The comedy is the oldest of Terence’s, and was exhibited by the theatrical
authorities on the recommendation of Caecilius.
authorities on the recommendation of Caecilius.
The history of Rome; tr. with the sanction of the ... v.4. Mommsen, Theodor, 1817-1903
57).
This was certainly inconsistent with the spirit of these corporations ; but they had no right to complain of after they had become themselves untrue to their spirit, and had played
it,
can. x1: AND EDUCATION
:07
into the hands of the government at its request by fur nishing religious pretexts for the annulling of political proceedings. This affair became an apple of contention between the parties: the senate heat off the first attack in 609, on which occasion the Scipionic circle especially turned 145. the scale for the rejection of the proposal; on the other hand the project passed in 650 with the proviso already 104. made in reference to the election of the presidents for the benefit of scrupulous consciences, that not the whole bur
but only the lesser half of the tribes should make the election (iii. 46;) ; finally Sulla restored the right of co-optation in its full extent (p. 115).
With this care on the part of the conservatives for the Practical
usemado ofreliglon.
Hortensius for instance brought roast peacocks
into vogue. Religion was also found very useful in giving greater zest to scandal. It was favourite recreation of
the youth of quality to disfigure or mutilate the images of
the gods in the streets night (iii. 480). Ordinary love affairs had for long been common, and intrigues with married women began to become so; but an amour with
Vestal virgin was as piquant as the intrigues with nuns and
the cloister-adventures in the world of the Decamerone.
The scandalous affair of 640 r:y. well known, in which 114. three Vestals, daughters of the noblest families, and their paramours, young men likewise of the best houses, were brought to trial for unchastity first before the pontifical college, and then, when sought to hush up the matter, before an extraordinary court instituted by special decree
gesses
pure national religion, it was of course quite compatible that the circles of the highest rank should openly make a jest of The practical side of the Roman priesthood was
the priestly :uirine; the augural and pontifical banquets were as were the official gala-days in the life of Roman epicure, and several of them formed epochs in the history of gastronomy: the banquet on the accession of the augur
Quintus
it
by
is
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it.
a
Oriental
208 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, soon rv
of the people, and were all condemned to death. Such scandals, it is true, sedate people could not approve; but there was no objection to men finding positive religion to be a folly in their familiar circle; the augurs might, when one saw another performing his functions, smile in each other’s face without detriment to their religious duties. We learn to look favourably on the modest hypocrisy of kindred tendencies, when we compare with it the coarse shamelessness of the Roman priests and Levites. The official religion was quite candidly treated as a hollow framework, now serviceable only for political machinists; in this respect with its numerous recesses and trap-doors it might and did serve either party, as it happened. Most of all certainly the oligarchy recognized its palladium in the state-religion, and particularly in the augural discipline; but the opposite party also made no resistance in point of principle to an institute, which had now merely a semblance of life; they rather regarded on the whole, as bulwark which might pass from the possession of the enemy into their own.
In sharp contrast to this ghost of religion which we have
religions in just described stand the difi‘erent foreign worships, which
Italy.
this epoch cherished and fostered, and which were at least undeniably possessed of very decided vitality. They meet us everywhere, among genteel ladies and lords as well as among the circles of the slaves, in the general as in the trooper, in Italy as in the provinces. It incredible to what height this superstition already reached. When the Cimbrian war Syrian prophetess, Martha, offered to furnish the senate with ways and means for the vanquishing of the Germans, the senate dismissed her with contempt; nevertheless the Roman matrons and Marius’ own wife in particular despatched her to his head-quarters, where the general readily received her and carried her about with him till the Teutones were defeated. The leaders of very
a
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can. xrr AND EDUCATION
209
different parties in the civil war, Marius, Octavius,
coincided in believing omens and oracles. During its course even the senate was under the necessity, in the troubles of 66 7, of consenting to issue directions in accord- 81. ance with the fancies of a crazy prophetess. It is significant
of the ossification of the Romano-Hellenic religion as well
as of the increased craving of the multitude after stronger religious stimulants, that superstition no longer, as in the Bacchic mysteries, associates itself with the national religion; even the Etruscan mysticism is already left behind; the worships matured in the sultry regions of the east appear throughout in the foremost rank. The copious introduction
of elements from Asia Minor and Syria into the population, partly by the import of slaves, partly by the augmented trafi‘ic of Italy with the east, contributed very greatly to this result.
The power of these foreign religions is very distinctly apparent in the revolts of the Sicilian slaves, who for the most part were natives of Syria. Eunus vomited fire, Athenion read the stars; the plummets thrown by the slaves in these wars bear in great part the names of gods, those of Zeus and Artemis, and especially that of the mysterious Mother who had migrated from Crete to Sicily and was zealously worshipped there. A similar effect was produced by commercial intercourse, particularly after the wares of Berytus and Alexandria were conveyed directly to the Italian ports; Ostia and Puteoli became the great marts not only for Syrian unguents and Egyptian linen, but also for the faith of the east. Everywhere the mingling of religions was constantly on the increase along with the mingling of nations. Of all allowed worships the most popular was that of the Pessinuntine Mother of the Gods, which made a deep impression on the multitude by its eunuch-celibacy, its banquets, its music, its begging pro cessions, and all its sensuous pomp; the collections from
Sulla‘
VOL. IV
1x4
worships.
are NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK 1v
house to house were already felt as an economic burden. In the most dangerous time of the Cimbrian war Battaces the high-priest of Pessinus appeared in person at Rome, in order to defend the interests of the temple of his goddess there which was alleged to have been profaned, addressed the Roman people by the special orders of the Mother of the Gods, and performed also various miracles. Men of sense were scandalized, but the women and the multitude were not to be debarred from escorting the prophet at his departure in great crowds. Vows of pilgrimage to the east were already no longer un common; Marius himself, for instance, thus undertook a pilgrimage to Pessinus; in fact even thus early (first in
101. 653) Roman burgesses devoted themselves to the eunuch priesthood.
star-gazing
the former Cappadocian goddess appeared in a dream to Sulla, and of the later Roman communities of Isis and Osiris the oldest traced their origin to the
appearance;
great
But the unallowed and secret worships were naturally still more popular. As early as Cato’s time the Chaldean horoscope-caster had begun to come into competition with the Etruscan lzaruqfiex and the Marsian bird-seer (iii. I16) ;
and astrology were soon as much at home in I89. Italy as in their dreamy native land. In 615 the Roman praetor peregrinur directed all the Chaldeans to evacuate
Rome and Italy within ten days. The same fate at the same time befel the Jews, who had admitted Italian prose lytes to their sabbath. In like manner Scipio had to clear the camp before Numantia from soothsayers and pious
97. impostors of every sort. Some forty years afterwards (657) it was even found necessary to prohibit human sacrifices. The wild worship of the Cappadocian Ma, or, as the Romans called her, Bellona, to whom the priests in their festal processions shed their own blood as a sacrifice, and the gloomy Egyptian worships began to make their
CHAP. XII AND EDUCATION
Sullan period. Men had become perplexed not merely as to the old faith, but as to their very selves; the fearful crises of a. fifty years’ revolution, the instinctive feeling that the civil war was still far from being at an end, increased the anxious suspense, the gloomy perplexity of the multi tude. Restlessly the wandering imagination climbed every height and fathomed every abyss, where it fancied that it might discover new prospects or new light amidst the fatalities impending, might gain fresh hopes in the desperate
struggle against destiny, or perhaps might find merely fresh alarms. A portentous mysticism found in the general distraction—political, economic, moral, religious-—the soil which was adapted for and grew with alarming rapidity; was as gigantic trees had grown by night out of the earth, none knew whence or whither, and this very marvellous rapidity of growth worked new wonders and seized like an epidemic on all minds not thoroughly fortified.
Just as in the sphere of religion, the revolution begun in Education. the previous epoch was now completed also the sphere
of education and culture. We have already shown how
the fundamental idea of the Roman system—civil equality
—had already during the sixth century begun to be under
mined in this field also. Even in the time of Pictor and
Cato Greek culture was widely diffused in Rome, and there
was native Roman culture but neither of them had then
got beyond the initial stage. Cato’s encyclopaedia shows
tolerably what was understood at this period Romano
Greek model training (iii. 195); was little more than an embodiment of the knowledge of the old Roman house holder, and truly, when compared with the Hellenic culture of the period, scanty enough. At how low stage the average instruction of youth in Rome still stood at the beginning of the seventh century, may be inferred from the expressions of Polybius, who in this one respect prominently
a
by a
in
; it
if
it,
a
it
312 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK IV
censures the criminal indifference of the Romans as com pared with the intelligent private and public care of his countrymen ; no Hellene, not even Polybius himself, could rightly enter into the deeper idea of civil equality that lay at the root of this indifference.
Now the case was altered. just as the naive popular faith was superseded by an enlightened Stoic supernaturalism, so in education alongside of the simple popular instruction a special training, an exclusive lzumam'tar, developed itself and eradicated the last remnants of the old social equality. It will not be superfluous to cast a glance at the aspect assumed by the new instruction of the young, both the
Greek and the higher Latin.
It was‘a singular circumstance that the same man, who
in a political point of view definitively vanquished the Hellenic nation, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was at the same time the first or one of the first who fully recognized the Hellenic civilization as—what it has thenceforth continued to be beyond dispute—the civilization of the ancient world. He was himself indeed an old man before it was granted to him, with the Homeric poems in his mind, to stand before the Zeus of Phidias ; but his heart was young enough to carry home the full sunshine of Hellenic beauty and the unconquerable longing after the golden apples of the Hesperides in his soul; poets and artists had found in the foreigner a more earnest and cordial devotee than was any of the wise men of the Greece of those days. He made no epigram on Homer or Phidias, but he had his children introduced into the realms of intellect. Without
their national education, so far as there was such, he made provision like the Greeks for the physical development of his boys, not indeed by gymnastic exercises which were according to Roman notions inadmissible, but by instruction in the chase, which was among the Greeks developed almost like an art ,' and he elevated their Greek
neglecting
can. xrr AND EDUCATION 2! ;
instruction in such a way that the language was no longer merely learned and practised for the sake of speaking, but after the Greek fashion the whole subject-matter of general higher culture was associated with the language and developed out of it—embracing, first of all, the
of Greek literature with the mythological and historical information necessary for understanding and then rhetoric and philosophy. The library of king Perseus was the only portion of the Macedonian spoil that Paullus took for himself, with the view of presenting to his sons. Even Greek painters and sculptors were found in his train and completed the aesthetic training of his children. That the time was past when men could in this field pre serve merely repellent attitude as regarded Hellenism, had been felt even by Cato; the better classes had probably now presentiment that the noble substance of Roman character was less endangered by Hellenism as whole, than by Hellenism mutilated and misshapen: the mass of the upper society of Rome and Italy went along with the new mode. There had been for long no want of Greek schoolmasters in Rome; now they arrived in troops—and as teachers not merely of the language but of literature and culture in general—at the newly-opened lucrative market for the sale of their wisdom. Greek tutors and teachers of
who, even they were not slaves, were as
rule accounted as servants,1 were now permanent inmates
in the palaces of Rome; people speculated in them, and there statement that 200,000 sesterces (£2000) were paid for Greek literary slave of the first rank. As early
as 593 there existed in the capital number of special 18L establishments for the practice of Greek declamation.
Cicero says that he treated his learned slave Dionysius more respect fully than Scipio treated Panaetius, and in the same sense said in
knowledge
philosophy,
Lucilius—
Paenula, . ri quaerir, mnt:riu', rem’, “gum Utilr'or Milli, quam rapienr.
it is
a it
1
a
is aa
a
a
if
a
it,
Latin in struction.
But by its side there sprang up also higher Latin instruction. We have shown the previous epoch how Latin elementary instruction raised its character; how the place of the Twelve Tables was taken by the Latin Odyssey as sort of improved primer, and the Roman boy was now trained to the knowledge and delivery of his mother tongue by means of this translation, as the Greek by means of the original: how noted teachers of the Greek language and literature, Andronicus, Ennius, and others, who already probably taught not children properly so called, but boys growing up to maturity and young men, did not disdain to give instruction in the mother-tongue along with the Greek. These were the first steps towards higher Latin instruc tion, but they did not as yet form such an instruction itself. Instruction in language cannot go beyond the elementary stage, so long as lacks literature. It was not until
m NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK rv
Several distinguished names already occur among these Roman teachers; the philosopher Panaetius has been already mentioned 203); the esteemed grammarian Crates of Mallus in Cilicia, the contemporary and equal
169. rival of Aristarchus, found about 585 at Rome an audience for the recitation and illustration, language, and matter of the Homeric poems It true that this new mode of juvenile instruction, revolutionary and anti-national as was, encountered partially the resistance of the government;
161. but the edict of dismissal, which the authorities in 593 fulminated against rhetoricians and philosophers, remained (chiefly owing to the constant change of the Roman chief magistrates) like all similar commands without any result worth mentioning, and after the death of old Cato there were still doubtless frequent complaints in accordance with his views, but there was no further action. The higher instruction in Greek and the sciences of Greek culture remained thenceforth recognized as an essential part of Italian training.
a it
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a
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(p.
en. “ xrl AND EDUCATION
:15
there were not merely Latin schoolbooks but a Latin literature, and this literature already somewhat rounded
05 in the works of the classics of the sixth century, that
the mother-tongue and the native literature truly entered
into the circle of the elements of higher culture ; and the emancipation from the Greek schoolmasters was now not
slow to follow. Stirred up by the Homeric prelections of Public Crates, cultivated Romans began to read the recitative
of
works of their own literature, the Punic War of Naevius,
Works the Annals of Ennius, and subsequently also the Poems
of Lucilius first to a select circle, and then in public on
set days and in presence of a great concourse, and oc casionally also to treat them critically after the precedent of the Homeric grammarians. These literary prelections, which cultivated dilettanli (lz'tterati) held
gratuitously, were not formally a part of juvenile instruction, but were yet an essential means of introducing the youth to the
understanding and the discussion of the classic Latin literature.
The formation of Latin oratory took place in a similar Rhetorical way. The Roman youth of rank, who were even at an “mm early age incited to come forward in public with panegyrics
and forensic speeches, can never have lacked exercises in
oratory ; but it was only at this epoch, and in consequence
of the new exclusive culture, that there arose a rhetoric
properly so called. Marcus Lepidus Porcina (consul in
617) is mentioned as the first Roman advocate who techni- 187. cally handled the language and subject-matter; the two
famous advocates of the Marian age, the masculine and
Marcus Antonius (6rr-667) and the polished 148-87. and chaste orator Lucius Crassus (614-663) were already 140-91. complete rhetoricians. The exercises of the young men
in speaking increased naturally in extent and importance,
but still remained, just like the exercises in Latin literature, essentially limited to the personal attendance of the be
vigorous
Course of literature and rhetoric.
tinguished Roman knight of strict conservative views, who read Plautus and similar works with a select circle of younger men—-including Varro and Cicero—and some times also went over outlines of speeches with the authors, or put similar outlines into the hands of his friends. This was instruction, but Stilo was not a professional school master; he taught literature and rhetoric, just as juris prudence was taught at Rome, in the character of a senior friend of aspiring young men, not of a man hired and holding himself at every one’s command.
But about his time began also the scholastic higher
instruction in Latin, separated as well from
Latin as from Greek instruction, and imparted in special establishments by paid masters, ordinarily manumitted slaves. That its spirit and method were throughout borrowed from the exercises in the Greek literature and language, was a matter of course; and the scholars also consisted, as at these exercises, of youths, and not of boys. This Latin instruction was soon divided like the Greek into two courses; in so far as the Latin literature was first the subject of scientific lectures, and then a technical introduction was given to the preparation of panegyrics, public, and forensic orations. The first Roman school of literature was opened about Stilo’s time by Marcus Saevius Nicanor Postumus, the first separate school for Latin rhetoric about 660 by Lucius Plotius Gallus; but ordin' arily instructions in rhetoric were also given in the Latin schools of literature. This new Latin school-instruction was of the most comprehensive importance. The intro duction to the knowledge of Latin literature and Latin
216 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, noox rv
ginner on the master of the art so as to be trained by his example and his instructions.
Formal instruction both in Latin literature and in Latin 100. rhetoric was given first about 6 50 by Lucius Aelius Prae coninus of Lanuvium, called the “penman ” (Stilo), a dis
elementary
can. xn AND EDUCATION ' 217
oratory, such as had formerly been imparted by connois seurs and masters of high position, had preserved a certain independence in relation to the Greeks. The judges of language and the masters of oratory were doubtless under the influence of Hellenism, but not absolutely under that of the Greek school-grammar and school-rhetoric ; the latter in particular was decidedly an object of dread. The pride as well as the sound common sense of the Romans demurred to the Greek assertion that the ability to speak of things, which the orator understood and felt, in telligibly and attractively to his peers in the mother-tongue could be learned in the school by school-rules. To the solid practical advocate the procedure of the Greek rhetori cians, so totally estranged from life, could not but appear worse for the beginner than no preparation at all; to the man of thorough culture and matured by the experience of life, the Greek rhetoric seemed shallow and repulsive; while the man of serious conservative views did not fail to observe the close affinity between a professionally de veloped rhetoric and the trade of the demagogue. Accord ingly the Scipionic circle had shown the most bitter hosti lity to the rhetoricians, and, if Greek declamations before paid masters were tolerated doubtless primarily as exercises in speaking Greek, Greek rhetoric did not thereby find its way either into Latin oratory or into Latin oratorical instruction. But in the new Latin rhetorical schools the Roman youths were trained as men and public orators by discussing in pairs rhetorical themes ; they accused Ulysses, who was found beside the corpse of Ajax with the latter’s bloody sword, of the murder of his comrade in arms, or upheld his innocence; they charged Orestes with the
murder of his mother, or undertook to defend him; or perhaps they helped Hannibal with a supplementary good
advice as to the question whether he would do better to comply with the invitation to Rome, or to remain in
218 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION Book IV
Carthage, or to take flight. It was natural that the Catonian opposition should once more bestir itself against these offensive and pernicious conflicts of words. The censors of 662 issued a warning to teachers and parents not to allow the young men to spend the whole day in exercises, whereof their ancestors had known nothing; and the man, from whom this warning came, was no less than the first forensic orator of his age, Lucius Licinius Crassus. Of course the Cassandra spoke in vain; de clamatory exercises in Latin on the current themes of the Greek schools became a permanent ingredient in the education of Roman youth, and contributed their part to
educate the very boys as forensic and political and to stifle in the bud all earnest and true eloquence.
As the aggregate result of this modern Roman educa tion there sprang up the new idea of “humanity,” as it was called, which consisted partly of a more or less super ficial appropriation of the aesthetic culture of the Hellenes,
of a privileged Latin culture as an imitation or mutilated copy of the Greek. This new humanity, as the very name indicates, renounced the specific characteristics of Roman life, nay even came forward in opposition to them, and combined in itself, jun like our closely kindred “general culture,” a nationally cosmopolitan and socially exclusive character. Here too we trace the revolution, which separated classes and blended nations
players
partly
can. xul LITERATURE AND ART
219
CHAPTER XIII LITERATURE AND ART
THE sixth century was, both in a political and a literary Literary point of view, a vigorous and great age. It is true that we reaction. do not find in the field of authorship any more than in
that of politics a man of the first rank ; Naevius, Ennius,
Plautus, Cato, gifted and lively authors of distinctly-marked individuality, were not in the highest sense men of creative talent; nevertheless we perceive in the soaring, stirring, bold strain of their dramatic, epic, and historic attempts, that these rest on the gigantic struggles of the Punic wars. Much is only artificially transplanted, there are various faults in delineation and colouring, the form of art and the language are deficient in purity of treatment, Greek and national elements are quaintly conjoined; the whole per formance betrays the stamp of its scholastic origin and lacks independence and completeness; yet there exists in the poets and authors of that age, if not the full power to reach their high aim, at any rate the courage to compete with and the hope of rivalling the Greeks. It is otherwise in the epoch before us. The morning mists fell ; what had been begun in the fresh feeling of the national strength hardened amidst war, with youthful want ‘of insight into the difliculty of the undertaking and into the measure of their own talent, but also with youthful delight in and love to the work, could not be carried farther now, when on the
Sclpionlo
140. 136.
220 LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
one hand the dull sultriness of the approaching revolu tionary storm began to fill the air, and on the other hand the eyes of the more intelligent were gradually opened to the incomparable glory of Greek poetry and art and to the very modest artistic endowments of their own nation. The literature of the sixth century had arisen from the influence of Greek art on half-cultivated, but excited and susceptible minds. The increased Hellenic culture of the seventh called forth a literary reaction, which destroyed the germs of promise contained in those simple imitative attempts by the winter-frost of reflection, and rooted up the wheat and the tares of the older type of literature together.
‘ This reaction proceeded primarily and chiefly from the circle which assembled around Scipio Aemilianus, and whose most prominent members among the Roman world of quality were, in addition to Scipio himself, his elder friend and counsellor Gaius Laelius (consul in 614) and Scipio’s younger companions, Lucius Furius Philus (consul in 618) and Spurius Mummius, the brother of the destroyer of Corinth, among the Roman and Greek literati the comedian Terence, the satirist Lucilius, the historian Polybius, and the philosopher Panaetius. Those who were familiar with the Iliad, with Xenophon, and with Menander, could not be greatly impressed by the Roman Homer, and still less by the bad translations of the tragedies of Euripides which Ennius had furnished and Pacuvius con tinued to furnish. While patriotic considerations
might set bounds to criticism in reference to the native chron
icles, Lucilius at any rate directed very pointed shafts
“the dismal figures from the complicated ex positions of Pacuvius ” ; and similar severe, but not unjust criticisms of Ennius, Plautus, Pacuvius—all those poets "who appeared to have a licence to talk pompously and to reason illogically”—are found in the polished author of the Rhetoric dedicated to Herennius, written at the close
against
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART 221
of this period. People shrugged their shoulders at the interpolations, with which the homely popular wit of Rome had garnished the elegant comedies of Philemon and Diphilus. Half smiling, half envious, they turned away from the inadequate attempts of a dull age, which that circle probably regarded somewhat as a mature man regards the poetical effusions of his youth; despairing of the trans plantation of the marvellous tree, they allowed the higher species of art in poetry and prose substantially to fall into abeyance, and restricted themselves in these departments to an intelligent enjoyment of foreign masterpieces. The
of this epoch displayed itself chiefly in the subordinate fields of the lighter comedy, the poetical miscellany, the political pamphlet, and the professional
sciences. The literary cue was correctness, in the style of art and especially in the language, which, as a more limited circle of persons of culture became separated from the body of the people, was in its turn divided into the classical Latin of higher society and the vulgar Latin of the common
productiveness
The prologues of Terence promise "pure Latin"; warfare against faults of language forms a chief element of the Lucilian satire; and with this circumstance is connected the fact, that composition in Greek among the Romans now falls decidedly into the shade. - In so far certainly there is an improvement; inadequate efforts occur in this epoch far less frequently; performances in their kind complete and thoroughly pleasing occur far oftener than before or afterwards; in a linguistic point of view Cicero calls the age of Laelius and Scipio the golden age of pure unadulterated Latin. In like manner literary gradually rises in public opinion from a trade to an art. At the beginning of this period the preparation of theatrical pieces at any rate, if not the publication of recitative poems, was still regarded as not becoming for the Roman of quality; Pacuvius and Terence lived by their pieces; the
people.
activity
222 LITERATURE AND ART soox rv
writing of dramas was entirely a trade, and not one of golden produce. About the time of Sulla the state of matters had entirely changed. The remuneration given to actors at this time proves that even the favourite dramatic poet might then lay claim to a payment, the high amount of which removed the stigma. By this means composing for the stage was raised into a liberal art ; and we accord ingly find men of the highest aristocratic circles, such as
90. 87. Lucius Caesar (aedile in 664;} 667), engaged in writing for the Roman stage and proud of sitting in the Roman “poet’s club ” by the side of the ancestorless Accius. Art gains in sympathy and honour; but the enthusiasm has departed in life and in literature. The fearless self confidence, which makes the poet a poet, and which is very decidedly apparent in Plautus especially, is found in none of those that follow; the Epigoni of the men that fought with Hannibal are correct, but feeble.
Let us first glance at the Roman dramatic literature and the stage itself. Tragedy has now for the first time her specialists ; the tragic poets of this epoch do not, like those of the preceding, cultivate comedy and epos side by side. The appreciation of this branch of art among the writing and reading circles was evidently on the increase, but tragic
itself hardly improved. We now meet with the national tragedy (praetzxta), the creation of Naevius, only in the hands of Pacuvius to be mentioned immediately— an after-growth of the Ennian epoch. Among the probably numerous poets who imitated Greek tragedies two alone
Pacuvius. acquired a considerable name. Marcus Pacuvius from
Tragedy.
219-129.
Brundisium (5 3 5-4 625) who in his earlier years earned his livelihood in Rome by painting and only composed tragedies when advanced in life, belongs as respects both his years and his style to the sixth rather than the seventh century, although his poetical activity falls within the latter. He composed on the whole after the manner of his country
poetry
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART
:23
man, uncle, and master Ennius. Polishing more carefully and aspiring to a higher strain than his predecessor, he was regarded by favourable critics of art afterwards as a model of artistic poetry and of rich style : in the fragments, how ever, that have reached us proofs are not wanting to justify the censure of the poet’s language by Cicero and the censure of his taste by Lucilius; his language appears more rugged than that of his predecessor, his style of composition pompous and punctilious. 1 There are traces that he like Ennius attached more value to philosophy than to religion ; but he did not at any rate, like the latter, prefer dramas chiming in with neological views and preach ing sensuous passion or modern enlightenment, and drew without distinction from Sophocles or from Euripides—of that poetry with a decided special aim, which almost stamps Ennius with genius, there can have been no vein in the younger poet.
More readable and adroit imitations of Greek tragedy
were furnished by Pacuvius’ younger contemporary, Lucius
Accius, son of a freedman of Pisaurum (584-after 651), 170-10l with the exception of Pacuvius the only notable
poet of the seventh century. An active author also in the
1 Thus in the Paulur, an original piece, the following line occurred, probably in the description of the pass of Pythium (ii. 506) :
Qua uix caprigeua glneri gradz'li: grlm'o at.
And in another piece the hearers are expected to understand the following dscription
Quadruper tardig‘rada agrerti: humili: were, Capile brew‘, cert/in anguimz, aspectu trun', Euirc:rata inanima cum animali rm.
To which they naturally reply
Ita razpl‘uam dictione ah I: dalur,
Quad conjecture . rapimr aeg're cont‘uit; Non intellegimur, niri . ri-apan‘e dixerir.
Then follows the confession that the tortoise is referred to. Such enigmas, moreover, were not wanting even among the Attic tragedians, who on that account were often and sharply taken to task by the Middle Comedy.
tragic
Aoolll.
Greek comedy.
Terence.
224 LITERATURE AND ART soon iv
field of literary history and grammar, he doubtless laboured to introduce instead of the crude manner of his predecessors greater purity of language and style into Latin tragedy; yet even his inequality and incorrectness were emphatically censured by men of strict observance like Lucilius.
Far greater activity and far more important results are apparent in the field of comedy. At the very commence ment of this period a remarkable reaction set in against the sort of comedy hitherto prevalent and popular. Its
196-159. representative Terentius (558-595) is one of the most interesting phenomena, in a historical point of view, in Roman literature. Born in Phoenician Africa, brought in early youth as a slave to Rome and there introduced to
the Greek culture of the day, he seemed from the very first
destined for the vocation of giving back to the new Attic
comedy that cosmopolitan character, which in its adaptation to the Roman public under the rough hands of Naevius, Plautus, and their associates it had in some measure lost. Even in the selection and employment of models the contrast is apparent between him and that predecessor whom alone we can now compare with him. Plautus chooses his pieces from the whole range of the newer Attic comedy, and by no means disdains the livelier and more popular comedians, such as Philemon; Terence keeps almost exclusively to Menander, the most elegant, polished, and chaste of all the poets of the newer comedy. The method of working up several Greek pieces into one Latin is retained by Terence, because in fact from the state of the case it could not be avoided by the Roman editors; but it is handled with incomparably more skill and careful ness. The Plautine dialogue beyond doubt departed very frequently from its models; Terence boasts of the verbal adherence of his imitations to the originals, by which
however we are not to understand a verbal translation in our sense. The not ‘unfrequently coarse, but always
can. xrn LITERATURE AND ART
225
efl'ective laying on of Roman local tints over the Greek ground-work, which Plautus was fond of, is completely and designedly banished from Terence; not an allusion puts one in mind of Rome, not a proverb, hardly a reminiscence;1 even the Latin titles are replaced by Greek. The same distinction shows itself in the artistic treatment. First of all the players receive back their appropriate masks, and greater care is observed as to the scenic arrangements, so that it is no longer the case, as with Plautus, that everything needs to take place on the street, whether belonging to it or not. Plautus ties and unties the dramatic knot carelessly and loosely, but his plot is droll and often striking; Terence, far less effective, keeps everywhere account of probability, not unfrequently at the cost of suspense, and wages emphatic war against the certainly somewhat flat and insipid standing expedients of his predecessors, ag. against allegoric dreams. 2 Plautus paints his characters with broad strokes, often after a stock model, always with a view to the gross effect from a distance and on the whole; Terence handles the psycho logical development with a careful and often excellent miniature-painting, as in the Adelplzz' for instance, where the two old men—the easy bachelor enjoying life in town, and
1 Perhaps the only exception is in the Andria (iv. 5) the answer to the question how matters go : " Sic
U! guimur," airmt, " quanda ut wlumu: non lint,"
in allusion to the line of Caecilius. which is, indeed, also imitated from a Greek proverb :-
Viva: ut porris, guanda non qui: at velir.
The comedy is the oldest of Terence’s, and was exhibited by the theatrical
authorities on the recommendation of Caecilius. gratitude is characteristic.
The gentle expression of
9 A counterpart to the hind chased by dogs and with tears calling on a young man for help, which Terence ridicules (Pharm. prol. 4), may be recognized in the far from ingenious Plautine allegory of the goat and the ape (Merc. 1). Such excrescences are ultimately traceable to the rhetoric of Euripides (Lg. Eurip. Hec. 90).
vor. 1v
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226 LITERATURE AND ART ‘BOOK rv
the sadly harassed not at all refined country-landlord—form a masterly contrast. The springs of action and the language of Plautus are drawn from the tavern, those of Terence from the household of the good citizen. The lazy Plautine hostelry, the very unconstrained but very charming damsels with the hosts duly corresponding, the sabre-rattling troopers, the menial world painted with an altogether peculiar humour, whose heaven is the cellar, and whose fate is the lash, have disappeared in Terence or at any rate undergone improvement. In Plautus we find ourselves, on the whole, among incipient or thorough rogues, in Terence again, as a rule, among none but honest men ; occasionally leno plundered or young man taken to the brothel, done with moral intent, possibly out of brotherly love or to deter the boy from frequenting im proper haunts. The Plautine pieces are pervaded by the significant antagonism of the tavern to the house; every where wives are visited with abuse, to the delight of all husbands temporarily emancipated and not quite sure of an amiable salutation at home. The comedies of Terence are pervaded by conception not more moral, but doubtless
more becoming, of the feminine nature and of married life. As rule, they end with virtuous marriage, or, possible, with two—just as was the glory of Menander that he compensated for every seduction by marriage. The eulogies of bachelor life, which are so frequent in Menander, are repeated by his Roman remodeller only with characteristic shyness,1 whereas the lover in his agony, the tender husband at the amouc/lament, the loving sister the death-bed in the Eunuc/zus' and the Andria are very grace fully delineated; in the Hayra there even appears at the close as delivering angel virtuous courtesan, likewise
Micio in the Adelphi praises his good fortune in life, more particularly because he has never had a. wife, " which those (the Greeks) reckon a piece of good fortune. "
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genuine Menandrian figure, which the Roman public, it is true, very properly hissed. In Plautus the fathers through out only exist for the purpose of being jeered and swindled by their sons; with Terence in the Heautan Tz'morumenor the lost son is reformed by his father’s wisdom, and, as in general he is full of excellent instructions as to education, so the point of the best of his pieces, the Adelp/zz', turns on finding the right mean between the too liberal training of the uncle and the too rigid training of the father. Plautus writes for the great multitude and gives utterance to profane and sarcastic speeches, so far as the censorship of the stage at all allowed ; Terence on the contrary describes it as his aim to please the good and, like Menander, to offend no body. Plautus is fond of vigorous, often noisy dialogue, and his pieces require a lively play of gesture in the actors; Terence confines himself to “quiet conversation. ” The language of Plautus abounds in burlesque turns and verbal witticisms, in alliterations, in comic coinages of new terms, Aristophanic combinations of words, pithy expressions of the day jestingly borrowed from the Greek. Terence knows nothing of such caprices ; his dialogue moves on with the purest symmetry, and its points are elegant epigrammatic
and sententious turns. The comedy of Terence is not to be called an improvement, as compared with that of Plautus, either in a poetical or in a moral point of view. Originality cannot be aflirmed of either, but, if possible, there is less of it in Terence; and the dubious praise of more correct copying is at least outweighed by the circum stance that, while the younger poet reproduced the agree ableness, he knew not how to reproduce the merriment of Menander, so that the comedies of Plautus imitated from Menander, such as the Sficlmr, the Cirtellaria, the Bacc/tider, probably preserve far more of the flowing charm of the
original than the comedies of the “dz'mz'a'z'atur . Menander. ” And, while the aesthetic critic cannot recognize an improve
228 LITERATURE AND ART noox rv
ment in the transition from the coarse to the dull, as little can the moralist in the transition from the obscenity and indifference of Plautus to the accommodating morality of Terence. But in point of language an improvement certainly took place. Elegance of language was the pride of the poet, and it was owing above all to its inimitable charm that the most refined judges of art in aftertimes, such as Cicero, Caesar, and Quinctilian, assigned the palm to him among all the Roman poets of the republican age. In so far it is perhaps justifiable to date a new era in Roman literature-the real essence of which lay not in the development of Latin poetry, but in the development of the Latin language—from the comedies of Terence as the first artistically pure imitation of Hellenic works of art. The modern comedy made its way amidst the most determined literary warfare. The Plautine style of composing had taken root among the Roman bourgeoirie; the comedies of Terence encountered the liveliest opposition from the public, which found their “insipid language,” their “feeble style,” intolerable. The, apparently, pretty sensitive poet
replied in his prologues—which properly were not intended for any such purpose—with counter-criticisms full of de fensive and offensive polemics ; and appealed from the multitude, which had twice run off from his Ifayra to witness a band of gladiators and rope-dancers, to the culti vated circles of the genteel world. He declared that he only aspired to the approval of the “good”; in which doubtless there was not wanting a. hint, that it was not at all seemly to undervalue works of art which had obtained the approval of the “few. ” He acquiesced in or even favoured the report, that persons of quality aided him in composing with their counsel or even with their co
operation. 1
In reality he carried his point; even in
' In the prologue of the Heauton Timer-um he puts the objection into the mouth of his censors :
crrAr. xm LITERATURE AND ART
“9
literature the oligarchy prevailed, and the artistic comedy
of the exclusives supplanted the comedy of the people:
we find that about 620 the pieces of Plautus disappeared 184. from the set of stock plays. This is the more significant, because after the early death of Terence no man of con spicuous talent at all further occupied this field. Respect
ing the comedies of Turpilius 651 at an advanced age) 108. and other stop-gaps wholly or almost wholly forgotten, connoisseur already at the close of this period gave as
his opinion, that the new comedies were even much worse than the had new pennies
180).
We have formerly shown (iii. 164) that in all probability National
already in the course of the sixth century national Roman comedy. comedy (togata) was added to the Graeco-Roman (palliata),
as portraiture not of the distinctive life of the capital,
Repeat: ad rtudium bum: . te applicau: music-um Amicum ingeniojretum, baud natura . rua.
And in the later prologue (594) to the AdeZp/zi he says— I00.
Nam quad irli dicunt male-001i, hominer nubile: Eur): adiutan, adridueque una . rcn'bere;
Quad illi malediclum wllemem use exirtimanl
Eam laudem hi: ducit maximum, guum illir place! 010' 1106ir uni-unit at populo placard,
Quorum opera in 62110, in alia, in negalia, Suo quirque temper: um: ert . tine ruperbia.
As early as the time of Cicero was the general supposition that Laelius and Scipio Aemilianus were here meant: the scenes were desig
nated which were alleged to proceed from them stories were told of the journeys of the poor poet with his genteel patrons to their estates near Rome; and was reckoned unpardonahle that they should have done nothing at all for the improvement of his financial circumstances. But
the power which creates legend is, as well known, nowhere more potent
than in the history of literature. It clear, and even judicious Roman writics acknowledged, that these lines could not possibly apply to Scipio
who was then twenty-five years of age, and to his friend Laelius who was
not much older. Others with at leut more judgment thought of the poets
of quality Quintus Labeo (consul in 571) and Marcus Popillius (consul in 188. 581), and of the learned patron of art and mathematician. Lucius Sulpicius 178. Gallus (consul in 588); but this too evidently mere conjecture. 'l‘hat 166. Terence was in close relations with the Scipionic house cannot, however,
be doubted a. significant factI that the first exhibition of the Ad:lplu' Lnd the second of the Hayra took place at the funeral games of Lucius Paullus, which were provided by his sons Scipio and Fabius.
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but of the ways and doings of the Latin land. Of course the Terentian school rapidly took possession of this species of comedy also; it was quite in accordance with its spirit to naturalise Greek comedy in Italy on the one hand by faithful translation, and on the other hand by pure Roman imitation. The chief representative of this school was Lucius Afranius (who flourished about 660). The fragments of his comedies remaining give no distinct impression, but they are not inconsistent with what the Roman critics of art remark regarding him. His numerous national comedies were in their construction thoroughly formed on the model of the Greek intrigue-piece ; only, as was natural in imita tion, they were simpler and shorter. In the details also he borrowed what pleased him partly from Menander, partly from the older national literature. But of the Latin local tints, which are so distinctly marked in Titinius the creator of this species of art, we find not much in Afranius ,1 his subjects retain a very general character, and may well have
been throughout imitations of particular Greek comedies with merely an alteration of costume. A polished eclecti eism and adroitness in composition—literary allusions not unfrequently occur—are characteristic of him as of Terence: the moral tendency too, in which his pieces approximated to the drama, their inoffensive tenor in a police point of view, their purity of language are common to him with the latter. Afranius is sufliciently indicated as of a kindred spirit with Menander and Terence by the judgment of posterity that he wore the toga as Menander would have
1 External circumstances also, it'may be presumed, co-operatecl in bringing about this change. After all the Italian communities had obtained the Roman franchise in consequence of the Social war, it was no longer allowable to transfer the scene of a comedy to any such community, and the poet had either to keep to general ground or to choose places that had fallen into ruin or were situated abroad. Certainly this circumstance, which was taken into account even in the production of the older comedies, exercised an unfavourable effect on the national comedy.
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CRAP. xiii LITERATURE AND ART
:3:
worn it had he been an Italian, and by his own expression that to his mind Terence surpassed all other poets.
The farce appeared afresh at this period in the field of Atelllnll. Roman literature. It was in itself very old 291): long
before Rome arose, the merry youths of Latium may have improvised on festal occasions in the masks once for all estab
lished for particular characters. These pastimes obtained a fixed local background in the Latin “asylum of fools,” for which they selected the formerly Oscan town of Atella, which was destroyed in the Hannibalic war and was thereby handed over to comic use thenceforth the name of “ Oscan plays ” or “plays of Atella” was commonly used for these
exhibitions. 1 But these pleasantries had nothing to do with
With these names there has been associated from ancient times a series of errors. The utter mistake of Greek reporters, that these farcu were played at Rome in the Oscan language, now with justice universally rejected; but is, on a closer consideration, little short of impossible to bring these pieces, which are laid in the midst of Latin town and country life, into relation with the national Oscan character at all. The appella tion of "Atellan play" to be explained in another way. The Latin farce with its fixed characters and standing jests needed a permanent scenery the fool-world everywhere seeks for itself a local habitation. Of course under the Roman stage-police none of the Roman communities,
or of the Latin communities allied with Rome, could be taken for this purpose, although was allowable to transfer the togatae to these. But Atella, which, although destroyed de jure along with Capua in 543 (ii. 211, 340, 366). continued practically to subsist as a village inhabited by Roman farmers, was adapted in every respect for the purpose. This conjecture
changed into certainty by our observing that several of these farces are
laid in other communities within the domain of the Latin tongue, which existed no longer at all, or no longer at any rate in the eye of the law
such as the Campani of Pomponius and perhaps also his Adult/n‘ and his Quinquatrz'a in Capua, and the Militer Pomelinmrer of Novius in Suessa Pometia—-vvhile no existing community was subjected to similar mal treatment. The real home of these pieces was therefore Latium, their poetical stage was the Latinized Oscan land with the Oscan nation they
have no connection. The statement that a piece of Naevius after 550) 200, was for want of proper actors performed by l'Atellan players" and was therefore called p:rronala (Festus, . r. 11. ), provs nothing against this view:
the appellation "Atellan players" comes to stand here proleptically, and we might even conjecture from this passage that they were formerly termed " masked players " (perronati).
An explanation quite similar may be given of the "lays of Fscen nium," which likewise belong to the burlesque poetry of the Romans and were localized in the South Etruscan village of Fescennium;
not necessary on that account to class them with Etruscan poetry any
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the stage1 and with literature; they were performed by amateurs where and when they pleased, and the text was not written or at any rate was not published. It was not until the present period that the Atellan piece was handed over to actors properly so called} and was employed, like the Greek satyric drama, as an afterpiece particularly after tragedies ; a change which naturally suggested the extension of literary activity to that field. Whether this authorship developed itself altogether independently, or whether possibly the art-farce of Lower Italy, in various respects of kindred character, gave the impulse to this Roman farce,a can no
more than the Atellanae with Oscan. That Fescennium was in historical times not a town but a village, cannot certainly be directly proved, but is in the highest degree probable from the way in which authors mention the place and from the silence of inscriptions.
1 The close and original connection, which Livy in particular reprsents as subsisting between the Atellan farce and the . ratura with the drama thence developed, is not at all tenable. The difference between the lu‘rln'o and the Atellan player was just about as great as is at present the difl'erence between a professional actor and a man who goes to a masked ball; between the dramatic piece, which down to Terence's time had no masks, and the Atellan, which was essentially based on the character-mask, there subsisted an original distinction in no way to be effaced. The drama arose out of the flute-piece, which at first without any recitation was confined merely to song and dance, then acquired a
text (ruture), and lastly obtained through Andronicus a libretto borrowed from the Greek stage, in which the old flute-lays occupied nearly the place of the Gredr chorus. This course of development nowhere in its earlier stages comes into contact with the farce, which was performed by amateurs.
3 In the time of the empire the Atellana was represented by professional actors (Friedlander in Becker's Handbuch, vi. 549). The time at which these began to engage in it is not reported, but it can hardly have been other than the time at which the Atellan was admitted among the regular stage-plays, {. e. the epoch before Cicero (Cic. ad Fam. ix. 16). This view is not inconsistent with the circumstance that still in Livy's time (vii. 2) the Atellan players retained their honorary rights as contrasted with other actors; for the statement that professional actors began to take part in performing the Atellana for pay does not imply that the Atellana was no longer performed, in the country towns for instance, by unpaid amateurs, and' the privilege therefore still remained applicable.
It deserves attention that the Greek farce was not only especially at home in Lower Italy, but that several of its pieces (ag. among those of Sopater, the “ Lennie-Porridge," the “ Wooers of Bacchis," the " Valet of Mystaltos," the “Bookworms," the "Physiologist ") strikingly remind usof the Atellanae. This composition of farces must have reached down to the time at which the Greeks in and around Neapolis formed a circle enclosed
CHAP. x111 LITERATURE‘ AND ART
:33
longer be determined ; that the several pieces were uniformly original works, is certain. The founder of this new species of literature, Lucius Pomponius from the Latin colony of Bononia, appeared in the first half of the seventh century ;1 and along with his pieces those of another poet Novius soon became favourites. So far as the few remains and the reports of the old lz'tleratorer allow us to form an opinion, they were short farces, ordinarily perhaps of one act, the
charm of which depended less on the preposterous and loosely constructed plot than on the drastic portraiture of particular classes and situations. Festal days and public acts were favourite subjects of comic delineation, such as the
“Marriage,” the "First of March,” “Harlequin Candidate”; so were also foreign nationalities—the Transalpine Gauls, the Syrians; above all, the various trades frequently appear on the boards. The sacristan, the soothsayer, the bird-seer, the physician, the publican, the painter, fisherman, baker,
across the stage; the public criers were severely assailed and still more the fullers, who seem to have played in the Roman fool-world the part of our tailors. While the varied life of the city thus received its due attention, the farmer with his joys and sorrows was also represented in all aspects. The copiousness of this rural repertory may be guessed from the numerous titles of that nature, such as “the Cow,” “the Ass,” “the Kid,” “the Sow,” “the Swine,” “the Sick Boar,” “the Farmer,” “the Countryman,”
“Harlequin Countryman,” “the Cattle-herd,” “the Vine dresser,” “the Fig-gatherer,” “Woodcutting,” “Pruning,”
“the Poultry-yard. ” In these pieces it was always the standing
within the Latin-speaking Campania; for one of these writers of fares, Blaesus of Capreae, bears even a Roman name and wrote a farce "Saturnus. "
1 According to Eusebius, Pomponius flourished about 664; Velleius 90. calls him a contemporary of Lucius Crassus (614-663) and Marcus 140-91. Antonius (611-667). The former statement is probably about a genera- 148-37. tion too late ; the reckoning by zlictoriali (p. 182) which was discontinued
about 6 50 still occurs in his Pictorer, and about the end of this period we 100. already meet the mimes which displaced the Atellanae from the stage.
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figures of the stupid and the artful servant, the good old man, the wise man, that delighted the public; the first in particular might never be wanting—the Pulcinello of this farce-the gluttonous filthy Maccur, hideously ugly and yet eternally in love, always on the point of stumbling across his own path, set upon by all with jeers and with blows and eventually at the close the regular scapegoat. The titles “ Maccur Micr,” “MGL'L‘US Capri,” “Mama Wrga,” “Maczur Exul,” “Macci
Gemini” may furnish the good-humoured reader with some conception of the variety of entertainment in the Roman masquerade. Although these farces, at least after they came to be written, accommodated themselves to the general laws of literature, and in their metres for instance followed the Greek stage, they yet naturally retained a far more Latin and more popular stamp than even the national comedy. The farce resorted to the Greek world only under the form of travestied tragedy;1 and this style appears to have been cultivated first by Novius, and not very frequently in any case. The farce of this poet moreover ventured, if not to trespass on Olympus, at least to touch the most human of the gods, Hercules: he wrote a HZ’rculer Auc tz'onator. The tone, as a matter of course, was not the most refined; very unambiguous ambiguities, coarse rustic Obscenities, ghosts frightening and occasionally
devouring children, formed part of the entertainment, and offensive
personalities, even with the mention of names, not unfre quently crept in. But there was no want also of vivid delineation, of grotesque incidents, of telling jokes, and of pithy sayings ; and the harlequinade rapidly won for itself no inconsiderable position in the theatrical life of the capital and even in literature.
I It was probably merry enough in this form. In the Plonu'uuol Novius, for instance, there was the line :—
Sum ama, iam t: accidam claua . m'rpea, just as Menander's \Ileufinpanhfis makes his appearance,
CHAP- xm LITERATURE AND ART
235
Lastly as regards the development of dramatic arrange- Dram! “ ments we are not in a position to set forth in detail—what mg’ is clear on the whole—that the general interest in dramatic performances was constantly on the increase, and that they
became more and more frequent and magnificent. Not
only was there hardly any ordinary or extraordinary popular
festival that was now celebrated without dramatic exhibi
tions ; even in the country-towns and in private houses repre sentations by companies of hired actors were common. It
is true that, while probably various municipal towns already
at this time possessed theatres built of stone, the capital
was still without one; the building of a theatre, already contracted for, had been again prohibited by the senate in
599 on the suggestion of Publius Scipio Nasica. It was 155. quite in the spirit of the sanctimonious policy of this age,
that the building of a permanent theatre was prohibited out
of respect for the customs of their ancestors, but never theless theatrical entertainments were allowed rapidly to increase, and enormous sums were expended annually in erecting and decorating structures of boards for them.
The arrangements of the stage became visibly better. The improved scenic arrangements and the reintroduction of masks about the time of Terence are doubtless connected
with the fact, that the erection and maintenance of the stage and stage-apparatus were charged in 580 on the 17. 4.
public chest. 1 The plays which Lucius Mummius pro duced after the capture of Corinth (609) formed an epoch 145. in the history of the theatre. It was probably then that
a theatre acoustically constructed after the Greek fashion
1 Hitherto the person providing the play had been obliged to fit up the stage and scenic apparatus out of the round sum assigned to him or at his
own expense, and probably much money would not often be expended on these. But in 580 the censors made the erection of the stage for the 174 games of the praetors and aediles a. matter of special contract (Liv. xli.
:7); the circumstance that the stage-apparatus was now no longer erected merely for a single performance must have led to a puceptible improve
ment of it.
I36
LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
and provided with seats was first erected, and more care
was expended on the exhibitions. 1 Now also there is frequent mention of the bestowal of a prize of victory—which implies the competition of several pieces— of the audience taking a lively part for or against the leading actors, of cliques and :lagueurr. The decorations and machinery were improved; moveable scenery artfully painted and audible theatrical thunder made their appear ance under the aedileship of Gaius Claudius Pulcher in
99. 79. 655 ;2 and twenty years later (675) under the aedileship of the brothers Lucius and Marcus Lucullus came the changing of the decorations by shifting the scenes. To the close of this epoch belongs the greatest of Roman
62. actors, the freedman Quintus Roscius about 692 at great age), throughout several generations the ornament and pride of the Roman stage,a the friend and welcome
generally
boon-companion the sequel.
of Sulla—to whom we shall have to recur
In recitative poetry the most surprising circumstance
The attention given to the acoustic an'angements of the Greeks may be Inferred from Vitruv. v. 5, 8. Ritschl (Parerg. 227, xx. ) has dis cussed the question of the seats but probable (according to Plautus, Capt. pro]. 11) that those only who were not capite cum‘ had a claim to a seat. It probable, moreover, that the words of Horace that “ captive Greece led captive her conqueror" primarily refer to these epoch-making theatrical games of Mummius (Tac. Arm. xiv. 2r).
The scenery of Pulcher must have been regularly painted, since the birds are said to have attempted to perch on the tiles (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 4, 23; Val. Max. ii. 4, 6). Hitherto the machinery for thunder had con sisted in the shaking of nails and stones in copper kettle Pulcher first produced a better thunder by rolling stones, which was thenceforth named
" Claudian thunder" (Festus, 1/. Claudiana, p. 57).
Among the few minor poems preserved from this epoch there occurs
the following epigram on this illustrious actor :—
Conrtiteram, exorientm Auroram forte mlufaiu, Cum rubito a [ma Rorciur exoritur.
Pate mi/zi liceat, coelerter, dicere vertra; Mortalir ‘virurt pulchr-iar err: deo.
The author of this epigram, Greek in its tone and inspired by Greek
enthusiasm for art, was no less a man than the conqueror of the Cimbri, 102. Quintus Lutatius Catulus, consul in 652.
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into the hands of the government at its request by fur nishing religious pretexts for the annulling of political proceedings. This affair became an apple of contention between the parties: the senate heat off the first attack in 609, on which occasion the Scipionic circle especially turned 145. the scale for the rejection of the proposal; on the other hand the project passed in 650 with the proviso already 104. made in reference to the election of the presidents for the benefit of scrupulous consciences, that not the whole bur
but only the lesser half of the tribes should make the election (iii. 46;) ; finally Sulla restored the right of co-optation in its full extent (p. 115).
With this care on the part of the conservatives for the Practical
usemado ofreliglon.
Hortensius for instance brought roast peacocks
into vogue. Religion was also found very useful in giving greater zest to scandal. It was favourite recreation of
the youth of quality to disfigure or mutilate the images of
the gods in the streets night (iii. 480). Ordinary love affairs had for long been common, and intrigues with married women began to become so; but an amour with
Vestal virgin was as piquant as the intrigues with nuns and
the cloister-adventures in the world of the Decamerone.
The scandalous affair of 640 r:y. well known, in which 114. three Vestals, daughters of the noblest families, and their paramours, young men likewise of the best houses, were brought to trial for unchastity first before the pontifical college, and then, when sought to hush up the matter, before an extraordinary court instituted by special decree
gesses
pure national religion, it was of course quite compatible that the circles of the highest rank should openly make a jest of The practical side of the Roman priesthood was
the priestly :uirine; the augural and pontifical banquets were as were the official gala-days in the life of Roman epicure, and several of them formed epochs in the history of gastronomy: the banquet on the accession of the augur
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208 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, soon rv
of the people, and were all condemned to death. Such scandals, it is true, sedate people could not approve; but there was no objection to men finding positive religion to be a folly in their familiar circle; the augurs might, when one saw another performing his functions, smile in each other’s face without detriment to their religious duties. We learn to look favourably on the modest hypocrisy of kindred tendencies, when we compare with it the coarse shamelessness of the Roman priests and Levites. The official religion was quite candidly treated as a hollow framework, now serviceable only for political machinists; in this respect with its numerous recesses and trap-doors it might and did serve either party, as it happened. Most of all certainly the oligarchy recognized its palladium in the state-religion, and particularly in the augural discipline; but the opposite party also made no resistance in point of principle to an institute, which had now merely a semblance of life; they rather regarded on the whole, as bulwark which might pass from the possession of the enemy into their own.
In sharp contrast to this ghost of religion which we have
religions in just described stand the difi‘erent foreign worships, which
Italy.
this epoch cherished and fostered, and which were at least undeniably possessed of very decided vitality. They meet us everywhere, among genteel ladies and lords as well as among the circles of the slaves, in the general as in the trooper, in Italy as in the provinces. It incredible to what height this superstition already reached. When the Cimbrian war Syrian prophetess, Martha, offered to furnish the senate with ways and means for the vanquishing of the Germans, the senate dismissed her with contempt; nevertheless the Roman matrons and Marius’ own wife in particular despatched her to his head-quarters, where the general readily received her and carried her about with him till the Teutones were defeated. The leaders of very
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209
different parties in the civil war, Marius, Octavius,
coincided in believing omens and oracles. During its course even the senate was under the necessity, in the troubles of 66 7, of consenting to issue directions in accord- 81. ance with the fancies of a crazy prophetess. It is significant
of the ossification of the Romano-Hellenic religion as well
as of the increased craving of the multitude after stronger religious stimulants, that superstition no longer, as in the Bacchic mysteries, associates itself with the national religion; even the Etruscan mysticism is already left behind; the worships matured in the sultry regions of the east appear throughout in the foremost rank. The copious introduction
of elements from Asia Minor and Syria into the population, partly by the import of slaves, partly by the augmented trafi‘ic of Italy with the east, contributed very greatly to this result.
The power of these foreign religions is very distinctly apparent in the revolts of the Sicilian slaves, who for the most part were natives of Syria. Eunus vomited fire, Athenion read the stars; the plummets thrown by the slaves in these wars bear in great part the names of gods, those of Zeus and Artemis, and especially that of the mysterious Mother who had migrated from Crete to Sicily and was zealously worshipped there. A similar effect was produced by commercial intercourse, particularly after the wares of Berytus and Alexandria were conveyed directly to the Italian ports; Ostia and Puteoli became the great marts not only for Syrian unguents and Egyptian linen, but also for the faith of the east. Everywhere the mingling of religions was constantly on the increase along with the mingling of nations. Of all allowed worships the most popular was that of the Pessinuntine Mother of the Gods, which made a deep impression on the multitude by its eunuch-celibacy, its banquets, its music, its begging pro cessions, and all its sensuous pomp; the collections from
Sulla‘
VOL. IV
1x4
worships.
are NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK 1v
house to house were already felt as an economic burden. In the most dangerous time of the Cimbrian war Battaces the high-priest of Pessinus appeared in person at Rome, in order to defend the interests of the temple of his goddess there which was alleged to have been profaned, addressed the Roman people by the special orders of the Mother of the Gods, and performed also various miracles. Men of sense were scandalized, but the women and the multitude were not to be debarred from escorting the prophet at his departure in great crowds. Vows of pilgrimage to the east were already no longer un common; Marius himself, for instance, thus undertook a pilgrimage to Pessinus; in fact even thus early (first in
101. 653) Roman burgesses devoted themselves to the eunuch priesthood.
star-gazing
the former Cappadocian goddess appeared in a dream to Sulla, and of the later Roman communities of Isis and Osiris the oldest traced their origin to the
appearance;
great
But the unallowed and secret worships were naturally still more popular. As early as Cato’s time the Chaldean horoscope-caster had begun to come into competition with the Etruscan lzaruqfiex and the Marsian bird-seer (iii. I16) ;
and astrology were soon as much at home in I89. Italy as in their dreamy native land. In 615 the Roman praetor peregrinur directed all the Chaldeans to evacuate
Rome and Italy within ten days. The same fate at the same time befel the Jews, who had admitted Italian prose lytes to their sabbath. In like manner Scipio had to clear the camp before Numantia from soothsayers and pious
97. impostors of every sort. Some forty years afterwards (657) it was even found necessary to prohibit human sacrifices. The wild worship of the Cappadocian Ma, or, as the Romans called her, Bellona, to whom the priests in their festal processions shed their own blood as a sacrifice, and the gloomy Egyptian worships began to make their
CHAP. XII AND EDUCATION
Sullan period. Men had become perplexed not merely as to the old faith, but as to their very selves; the fearful crises of a. fifty years’ revolution, the instinctive feeling that the civil war was still far from being at an end, increased the anxious suspense, the gloomy perplexity of the multi tude. Restlessly the wandering imagination climbed every height and fathomed every abyss, where it fancied that it might discover new prospects or new light amidst the fatalities impending, might gain fresh hopes in the desperate
struggle against destiny, or perhaps might find merely fresh alarms. A portentous mysticism found in the general distraction—political, economic, moral, religious-—the soil which was adapted for and grew with alarming rapidity; was as gigantic trees had grown by night out of the earth, none knew whence or whither, and this very marvellous rapidity of growth worked new wonders and seized like an epidemic on all minds not thoroughly fortified.
Just as in the sphere of religion, the revolution begun in Education. the previous epoch was now completed also the sphere
of education and culture. We have already shown how
the fundamental idea of the Roman system—civil equality
—had already during the sixth century begun to be under
mined in this field also. Even in the time of Pictor and
Cato Greek culture was widely diffused in Rome, and there
was native Roman culture but neither of them had then
got beyond the initial stage. Cato’s encyclopaedia shows
tolerably what was understood at this period Romano
Greek model training (iii. 195); was little more than an embodiment of the knowledge of the old Roman house holder, and truly, when compared with the Hellenic culture of the period, scanty enough. At how low stage the average instruction of youth in Rome still stood at the beginning of the seventh century, may be inferred from the expressions of Polybius, who in this one respect prominently
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312 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK IV
censures the criminal indifference of the Romans as com pared with the intelligent private and public care of his countrymen ; no Hellene, not even Polybius himself, could rightly enter into the deeper idea of civil equality that lay at the root of this indifference.
Now the case was altered. just as the naive popular faith was superseded by an enlightened Stoic supernaturalism, so in education alongside of the simple popular instruction a special training, an exclusive lzumam'tar, developed itself and eradicated the last remnants of the old social equality. It will not be superfluous to cast a glance at the aspect assumed by the new instruction of the young, both the
Greek and the higher Latin.
It was‘a singular circumstance that the same man, who
in a political point of view definitively vanquished the Hellenic nation, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was at the same time the first or one of the first who fully recognized the Hellenic civilization as—what it has thenceforth continued to be beyond dispute—the civilization of the ancient world. He was himself indeed an old man before it was granted to him, with the Homeric poems in his mind, to stand before the Zeus of Phidias ; but his heart was young enough to carry home the full sunshine of Hellenic beauty and the unconquerable longing after the golden apples of the Hesperides in his soul; poets and artists had found in the foreigner a more earnest and cordial devotee than was any of the wise men of the Greece of those days. He made no epigram on Homer or Phidias, but he had his children introduced into the realms of intellect. Without
their national education, so far as there was such, he made provision like the Greeks for the physical development of his boys, not indeed by gymnastic exercises which were according to Roman notions inadmissible, but by instruction in the chase, which was among the Greeks developed almost like an art ,' and he elevated their Greek
neglecting
can. xrr AND EDUCATION 2! ;
instruction in such a way that the language was no longer merely learned and practised for the sake of speaking, but after the Greek fashion the whole subject-matter of general higher culture was associated with the language and developed out of it—embracing, first of all, the
of Greek literature with the mythological and historical information necessary for understanding and then rhetoric and philosophy. The library of king Perseus was the only portion of the Macedonian spoil that Paullus took for himself, with the view of presenting to his sons. Even Greek painters and sculptors were found in his train and completed the aesthetic training of his children. That the time was past when men could in this field pre serve merely repellent attitude as regarded Hellenism, had been felt even by Cato; the better classes had probably now presentiment that the noble substance of Roman character was less endangered by Hellenism as whole, than by Hellenism mutilated and misshapen: the mass of the upper society of Rome and Italy went along with the new mode. There had been for long no want of Greek schoolmasters in Rome; now they arrived in troops—and as teachers not merely of the language but of literature and culture in general—at the newly-opened lucrative market for the sale of their wisdom. Greek tutors and teachers of
who, even they were not slaves, were as
rule accounted as servants,1 were now permanent inmates
in the palaces of Rome; people speculated in them, and there statement that 200,000 sesterces (£2000) were paid for Greek literary slave of the first rank. As early
as 593 there existed in the capital number of special 18L establishments for the practice of Greek declamation.
Cicero says that he treated his learned slave Dionysius more respect fully than Scipio treated Panaetius, and in the same sense said in
knowledge
philosophy,
Lucilius—
Paenula, . ri quaerir, mnt:riu', rem’, “gum Utilr'or Milli, quam rapienr.
it is
a it
1
a
is aa
a
a
if
a
it,
Latin in struction.
But by its side there sprang up also higher Latin instruction. We have shown the previous epoch how Latin elementary instruction raised its character; how the place of the Twelve Tables was taken by the Latin Odyssey as sort of improved primer, and the Roman boy was now trained to the knowledge and delivery of his mother tongue by means of this translation, as the Greek by means of the original: how noted teachers of the Greek language and literature, Andronicus, Ennius, and others, who already probably taught not children properly so called, but boys growing up to maturity and young men, did not disdain to give instruction in the mother-tongue along with the Greek. These were the first steps towards higher Latin instruc tion, but they did not as yet form such an instruction itself. Instruction in language cannot go beyond the elementary stage, so long as lacks literature. It was not until
m NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK rv
Several distinguished names already occur among these Roman teachers; the philosopher Panaetius has been already mentioned 203); the esteemed grammarian Crates of Mallus in Cilicia, the contemporary and equal
169. rival of Aristarchus, found about 585 at Rome an audience for the recitation and illustration, language, and matter of the Homeric poems It true that this new mode of juvenile instruction, revolutionary and anti-national as was, encountered partially the resistance of the government;
161. but the edict of dismissal, which the authorities in 593 fulminated against rhetoricians and philosophers, remained (chiefly owing to the constant change of the Roman chief magistrates) like all similar commands without any result worth mentioning, and after the death of old Cato there were still doubtless frequent complaints in accordance with his views, but there was no further action. The higher instruction in Greek and the sciences of Greek culture remained thenceforth recognized as an essential part of Italian training.
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:15
there were not merely Latin schoolbooks but a Latin literature, and this literature already somewhat rounded
05 in the works of the classics of the sixth century, that
the mother-tongue and the native literature truly entered
into the circle of the elements of higher culture ; and the emancipation from the Greek schoolmasters was now not
slow to follow. Stirred up by the Homeric prelections of Public Crates, cultivated Romans began to read the recitative
of
works of their own literature, the Punic War of Naevius,
Works the Annals of Ennius, and subsequently also the Poems
of Lucilius first to a select circle, and then in public on
set days and in presence of a great concourse, and oc casionally also to treat them critically after the precedent of the Homeric grammarians. These literary prelections, which cultivated dilettanli (lz'tterati) held
gratuitously, were not formally a part of juvenile instruction, but were yet an essential means of introducing the youth to the
understanding and the discussion of the classic Latin literature.
The formation of Latin oratory took place in a similar Rhetorical way. The Roman youth of rank, who were even at an “mm early age incited to come forward in public with panegyrics
and forensic speeches, can never have lacked exercises in
oratory ; but it was only at this epoch, and in consequence
of the new exclusive culture, that there arose a rhetoric
properly so called. Marcus Lepidus Porcina (consul in
617) is mentioned as the first Roman advocate who techni- 187. cally handled the language and subject-matter; the two
famous advocates of the Marian age, the masculine and
Marcus Antonius (6rr-667) and the polished 148-87. and chaste orator Lucius Crassus (614-663) were already 140-91. complete rhetoricians. The exercises of the young men
in speaking increased naturally in extent and importance,
but still remained, just like the exercises in Latin literature, essentially limited to the personal attendance of the be
vigorous
Course of literature and rhetoric.
tinguished Roman knight of strict conservative views, who read Plautus and similar works with a select circle of younger men—-including Varro and Cicero—and some times also went over outlines of speeches with the authors, or put similar outlines into the hands of his friends. This was instruction, but Stilo was not a professional school master; he taught literature and rhetoric, just as juris prudence was taught at Rome, in the character of a senior friend of aspiring young men, not of a man hired and holding himself at every one’s command.
But about his time began also the scholastic higher
instruction in Latin, separated as well from
Latin as from Greek instruction, and imparted in special establishments by paid masters, ordinarily manumitted slaves. That its spirit and method were throughout borrowed from the exercises in the Greek literature and language, was a matter of course; and the scholars also consisted, as at these exercises, of youths, and not of boys. This Latin instruction was soon divided like the Greek into two courses; in so far as the Latin literature was first the subject of scientific lectures, and then a technical introduction was given to the preparation of panegyrics, public, and forensic orations. The first Roman school of literature was opened about Stilo’s time by Marcus Saevius Nicanor Postumus, the first separate school for Latin rhetoric about 660 by Lucius Plotius Gallus; but ordin' arily instructions in rhetoric were also given in the Latin schools of literature. This new Latin school-instruction was of the most comprehensive importance. The intro duction to the knowledge of Latin literature and Latin
216 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, noox rv
ginner on the master of the art so as to be trained by his example and his instructions.
Formal instruction both in Latin literature and in Latin 100. rhetoric was given first about 6 50 by Lucius Aelius Prae coninus of Lanuvium, called the “penman ” (Stilo), a dis
elementary
can. xn AND EDUCATION ' 217
oratory, such as had formerly been imparted by connois seurs and masters of high position, had preserved a certain independence in relation to the Greeks. The judges of language and the masters of oratory were doubtless under the influence of Hellenism, but not absolutely under that of the Greek school-grammar and school-rhetoric ; the latter in particular was decidedly an object of dread. The pride as well as the sound common sense of the Romans demurred to the Greek assertion that the ability to speak of things, which the orator understood and felt, in telligibly and attractively to his peers in the mother-tongue could be learned in the school by school-rules. To the solid practical advocate the procedure of the Greek rhetori cians, so totally estranged from life, could not but appear worse for the beginner than no preparation at all; to the man of thorough culture and matured by the experience of life, the Greek rhetoric seemed shallow and repulsive; while the man of serious conservative views did not fail to observe the close affinity between a professionally de veloped rhetoric and the trade of the demagogue. Accord ingly the Scipionic circle had shown the most bitter hosti lity to the rhetoricians, and, if Greek declamations before paid masters were tolerated doubtless primarily as exercises in speaking Greek, Greek rhetoric did not thereby find its way either into Latin oratory or into Latin oratorical instruction. But in the new Latin rhetorical schools the Roman youths were trained as men and public orators by discussing in pairs rhetorical themes ; they accused Ulysses, who was found beside the corpse of Ajax with the latter’s bloody sword, of the murder of his comrade in arms, or upheld his innocence; they charged Orestes with the
murder of his mother, or undertook to defend him; or perhaps they helped Hannibal with a supplementary good
advice as to the question whether he would do better to comply with the invitation to Rome, or to remain in
218 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION Book IV
Carthage, or to take flight. It was natural that the Catonian opposition should once more bestir itself against these offensive and pernicious conflicts of words. The censors of 662 issued a warning to teachers and parents not to allow the young men to spend the whole day in exercises, whereof their ancestors had known nothing; and the man, from whom this warning came, was no less than the first forensic orator of his age, Lucius Licinius Crassus. Of course the Cassandra spoke in vain; de clamatory exercises in Latin on the current themes of the Greek schools became a permanent ingredient in the education of Roman youth, and contributed their part to
educate the very boys as forensic and political and to stifle in the bud all earnest and true eloquence.
As the aggregate result of this modern Roman educa tion there sprang up the new idea of “humanity,” as it was called, which consisted partly of a more or less super ficial appropriation of the aesthetic culture of the Hellenes,
of a privileged Latin culture as an imitation or mutilated copy of the Greek. This new humanity, as the very name indicates, renounced the specific characteristics of Roman life, nay even came forward in opposition to them, and combined in itself, jun like our closely kindred “general culture,” a nationally cosmopolitan and socially exclusive character. Here too we trace the revolution, which separated classes and blended nations
players
partly
can. xul LITERATURE AND ART
219
CHAPTER XIII LITERATURE AND ART
THE sixth century was, both in a political and a literary Literary point of view, a vigorous and great age. It is true that we reaction. do not find in the field of authorship any more than in
that of politics a man of the first rank ; Naevius, Ennius,
Plautus, Cato, gifted and lively authors of distinctly-marked individuality, were not in the highest sense men of creative talent; nevertheless we perceive in the soaring, stirring, bold strain of their dramatic, epic, and historic attempts, that these rest on the gigantic struggles of the Punic wars. Much is only artificially transplanted, there are various faults in delineation and colouring, the form of art and the language are deficient in purity of treatment, Greek and national elements are quaintly conjoined; the whole per formance betrays the stamp of its scholastic origin and lacks independence and completeness; yet there exists in the poets and authors of that age, if not the full power to reach their high aim, at any rate the courage to compete with and the hope of rivalling the Greeks. It is otherwise in the epoch before us. The morning mists fell ; what had been begun in the fresh feeling of the national strength hardened amidst war, with youthful want ‘of insight into the difliculty of the undertaking and into the measure of their own talent, but also with youthful delight in and love to the work, could not be carried farther now, when on the
Sclpionlo
140. 136.
220 LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
one hand the dull sultriness of the approaching revolu tionary storm began to fill the air, and on the other hand the eyes of the more intelligent were gradually opened to the incomparable glory of Greek poetry and art and to the very modest artistic endowments of their own nation. The literature of the sixth century had arisen from the influence of Greek art on half-cultivated, but excited and susceptible minds. The increased Hellenic culture of the seventh called forth a literary reaction, which destroyed the germs of promise contained in those simple imitative attempts by the winter-frost of reflection, and rooted up the wheat and the tares of the older type of literature together.
‘ This reaction proceeded primarily and chiefly from the circle which assembled around Scipio Aemilianus, and whose most prominent members among the Roman world of quality were, in addition to Scipio himself, his elder friend and counsellor Gaius Laelius (consul in 614) and Scipio’s younger companions, Lucius Furius Philus (consul in 618) and Spurius Mummius, the brother of the destroyer of Corinth, among the Roman and Greek literati the comedian Terence, the satirist Lucilius, the historian Polybius, and the philosopher Panaetius. Those who were familiar with the Iliad, with Xenophon, and with Menander, could not be greatly impressed by the Roman Homer, and still less by the bad translations of the tragedies of Euripides which Ennius had furnished and Pacuvius con tinued to furnish. While patriotic considerations
might set bounds to criticism in reference to the native chron
icles, Lucilius at any rate directed very pointed shafts
“the dismal figures from the complicated ex positions of Pacuvius ” ; and similar severe, but not unjust criticisms of Ennius, Plautus, Pacuvius—all those poets "who appeared to have a licence to talk pompously and to reason illogically”—are found in the polished author of the Rhetoric dedicated to Herennius, written at the close
against
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART 221
of this period. People shrugged their shoulders at the interpolations, with which the homely popular wit of Rome had garnished the elegant comedies of Philemon and Diphilus. Half smiling, half envious, they turned away from the inadequate attempts of a dull age, which that circle probably regarded somewhat as a mature man regards the poetical effusions of his youth; despairing of the trans plantation of the marvellous tree, they allowed the higher species of art in poetry and prose substantially to fall into abeyance, and restricted themselves in these departments to an intelligent enjoyment of foreign masterpieces. The
of this epoch displayed itself chiefly in the subordinate fields of the lighter comedy, the poetical miscellany, the political pamphlet, and the professional
sciences. The literary cue was correctness, in the style of art and especially in the language, which, as a more limited circle of persons of culture became separated from the body of the people, was in its turn divided into the classical Latin of higher society and the vulgar Latin of the common
productiveness
The prologues of Terence promise "pure Latin"; warfare against faults of language forms a chief element of the Lucilian satire; and with this circumstance is connected the fact, that composition in Greek among the Romans now falls decidedly into the shade. - In so far certainly there is an improvement; inadequate efforts occur in this epoch far less frequently; performances in their kind complete and thoroughly pleasing occur far oftener than before or afterwards; in a linguistic point of view Cicero calls the age of Laelius and Scipio the golden age of pure unadulterated Latin. In like manner literary gradually rises in public opinion from a trade to an art. At the beginning of this period the preparation of theatrical pieces at any rate, if not the publication of recitative poems, was still regarded as not becoming for the Roman of quality; Pacuvius and Terence lived by their pieces; the
people.
activity
222 LITERATURE AND ART soox rv
writing of dramas was entirely a trade, and not one of golden produce. About the time of Sulla the state of matters had entirely changed. The remuneration given to actors at this time proves that even the favourite dramatic poet might then lay claim to a payment, the high amount of which removed the stigma. By this means composing for the stage was raised into a liberal art ; and we accord ingly find men of the highest aristocratic circles, such as
90. 87. Lucius Caesar (aedile in 664;} 667), engaged in writing for the Roman stage and proud of sitting in the Roman “poet’s club ” by the side of the ancestorless Accius. Art gains in sympathy and honour; but the enthusiasm has departed in life and in literature. The fearless self confidence, which makes the poet a poet, and which is very decidedly apparent in Plautus especially, is found in none of those that follow; the Epigoni of the men that fought with Hannibal are correct, but feeble.
Let us first glance at the Roman dramatic literature and the stage itself. Tragedy has now for the first time her specialists ; the tragic poets of this epoch do not, like those of the preceding, cultivate comedy and epos side by side. The appreciation of this branch of art among the writing and reading circles was evidently on the increase, but tragic
itself hardly improved. We now meet with the national tragedy (praetzxta), the creation of Naevius, only in the hands of Pacuvius to be mentioned immediately— an after-growth of the Ennian epoch. Among the probably numerous poets who imitated Greek tragedies two alone
Pacuvius. acquired a considerable name. Marcus Pacuvius from
Tragedy.
219-129.
Brundisium (5 3 5-4 625) who in his earlier years earned his livelihood in Rome by painting and only composed tragedies when advanced in life, belongs as respects both his years and his style to the sixth rather than the seventh century, although his poetical activity falls within the latter. He composed on the whole after the manner of his country
poetry
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART
:23
man, uncle, and master Ennius. Polishing more carefully and aspiring to a higher strain than his predecessor, he was regarded by favourable critics of art afterwards as a model of artistic poetry and of rich style : in the fragments, how ever, that have reached us proofs are not wanting to justify the censure of the poet’s language by Cicero and the censure of his taste by Lucilius; his language appears more rugged than that of his predecessor, his style of composition pompous and punctilious. 1 There are traces that he like Ennius attached more value to philosophy than to religion ; but he did not at any rate, like the latter, prefer dramas chiming in with neological views and preach ing sensuous passion or modern enlightenment, and drew without distinction from Sophocles or from Euripides—of that poetry with a decided special aim, which almost stamps Ennius with genius, there can have been no vein in the younger poet.
More readable and adroit imitations of Greek tragedy
were furnished by Pacuvius’ younger contemporary, Lucius
Accius, son of a freedman of Pisaurum (584-after 651), 170-10l with the exception of Pacuvius the only notable
poet of the seventh century. An active author also in the
1 Thus in the Paulur, an original piece, the following line occurred, probably in the description of the pass of Pythium (ii. 506) :
Qua uix caprigeua glneri gradz'li: grlm'o at.
And in another piece the hearers are expected to understand the following dscription
Quadruper tardig‘rada agrerti: humili: were, Capile brew‘, cert/in anguimz, aspectu trun', Euirc:rata inanima cum animali rm.
To which they naturally reply
Ita razpl‘uam dictione ah I: dalur,
Quad conjecture . rapimr aeg're cont‘uit; Non intellegimur, niri . ri-apan‘e dixerir.
Then follows the confession that the tortoise is referred to. Such enigmas, moreover, were not wanting even among the Attic tragedians, who on that account were often and sharply taken to task by the Middle Comedy.
tragic
Aoolll.
Greek comedy.
Terence.
224 LITERATURE AND ART soon iv
field of literary history and grammar, he doubtless laboured to introduce instead of the crude manner of his predecessors greater purity of language and style into Latin tragedy; yet even his inequality and incorrectness were emphatically censured by men of strict observance like Lucilius.
Far greater activity and far more important results are apparent in the field of comedy. At the very commence ment of this period a remarkable reaction set in against the sort of comedy hitherto prevalent and popular. Its
196-159. representative Terentius (558-595) is one of the most interesting phenomena, in a historical point of view, in Roman literature. Born in Phoenician Africa, brought in early youth as a slave to Rome and there introduced to
the Greek culture of the day, he seemed from the very first
destined for the vocation of giving back to the new Attic
comedy that cosmopolitan character, which in its adaptation to the Roman public under the rough hands of Naevius, Plautus, and their associates it had in some measure lost. Even in the selection and employment of models the contrast is apparent between him and that predecessor whom alone we can now compare with him. Plautus chooses his pieces from the whole range of the newer Attic comedy, and by no means disdains the livelier and more popular comedians, such as Philemon; Terence keeps almost exclusively to Menander, the most elegant, polished, and chaste of all the poets of the newer comedy. The method of working up several Greek pieces into one Latin is retained by Terence, because in fact from the state of the case it could not be avoided by the Roman editors; but it is handled with incomparably more skill and careful ness. The Plautine dialogue beyond doubt departed very frequently from its models; Terence boasts of the verbal adherence of his imitations to the originals, by which
however we are not to understand a verbal translation in our sense. The not ‘unfrequently coarse, but always
can. xrn LITERATURE AND ART
225
efl'ective laying on of Roman local tints over the Greek ground-work, which Plautus was fond of, is completely and designedly banished from Terence; not an allusion puts one in mind of Rome, not a proverb, hardly a reminiscence;1 even the Latin titles are replaced by Greek. The same distinction shows itself in the artistic treatment. First of all the players receive back their appropriate masks, and greater care is observed as to the scenic arrangements, so that it is no longer the case, as with Plautus, that everything needs to take place on the street, whether belonging to it or not. Plautus ties and unties the dramatic knot carelessly and loosely, but his plot is droll and often striking; Terence, far less effective, keeps everywhere account of probability, not unfrequently at the cost of suspense, and wages emphatic war against the certainly somewhat flat and insipid standing expedients of his predecessors, ag. against allegoric dreams. 2 Plautus paints his characters with broad strokes, often after a stock model, always with a view to the gross effect from a distance and on the whole; Terence handles the psycho logical development with a careful and often excellent miniature-painting, as in the Adelplzz' for instance, where the two old men—the easy bachelor enjoying life in town, and
1 Perhaps the only exception is in the Andria (iv. 5) the answer to the question how matters go : " Sic
U! guimur," airmt, " quanda ut wlumu: non lint,"
in allusion to the line of Caecilius. which is, indeed, also imitated from a Greek proverb :-
Viva: ut porris, guanda non qui: at velir.
The comedy is the oldest of Terence’s, and was exhibited by the theatrical
authorities on the recommendation of Caecilius. gratitude is characteristic.
The gentle expression of
9 A counterpart to the hind chased by dogs and with tears calling on a young man for help, which Terence ridicules (Pharm. prol. 4), may be recognized in the far from ingenious Plautine allegory of the goat and the ape (Merc. 1). Such excrescences are ultimately traceable to the rhetoric of Euripides (Lg. Eurip. Hec. 90).
vor. 1v
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226 LITERATURE AND ART ‘BOOK rv
the sadly harassed not at all refined country-landlord—form a masterly contrast. The springs of action and the language of Plautus are drawn from the tavern, those of Terence from the household of the good citizen. The lazy Plautine hostelry, the very unconstrained but very charming damsels with the hosts duly corresponding, the sabre-rattling troopers, the menial world painted with an altogether peculiar humour, whose heaven is the cellar, and whose fate is the lash, have disappeared in Terence or at any rate undergone improvement. In Plautus we find ourselves, on the whole, among incipient or thorough rogues, in Terence again, as a rule, among none but honest men ; occasionally leno plundered or young man taken to the brothel, done with moral intent, possibly out of brotherly love or to deter the boy from frequenting im proper haunts. The Plautine pieces are pervaded by the significant antagonism of the tavern to the house; every where wives are visited with abuse, to the delight of all husbands temporarily emancipated and not quite sure of an amiable salutation at home. The comedies of Terence are pervaded by conception not more moral, but doubtless
more becoming, of the feminine nature and of married life. As rule, they end with virtuous marriage, or, possible, with two—just as was the glory of Menander that he compensated for every seduction by marriage. The eulogies of bachelor life, which are so frequent in Menander, are repeated by his Roman remodeller only with characteristic shyness,1 whereas the lover in his agony, the tender husband at the amouc/lament, the loving sister the death-bed in the Eunuc/zus' and the Andria are very grace fully delineated; in the Hayra there even appears at the close as delivering angel virtuous courtesan, likewise
Micio in the Adelphi praises his good fortune in life, more particularly because he has never had a. wife, " which those (the Greeks) reckon a piece of good fortune. "
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genuine Menandrian figure, which the Roman public, it is true, very properly hissed. In Plautus the fathers through out only exist for the purpose of being jeered and swindled by their sons; with Terence in the Heautan Tz'morumenor the lost son is reformed by his father’s wisdom, and, as in general he is full of excellent instructions as to education, so the point of the best of his pieces, the Adelp/zz', turns on finding the right mean between the too liberal training of the uncle and the too rigid training of the father. Plautus writes for the great multitude and gives utterance to profane and sarcastic speeches, so far as the censorship of the stage at all allowed ; Terence on the contrary describes it as his aim to please the good and, like Menander, to offend no body. Plautus is fond of vigorous, often noisy dialogue, and his pieces require a lively play of gesture in the actors; Terence confines himself to “quiet conversation. ” The language of Plautus abounds in burlesque turns and verbal witticisms, in alliterations, in comic coinages of new terms, Aristophanic combinations of words, pithy expressions of the day jestingly borrowed from the Greek. Terence knows nothing of such caprices ; his dialogue moves on with the purest symmetry, and its points are elegant epigrammatic
and sententious turns. The comedy of Terence is not to be called an improvement, as compared with that of Plautus, either in a poetical or in a moral point of view. Originality cannot be aflirmed of either, but, if possible, there is less of it in Terence; and the dubious praise of more correct copying is at least outweighed by the circum stance that, while the younger poet reproduced the agree ableness, he knew not how to reproduce the merriment of Menander, so that the comedies of Plautus imitated from Menander, such as the Sficlmr, the Cirtellaria, the Bacc/tider, probably preserve far more of the flowing charm of the
original than the comedies of the “dz'mz'a'z'atur . Menander. ” And, while the aesthetic critic cannot recognize an improve
228 LITERATURE AND ART noox rv
ment in the transition from the coarse to the dull, as little can the moralist in the transition from the obscenity and indifference of Plautus to the accommodating morality of Terence. But in point of language an improvement certainly took place. Elegance of language was the pride of the poet, and it was owing above all to its inimitable charm that the most refined judges of art in aftertimes, such as Cicero, Caesar, and Quinctilian, assigned the palm to him among all the Roman poets of the republican age. In so far it is perhaps justifiable to date a new era in Roman literature-the real essence of which lay not in the development of Latin poetry, but in the development of the Latin language—from the comedies of Terence as the first artistically pure imitation of Hellenic works of art. The modern comedy made its way amidst the most determined literary warfare. The Plautine style of composing had taken root among the Roman bourgeoirie; the comedies of Terence encountered the liveliest opposition from the public, which found their “insipid language,” their “feeble style,” intolerable. The, apparently, pretty sensitive poet
replied in his prologues—which properly were not intended for any such purpose—with counter-criticisms full of de fensive and offensive polemics ; and appealed from the multitude, which had twice run off from his Ifayra to witness a band of gladiators and rope-dancers, to the culti vated circles of the genteel world. He declared that he only aspired to the approval of the “good”; in which doubtless there was not wanting a. hint, that it was not at all seemly to undervalue works of art which had obtained the approval of the “few. ” He acquiesced in or even favoured the report, that persons of quality aided him in composing with their counsel or even with their co
operation. 1
In reality he carried his point; even in
' In the prologue of the Heauton Timer-um he puts the objection into the mouth of his censors :
crrAr. xm LITERATURE AND ART
“9
literature the oligarchy prevailed, and the artistic comedy
of the exclusives supplanted the comedy of the people:
we find that about 620 the pieces of Plautus disappeared 184. from the set of stock plays. This is the more significant, because after the early death of Terence no man of con spicuous talent at all further occupied this field. Respect
ing the comedies of Turpilius 651 at an advanced age) 108. and other stop-gaps wholly or almost wholly forgotten, connoisseur already at the close of this period gave as
his opinion, that the new comedies were even much worse than the had new pennies
180).
We have formerly shown (iii. 164) that in all probability National
already in the course of the sixth century national Roman comedy. comedy (togata) was added to the Graeco-Roman (palliata),
as portraiture not of the distinctive life of the capital,
Repeat: ad rtudium bum: . te applicau: music-um Amicum ingeniojretum, baud natura . rua.
And in the later prologue (594) to the AdeZp/zi he says— I00.
Nam quad irli dicunt male-001i, hominer nubile: Eur): adiutan, adridueque una . rcn'bere;
Quad illi malediclum wllemem use exirtimanl
Eam laudem hi: ducit maximum, guum illir place! 010' 1106ir uni-unit at populo placard,
Quorum opera in 62110, in alia, in negalia, Suo quirque temper: um: ert . tine ruperbia.
As early as the time of Cicero was the general supposition that Laelius and Scipio Aemilianus were here meant: the scenes were desig
nated which were alleged to proceed from them stories were told of the journeys of the poor poet with his genteel patrons to their estates near Rome; and was reckoned unpardonahle that they should have done nothing at all for the improvement of his financial circumstances. But
the power which creates legend is, as well known, nowhere more potent
than in the history of literature. It clear, and even judicious Roman writics acknowledged, that these lines could not possibly apply to Scipio
who was then twenty-five years of age, and to his friend Laelius who was
not much older. Others with at leut more judgment thought of the poets
of quality Quintus Labeo (consul in 571) and Marcus Popillius (consul in 188. 581), and of the learned patron of art and mathematician. Lucius Sulpicius 178. Gallus (consul in 588); but this too evidently mere conjecture. 'l‘hat 166. Terence was in close relations with the Scipionic house cannot, however,
be doubted a. significant factI that the first exhibition of the Ad:lplu' Lnd the second of the Hayra took place at the funeral games of Lucius Paullus, which were provided by his sons Scipio and Fabius.
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but of the ways and doings of the Latin land. Of course the Terentian school rapidly took possession of this species of comedy also; it was quite in accordance with its spirit to naturalise Greek comedy in Italy on the one hand by faithful translation, and on the other hand by pure Roman imitation. The chief representative of this school was Lucius Afranius (who flourished about 660). The fragments of his comedies remaining give no distinct impression, but they are not inconsistent with what the Roman critics of art remark regarding him. His numerous national comedies were in their construction thoroughly formed on the model of the Greek intrigue-piece ; only, as was natural in imita tion, they were simpler and shorter. In the details also he borrowed what pleased him partly from Menander, partly from the older national literature. But of the Latin local tints, which are so distinctly marked in Titinius the creator of this species of art, we find not much in Afranius ,1 his subjects retain a very general character, and may well have
been throughout imitations of particular Greek comedies with merely an alteration of costume. A polished eclecti eism and adroitness in composition—literary allusions not unfrequently occur—are characteristic of him as of Terence: the moral tendency too, in which his pieces approximated to the drama, their inoffensive tenor in a police point of view, their purity of language are common to him with the latter. Afranius is sufliciently indicated as of a kindred spirit with Menander and Terence by the judgment of posterity that he wore the toga as Menander would have
1 External circumstances also, it'may be presumed, co-operatecl in bringing about this change. After all the Italian communities had obtained the Roman franchise in consequence of the Social war, it was no longer allowable to transfer the scene of a comedy to any such community, and the poet had either to keep to general ground or to choose places that had fallen into ruin or were situated abroad. Certainly this circumstance, which was taken into account even in the production of the older comedies, exercised an unfavourable effect on the national comedy.
230
LITERATURE AND ART Boox rv
CRAP. xiii LITERATURE AND ART
:3:
worn it had he been an Italian, and by his own expression that to his mind Terence surpassed all other poets.
The farce appeared afresh at this period in the field of Atelllnll. Roman literature. It was in itself very old 291): long
before Rome arose, the merry youths of Latium may have improvised on festal occasions in the masks once for all estab
lished for particular characters. These pastimes obtained a fixed local background in the Latin “asylum of fools,” for which they selected the formerly Oscan town of Atella, which was destroyed in the Hannibalic war and was thereby handed over to comic use thenceforth the name of “ Oscan plays ” or “plays of Atella” was commonly used for these
exhibitions. 1 But these pleasantries had nothing to do with
With these names there has been associated from ancient times a series of errors. The utter mistake of Greek reporters, that these farcu were played at Rome in the Oscan language, now with justice universally rejected; but is, on a closer consideration, little short of impossible to bring these pieces, which are laid in the midst of Latin town and country life, into relation with the national Oscan character at all. The appella tion of "Atellan play" to be explained in another way. The Latin farce with its fixed characters and standing jests needed a permanent scenery the fool-world everywhere seeks for itself a local habitation. Of course under the Roman stage-police none of the Roman communities,
or of the Latin communities allied with Rome, could be taken for this purpose, although was allowable to transfer the togatae to these. But Atella, which, although destroyed de jure along with Capua in 543 (ii. 211, 340, 366). continued practically to subsist as a village inhabited by Roman farmers, was adapted in every respect for the purpose. This conjecture
changed into certainty by our observing that several of these farces are
laid in other communities within the domain of the Latin tongue, which existed no longer at all, or no longer at any rate in the eye of the law
such as the Campani of Pomponius and perhaps also his Adult/n‘ and his Quinquatrz'a in Capua, and the Militer Pomelinmrer of Novius in Suessa Pometia—-vvhile no existing community was subjected to similar mal treatment. The real home of these pieces was therefore Latium, their poetical stage was the Latinized Oscan land with the Oscan nation they
have no connection. The statement that a piece of Naevius after 550) 200, was for want of proper actors performed by l'Atellan players" and was therefore called p:rronala (Festus, . r. 11. ), provs nothing against this view:
the appellation "Atellan players" comes to stand here proleptically, and we might even conjecture from this passage that they were formerly termed " masked players " (perronati).
An explanation quite similar may be given of the "lays of Fscen nium," which likewise belong to the burlesque poetry of the Romans and were localized in the South Etruscan village of Fescennium;
not necessary on that account to class them with Etruscan poetry any
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the stage1 and with literature; they were performed by amateurs where and when they pleased, and the text was not written or at any rate was not published. It was not until the present period that the Atellan piece was handed over to actors properly so called} and was employed, like the Greek satyric drama, as an afterpiece particularly after tragedies ; a change which naturally suggested the extension of literary activity to that field. Whether this authorship developed itself altogether independently, or whether possibly the art-farce of Lower Italy, in various respects of kindred character, gave the impulse to this Roman farce,a can no
more than the Atellanae with Oscan. That Fescennium was in historical times not a town but a village, cannot certainly be directly proved, but is in the highest degree probable from the way in which authors mention the place and from the silence of inscriptions.
1 The close and original connection, which Livy in particular reprsents as subsisting between the Atellan farce and the . ratura with the drama thence developed, is not at all tenable. The difference between the lu‘rln'o and the Atellan player was just about as great as is at present the difl'erence between a professional actor and a man who goes to a masked ball; between the dramatic piece, which down to Terence's time had no masks, and the Atellan, which was essentially based on the character-mask, there subsisted an original distinction in no way to be effaced. The drama arose out of the flute-piece, which at first without any recitation was confined merely to song and dance, then acquired a
text (ruture), and lastly obtained through Andronicus a libretto borrowed from the Greek stage, in which the old flute-lays occupied nearly the place of the Gredr chorus. This course of development nowhere in its earlier stages comes into contact with the farce, which was performed by amateurs.
3 In the time of the empire the Atellana was represented by professional actors (Friedlander in Becker's Handbuch, vi. 549). The time at which these began to engage in it is not reported, but it can hardly have been other than the time at which the Atellan was admitted among the regular stage-plays, {. e. the epoch before Cicero (Cic. ad Fam. ix. 16). This view is not inconsistent with the circumstance that still in Livy's time (vii. 2) the Atellan players retained their honorary rights as contrasted with other actors; for the statement that professional actors began to take part in performing the Atellana for pay does not imply that the Atellana was no longer performed, in the country towns for instance, by unpaid amateurs, and' the privilege therefore still remained applicable.
It deserves attention that the Greek farce was not only especially at home in Lower Italy, but that several of its pieces (ag. among those of Sopater, the “ Lennie-Porridge," the “ Wooers of Bacchis," the " Valet of Mystaltos," the “Bookworms," the "Physiologist ") strikingly remind usof the Atellanae. This composition of farces must have reached down to the time at which the Greeks in and around Neapolis formed a circle enclosed
CHAP. x111 LITERATURE‘ AND ART
:33
longer be determined ; that the several pieces were uniformly original works, is certain. The founder of this new species of literature, Lucius Pomponius from the Latin colony of Bononia, appeared in the first half of the seventh century ;1 and along with his pieces those of another poet Novius soon became favourites. So far as the few remains and the reports of the old lz'tleratorer allow us to form an opinion, they were short farces, ordinarily perhaps of one act, the
charm of which depended less on the preposterous and loosely constructed plot than on the drastic portraiture of particular classes and situations. Festal days and public acts were favourite subjects of comic delineation, such as the
“Marriage,” the "First of March,” “Harlequin Candidate”; so were also foreign nationalities—the Transalpine Gauls, the Syrians; above all, the various trades frequently appear on the boards. The sacristan, the soothsayer, the bird-seer, the physician, the publican, the painter, fisherman, baker,
across the stage; the public criers were severely assailed and still more the fullers, who seem to have played in the Roman fool-world the part of our tailors. While the varied life of the city thus received its due attention, the farmer with his joys and sorrows was also represented in all aspects. The copiousness of this rural repertory may be guessed from the numerous titles of that nature, such as “the Cow,” “the Ass,” “the Kid,” “the Sow,” “the Swine,” “the Sick Boar,” “the Farmer,” “the Countryman,”
“Harlequin Countryman,” “the Cattle-herd,” “the Vine dresser,” “the Fig-gatherer,” “Woodcutting,” “Pruning,”
“the Poultry-yard. ” In these pieces it was always the standing
within the Latin-speaking Campania; for one of these writers of fares, Blaesus of Capreae, bears even a Roman name and wrote a farce "Saturnus. "
1 According to Eusebius, Pomponius flourished about 664; Velleius 90. calls him a contemporary of Lucius Crassus (614-663) and Marcus 140-91. Antonius (611-667). The former statement is probably about a genera- 148-37. tion too late ; the reckoning by zlictoriali (p. 182) which was discontinued
about 6 50 still occurs in his Pictorer, and about the end of this period we 100. already meet the mimes which displaced the Atellanae from the stage.
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LITERATURE AND ART noon rv
figures of the stupid and the artful servant, the good old man, the wise man, that delighted the public; the first in particular might never be wanting—the Pulcinello of this farce-the gluttonous filthy Maccur, hideously ugly and yet eternally in love, always on the point of stumbling across his own path, set upon by all with jeers and with blows and eventually at the close the regular scapegoat. The titles “ Maccur Micr,” “MGL'L‘US Capri,” “Mama Wrga,” “Maczur Exul,” “Macci
Gemini” may furnish the good-humoured reader with some conception of the variety of entertainment in the Roman masquerade. Although these farces, at least after they came to be written, accommodated themselves to the general laws of literature, and in their metres for instance followed the Greek stage, they yet naturally retained a far more Latin and more popular stamp than even the national comedy. The farce resorted to the Greek world only under the form of travestied tragedy;1 and this style appears to have been cultivated first by Novius, and not very frequently in any case. The farce of this poet moreover ventured, if not to trespass on Olympus, at least to touch the most human of the gods, Hercules: he wrote a HZ’rculer Auc tz'onator. The tone, as a matter of course, was not the most refined; very unambiguous ambiguities, coarse rustic Obscenities, ghosts frightening and occasionally
devouring children, formed part of the entertainment, and offensive
personalities, even with the mention of names, not unfre quently crept in. But there was no want also of vivid delineation, of grotesque incidents, of telling jokes, and of pithy sayings ; and the harlequinade rapidly won for itself no inconsiderable position in the theatrical life of the capital and even in literature.
I It was probably merry enough in this form. In the Plonu'uuol Novius, for instance, there was the line :—
Sum ama, iam t: accidam claua . m'rpea, just as Menander's \Ileufinpanhfis makes his appearance,
CHAP- xm LITERATURE AND ART
235
Lastly as regards the development of dramatic arrange- Dram! “ ments we are not in a position to set forth in detail—what mg’ is clear on the whole—that the general interest in dramatic performances was constantly on the increase, and that they
became more and more frequent and magnificent. Not
only was there hardly any ordinary or extraordinary popular
festival that was now celebrated without dramatic exhibi
tions ; even in the country-towns and in private houses repre sentations by companies of hired actors were common. It
is true that, while probably various municipal towns already
at this time possessed theatres built of stone, the capital
was still without one; the building of a theatre, already contracted for, had been again prohibited by the senate in
599 on the suggestion of Publius Scipio Nasica. It was 155. quite in the spirit of the sanctimonious policy of this age,
that the building of a permanent theatre was prohibited out
of respect for the customs of their ancestors, but never theless theatrical entertainments were allowed rapidly to increase, and enormous sums were expended annually in erecting and decorating structures of boards for them.
The arrangements of the stage became visibly better. The improved scenic arrangements and the reintroduction of masks about the time of Terence are doubtless connected
with the fact, that the erection and maintenance of the stage and stage-apparatus were charged in 580 on the 17. 4.
public chest. 1 The plays which Lucius Mummius pro duced after the capture of Corinth (609) formed an epoch 145. in the history of the theatre. It was probably then that
a theatre acoustically constructed after the Greek fashion
1 Hitherto the person providing the play had been obliged to fit up the stage and scenic apparatus out of the round sum assigned to him or at his
own expense, and probably much money would not often be expended on these. But in 580 the censors made the erection of the stage for the 174 games of the praetors and aediles a. matter of special contract (Liv. xli.
:7); the circumstance that the stage-apparatus was now no longer erected merely for a single performance must have led to a puceptible improve
ment of it.
I36
LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
and provided with seats was first erected, and more care
was expended on the exhibitions. 1 Now also there is frequent mention of the bestowal of a prize of victory—which implies the competition of several pieces— of the audience taking a lively part for or against the leading actors, of cliques and :lagueurr. The decorations and machinery were improved; moveable scenery artfully painted and audible theatrical thunder made their appear ance under the aedileship of Gaius Claudius Pulcher in
99. 79. 655 ;2 and twenty years later (675) under the aedileship of the brothers Lucius and Marcus Lucullus came the changing of the decorations by shifting the scenes. To the close of this epoch belongs the greatest of Roman
62. actors, the freedman Quintus Roscius about 692 at great age), throughout several generations the ornament and pride of the Roman stage,a the friend and welcome
generally
boon-companion the sequel.
of Sulla—to whom we shall have to recur
In recitative poetry the most surprising circumstance
The attention given to the acoustic an'angements of the Greeks may be Inferred from Vitruv. v. 5, 8. Ritschl (Parerg. 227, xx. ) has dis cussed the question of the seats but probable (according to Plautus, Capt. pro]. 11) that those only who were not capite cum‘ had a claim to a seat. It probable, moreover, that the words of Horace that “ captive Greece led captive her conqueror" primarily refer to these epoch-making theatrical games of Mummius (Tac. Arm. xiv. 2r).
The scenery of Pulcher must have been regularly painted, since the birds are said to have attempted to perch on the tiles (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 4, 23; Val. Max. ii. 4, 6). Hitherto the machinery for thunder had con sisted in the shaking of nails and stones in copper kettle Pulcher first produced a better thunder by rolling stones, which was thenceforth named
" Claudian thunder" (Festus, 1/. Claudiana, p. 57).
Among the few minor poems preserved from this epoch there occurs
the following epigram on this illustrious actor :—
Conrtiteram, exorientm Auroram forte mlufaiu, Cum rubito a [ma Rorciur exoritur.
Pate mi/zi liceat, coelerter, dicere vertra; Mortalir ‘virurt pulchr-iar err: deo.
The author of this epigram, Greek in its tone and inspired by Greek
enthusiasm for art, was no less a man than the conqueror of the Cimbri, 102. Quintus Lutatius Catulus, consul in 652.
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