0 0 0 16 2 15 0
14 4 11 0 0 0
1! ! 0 2 2 60
6 3
10 2
14 0 0 0
0 0
il. 2 00
~4 00
li 3 15 0
17? 3 0 0 2 0 l! ! 0 3 0
l! 5 0 0 0 0 1. 0 0 0
16 0 0 0
? o 0 11 6 11 0
0 0 2 0 0 1
li il.
23 0 0 0 ? o . 3 -3 0
31 2
~ 3 0 0 0 3 0 0
0 0 4 2 6 0 00
12. 3 3 0 6 0
6 . Q,_ 9 1. . 8 0 6 0 I 0 0 0
1-3. i0 40
00 30 31 0 350 ~ 0 12 0
pop pop 0 0 0 0
0 0 ll 11 52 15 340228A2ls1! ! 1. 0 78 3 71 2
p op p op p op 0 0 <! . 0 U- I
0
! ! 4 13 0
17 0 j? 0 15 0
0 0 0 0
i0 ~ 0 I 0 ~
5 0 13 4
0 0 0 0 4 0 l\1 3 . 22. 3 17 . 0 3 0 0 0 130 2 123 9 1 il. ! ! - 0 ~ 3 I'Zl 31 125 42 i27~3. lliil! 020 3 0 54 16 57 21 i4 0 8 0 lO i) 84 6 93 3 18 3 17 0 14 0 179 27 149 33 204020 ~ 0 51 3 67 1 31 0 114 4 Ill 10 ii. 0 8 0 5 3 1? . 1 13 122 18 0 0 61 2 45 6 0 0 19 3 ll 0 li: 0 0 0 10~14 00~0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~2 0
~ 0 03 19 0 . ! i 0 Zi 0 22 4
li 0 mI i5 0 13 7 I5 0 17 4 0 ii 0 0 0 0 200090 14 0 14 0 l9 0 7 0 7 0 ! i 3
0 0 5 0 ff 2 27 3
0~ H 0
0000 lO 0 ~ 0 7 0 24 0
. ! l! 3 1. I ~ 0 if 0 2 0 0 0 23 0 0 00 6 0 0 0 ii 0 22
2 0 0 0 0 . o 0 0 3 0
0 9 0 ~ 0 0 0 10 3 5 0
3 0 0 0
0040
2 0 0 0
II 0 7 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 18 3 20 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 35 3 41 6
4
n on n on
18 0 1. 0 8 0 8 0 4370 21 0 ! ! 0
4 0 :! . ? 0 12 3 I2 3
4 0
40 lO 0 00
1t 8 0
3 0 60 8 0 00
. i! i 2 3. 0 50 30 ~ 4 0 0 5 0 H 0 3 0 0 2 0 ~ 0 ~ 5 0 15 0 14 l! . 11 ~ 15 0 . 2. ~ 9 10 4 7 2 . a. 5
00 63 00 1. 0
? o 0
? 9 0 0 0? 0 ? o Q. 0 M 0
0 0
. ! 1. 0 2 0 31 0
15 0 2 0 0 0 I 3
5 0 0 2 00 80
00 40 00
009060
2 0 60 8 62 13
? o 0 r! ! . 5 . ! ! ! 2
l9 0 . ! Q! ! . 7 1. ! ! . 14
I 3 4 0 1. 0 14 0 11 ,! ~ 3 0000 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 030303 6 0 7 0 0 0 ! ! 8 l! 0 8 0 5 ii I ii 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 6 0
? 1 0 2 0
Failure
Gratuity
Inferior! ty Q:0i. 0 30ii0 0000 0000 7~715 InJury 00000000000030003~0~ Lack
Loss
OldAge
PhysicalDanger 0 0 0 0
Superior! ty
Task
Uncongenial
Env i ronmen t
4 0 3 0
14 0 4 0 3 0 2 0
13 0 0 0 2 0 75 2 64 11 7 0 0 0 3 0 30 iF 36 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 0 l9 3 2 0 6 0 ! ! . 0 34 3 Zl 6
0 0 0 0 12 0 9 0
3 0 2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 a 0 ii 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 2
~ 0
3 0
ii 0 0 0
8 0 8 0 8 0 2 0 ii 0 33 0
11 0 14 0
10 0 ii 0 ! ! 0 47 0 24 0 12 0 ~ 0 l 0 ! 06 6 62 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 . ll j_ ~ ! Z
0 2 0 0 li 0 24 0
~ 0 8? 0
24 0 14 0 1'18 5 1! 1 0 0 0 0 13 2 3 0 l! 0 ! ! . 0 5i 10 9 16 3 o? . 2 0 M 4 ai 4 16' 0 8 0 8 0 104 &. 95 ~ 8 2 7 0 '99 Zl 117 26 0 0 0 0 8 6 12 2 6 0 ! ! . 0 82 14 21 10 2 0 ~ o? . ! ! 0 ~ 0 ~ 2
0 0 12 0 0 2 0 35 17 42 31 4 0 ~ 3 ~ 6 12 0 lOI 8 105 2.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
scored was about the same for unprejudiced and prejudiced subjects (Low- scoring Women I657/High-scoring Women I638) (Low-scoring Men I538/High-scoring Men I5II), but press directed at characters with whom the subject did not identify-object press-was more common among prej- udiced subjects (Low-scoring W omen I75/High-scoring W omen 249) (Low-scoring Men I68/High-scoring Men 33I).
It is apparent from the data reported above that expressions which could properly be scored as need variables are scored more heavily for the stories of unprejudiced subjects while object need and object press variables have higher scores in the case of stories of prejudiced subjects. The press variables have about equal scoring in the case of the stories of each group. The ques- tion then remains as to which of the individual variables that go to make up the above summarized need and press scores differentiate the prejudiced and unprejudiced subjects.
An analysis of single variables on this basis follows. The variables are grouped in terms of certain similarities indicated in the headings below.
Each notation of a variable, or of a group of variables, is followed by the mean per person (in the case of unprejudiced and of prejudiced subjects) of the total of the intensity scores (or, where indicated, frequency scores) for that variable or for each variable within the cluster being discussed.
Aggressive Rebellion Needs. The need variables of aggressive rebellion appear to be rated higher for low- than for high-scoring men. The ratio of the mean scores of unprejudiced to those of prejudiced men for these vari- ables are: n Aggression 7? 715? 7, n Autonomy 6. 5/5? 9, n Rejection 5? 5/2. 9.
However, prejudiced men describe more aggressive and rebellious be- havior by objects (on Aggression 2. o;4. 2, on Autonomy 1. 8/2. 6, on Rejec- tion ? 9/I. 5)?
This differentiation does not hold for women, except in the case of Auton- omy (n Autonomy, Low-scoring mean 5. 7, High-scoring mean 4. o; on Autonomy, Low-scoring mean 1. 0, High-scoring mean 2. 4). n Aggression and n Rejection both tend to have a slightly higher scoring in the case of "high" than of "low" stories (n Aggression 5. oj6. 9; n Rejection 5. o/5? 4). However, characters are often condemned by both groups for aggressive or rejective behavior (on Aggression: Low-scoring group 2. 4/High-scoring group 2. 3; on Rejection: Low-scoring group 1. 3/High-scoring group 1. 3).
In most cases the proportion of frequency of occurrence of a variable in stories of low- as compared to those of high-scoring men is about equal to the intensity proportions. The variables of n Aggression and n Autonomy are among the few whose frequency scores are worthy of special reference.
n Autonomy and on Autonomy appear as frequently in the stories of prejudiced as in the stories of unprejudiced men. Since the intensity scores of the two variables are differentiating for the two groups of subjects, we
? THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
may conclude that the unprejudiced men identify with more intense expres- sion of autonomy, whereas prejudiced men, when describing strong auton- omous striving, tend to condemn the individual for his actions. We find also that the greater intensity of on Aggression in the stories of prejudiced men is due largely to higher scorings for each expression rather than to a greater frequency of expression (ratio of average intensity per expression: 2. 5/3. 8). Even the expressions of n Aggression, although less frequent, tend toward more intensity in stories of high-scoring men (ratio: 3. of3. 2). It would appear then that high-scoring men describe more intense aggression than do low- scoring men, although more often denying identification with the aggressive act.
The differences in scored autonomy-both needs and object needs-of prejudiced and unprejudiced women are due to its greater incidence in the stories of one group than in those of the other, rather than to its stronger expression. Although greater frequency but not intensity also accounts for a higher total rating of on Aggression, intensity ratings of n Aggression tend to be greater for prejudiced than for unprejudiced women (mean ratio of 3 to 2. 5).
Submissive Withdrawal Needs. In contrast to the tendency of low- scoring men to describe more rebellion in their stories than do high-scoring men, the latter have a greater tendency toward expression of submissive, withdrawal needs (n Abasement: Low-scoring men 7? 9/High-scoring men
w. o; n Blamavoidance: Low-scoring men 1. 8/High-scoring men 3. 2; n Se- clusion: Low-scoring men 1. 9/High-scoring men 2. 5).
These differences do not hold for our female subjects. In fact, n Abasement appears to be somewhat higher for low- than for high-scoring women (Low- scoring mean 9. 2/High-scoring mean 7. 6), although scoring of on Abasement is greater for the prejudiced than for the unprejudiced women (Low-scoring mean . 5/High-scoring mean 1. 3).
Needs of Creative Expression. All the variables pertaining to construc- tive and creative behavior that differentiate high and low scorers indicate a predominance of expression on the part of the low scorers. The ratio of the mean scores of nonprejudiced to those of prejudiced men for these variables are: n Cognizance, 6. of3. 7; n Expression 4. 2j2. 9; n Understanding 1. 8j. 4; p Task 4? 3/3. 2? For the women the ratio is n Achievement 7-4/4. 5; n Cogni- tion 7-I/5. 6; n Construction 1. 0j. 2; n Expression 5? 4/3-5; p Task 5-3/3. 1.
Needs of Sensual Expression. We found also that all the needs of sensual expression are scored higher in stories of low scorers than in those of high scorers. Men: n Excitance I. 25/1. o5; n Passivity 2. 95. 12. 25; n Play 3-05/1. 65; n Sex 5. 7of3. 8o; n Sentience 3? 50/. 90. Women: n Excitance 1. 5/. 9; n Pas- sivity 2. 6/. 5; n Play 2. 8/1. 4; n Sex 3? 7/2. 6; n Sentience 2. 7/1. 2.
The scoring of object needs of sensual expression is greater for high- than
? so6 THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY
for low-scoring men (mean of sum of sensual needs scored on: Low-scoring men 1. 7/High-scoring men 3. 2). The total scoring of object needs of sensual expression in the case of both groups? of women is not appreciable.
Other Single Needs Differentiating Low and High Scorers. Two other variables have sufficiently greater scores for unprejudiced than for prejudiced women to deserve special mention: n Nurturance (Low-scoring mean 8. 9/ High-scoring mean 4. 6) and n Acquisition (Low-scoring mean 6. 1/High- scoring mean 3. 7). The latter variable appears to be especially differentiating in stories told in response to Pictures 2 and 4, where the subjects often inter- pret the picture as indicating poverty, and in stories to Picture 7, where it appears to be related to the tendencies toward achievement and rebellion of the low-scoring women.
Press Variables from Human and Nonhuman Sources. Variables of press from human sources are expressed as often and with equal intensity by low and high scorers. Press from threatening nonhuman sources tends to be more common in stories of high- than in those of low-scoring subjects. The fan- tasies of permanent damage to the human body, scored as p Affiiction and p Death-hero, are found to be especially differentiating between high and low scorers, both men and women (p Affiiction: Women, Low-scoring mean 2. 8/High-scoring mean 3. 7; Men, Low-scoring mean 2. 4/High-scoring mean 5. 2) (p Death-hero: Women 1. 5/2. 8; Men r. 8/3. 2).
Reference to undefined misfortune, p Bad Luck, is also more common in high-scoring subjects (Women: Low-scoring mean . 1jHigh-scoring mean 1. 2; Men: Low-scoring mean . 6/High-scoring mean 1. 4).
2. THEMATIC ANALYSIS
a. ExPLANATION OF THE METHOD. The thematic analysis, instead of meas- uring each separate variable, examines the variables in combination. Here we discover not how much of each individual variable is expressed, but rather how often certain patterns of variables occur. This type of analysis has
the advantage of molarity with the disadvantage, often, of ambiguity.
The concept of thema is taken over from Murray (89). He defines it as "the dynamic structure of an event on a molar level," the "combination of a particular press or preaction or outcome and a particular need. " When dia- grammatically expressing a thema pattern, arrows are used to represent the direction of influence: e. g. , p Dominance ~ n Deference means that press Dominance imposed upon the hero causes him to express Deference; n Sen- tience ~ n Sex means that need for Sentience causes the hero to express a need for Sex; n Succorance ~~ n Nurturance means that two equally im-
portant heroes express a mutual nurturance-succorance relationship.
We constructed hypothetical "low" and "high" thema categories after careful study of the differences in need and press scores shown in Tables
? THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
s(XIV)A and s(XIV)B, and after observation of the stories told in response to each picture by each of the low and high scorers. Such categQries were thought of as giving the general trends of the content of the stories. They were representative of differences in the more common variable constellation in the stories of our "high" as compared with our "low" subjects. We noted especially certain constellations in which one variable was equally weighted for "high" and "low" subjects. We noted also certain differences in the types of identifications with the heroes who expressed certain needs, and differ- ences in the object toward which the action was directed. A list of "low" and "high" categories was thus compiled-one for men and one for women.
There were several categories for each picture.
After the thema categories had been empirically derived in the fashion
described above, each set of 40 stories (i. e. , the stories told in response to each picture by the 40 men and by the 40 women tested) were scored "blindly" by two scorers, one staff member and one graduate student who had had no previous experience on our study. The scorers had only the derived categories as criteria by which to judge the "highness" or "lowness" of the subject who had told a particular story. Each story had been coded for identification, separated from other stories told by the same person, and randomly placed among the rest of the stories. Thus, judgments were based on the content of the single story. Every story thema was judged in terms of the thema category it most resembled. It should be pointed out that not all stories told conformed to patterns of the thema categories adopted as criteria. They were often more complex and sometimes included a combina- tion of two or three themes. Scoring problems created by story complexity were dealt with by two methods. ( r) The use of a neutral category when the theme of a particular story differed widely from any of the categories (about ro per cent of the judgments fell in the neutral category); (2) scor- ing 'if or Ya to each of two or three included themes.
The percentage of agreement between the two scorers as to their "High," "Low," or "Neutral" judgments was higher on some pictures than on others. The mean percentage agreement of judgments on men's stories was 76, the range of percentages being from 70 to So. The scorers had a mean percentage agreement of 79 on their ratings of the women's stories. Although the agree- ment was only 63 per cent for Picture 3, the range of percentages for the other nine sets of stories was from 74 to 9r.
Examples of thema variables are included (in Sll). all print) in the following comparison of the stories told by low- and high-scoring subjects. Each ex- ample is followed by a notation, in parenthesis, of the picture concerned and of the number of times the given thema was found, by each of the two scorers, to occur in stories of subjects scoring low on the Ethnocentrism scale and by subjects scoring high on this scale. The practice of assigning
? so8 THE AUTHORIT ARIAN PERSONALITY
scores of ~ or Ya to each of two or three themes found in a given story accounts for the fractional totals which appear in the following summaries of themes.
Within the discussion, notations are made also from time to time of the sum of intensity scores on a particular variable (reflected in the stories to the picture in question) in the case of low-scoring subjects and in the case of high-scoring subjects.
We have chosen to discuss stories told in response to Pictures 1 and 7 (dealing with parental figures) first; stories to 3 and 5 (relationships to oppo- site sex) next; and then stories to 8 and 10 (responses to nonfamilial press), considering the men's stories and then the stories of the women subjects. Stories of both men and women told in response to the special pictures por- traying members of minority groups (2, 4, 6, 9) are discussed last. The
reader is referred to Table 4(XIV). b. RESULTS
1. Comparison of Stories Told by High- and by Low-scoring Men in Response to the Pictures from the Murray Series
PICTURE M I. Male subjects in both groups usually identify the characters as father and son or "older man" and "younger man. " Identification tends to be mainly with the son, who is said to be somber, sad, distressed. Many of the themes told to this picture describe the older man in the capacity of advisor or counselor. There is a greater tendency for low- than for high- scoring men to describe the younger man's reaction to this supervision as respectful (n Deference: Low scorers I], High scorers 8) and for high scorers to describe it as submissive (n Abasement: Low scorers I9, High scorers 30).
(p Dominance~ n Submissive Abasement): The hero is reprimanded by the father for having committed an antisocial act. He responds with feelings of shame and submission to the instructions of the older man. The father figure acts as a restraining force, not just as an advisor or counselor. There is often a nurturant aspect to the father's dominance, but the dominance is the stronger press. (M1: Low scorers, 2, r; High scorers, 8, g. )
There appears to be a tendency for both groups to describe fantasies of rebellion against the older man's advice (n Autonomy, Low scorers 25; High scorers I 8).
(p Nurturance-Dominance ~ n Autonomy-Rejection): The older man is advis- ing the younger one. The younger man rejects the older man's advice. The father is deeply hurt, or in some way shows genuine concern over the action of the younger man-a concern other than a desire to dominate the boy. (Mr: Low scorers 7, 6; High scorers 6, 7. )
However, there is a greater tendency for the high scorers to follow
? MURRAY PICTURES G1VEN TO MEN AND WOMEN
MEN WOMEN
? Credits. Picture 2: Courtesy of Life, Copyright Time, Inc. Picture 6: Courtesy of Fortune Magazine.
Photograph by Otto Hagel.
? THE THEMA TIC APPERCEPTION TEST
this theme with punishment?