Gracchus silenced by such a measure, but there would cer-
determined to remedy the evil by endeavouring to tainly have been no ground for that bitter exas-
create an industrious middle class of agriculturists, peration which Gracchus now called forth.
determined to remedy the evil by endeavouring to tainly have been no ground for that bitter exas-
create an industrious middle class of agriculturists, peration which Gracchus now called forth.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - b
A tablet
several skirmishes took place, until at last, by a was dedicated by him in the temple of the Mater
feigned flight of his own men, he succeeded in Matuta, on which the reduction of Sardinia was
drawing the Celtiberians away from their camp, of recorded, and on which were represented the
which he immediately took possession. On this island itself and the battles Gracchus had fought
occasion 9000 enemies are said to have been slain. there.
Gracchus now proceeded to ravage the country, In B. C. 169 Gracchus was appointed censor with
which, together with his victory, had such an C. Claudius Pulcher. His censorship was charc-
effect upon the people, that in a short tiine 103 terised by a strictness bordering on severity: seve-
Celtiberian towns submitted to him. Laden with ral persons were ejected from the senate, and many
immense booty, Graccbus then returned 20 Alce, equites lost their horses. In consequence of this,
which he besieged. The place at first made a gal the tribunes brought an accusation against the
lant resistance, but was compelled to surrender. censors before the people, but both were acquitted.
le again gained great booty, but treated the On that occasion Gracchus acted with great mag-
conquered people with kindness ; and one Celti-nanimity towards his colleague, who was unpo-
berian chief, 'ihurtus, even entered the Roman pular, while he himself enjoyed the highest cs
army, and assisted Gracchus as a faithful ally. The teem and popularity, for he declared, that if his
large and powerful city of Ergavica opened its colleague should be condemned, he would accom-
gates to the Romans. historians, says Livy, pany him into exile. With the money assigned
stated that these conquests were not so easily made, to him for the public works he purchased the site
but that the Celtiberians invariably revolted after of the house of P. Scipio Africanus, and of some
their submission, as soon as the enemy was out of adjoining buildings, and there erected a basilica,
sight, until at last a fearful battle was fought, the which was afterwards called the Basilica Sem-
irreparable loss of which induced the Celtiberians pronia. A more important act of his censorship
to conclude a permanent peace. This may indeed was his throwing all the libertini together in the
have been so, for the Spaniards had been treated by four tribus urbanae, whereas before they had gra-
nearly all the previous Roman generals with cruelty dually spread over all the tribes. This measure is
and treachery ; and they could not know that they called by Cicero one of the most salutary regula-
had now to do with a bold, gallant, and formidable, tions, and one which for a time checked the ruin of
but at the same time a kind and honest enemy. the republic. In B. c. 164 Gracchus was sent by the
In the year following Gracchus remained in Spain; senate as ambassador into Asia, to inspect the affairs
and by his usual prudence and valour he again of the Roman allies ; and it appears that on that
achieved the most brilliant exploits ; he relieved occasion he addressed the Rhodians in a Greek
the town of Carabis, which was besieged by a large speech, which was still extant in the time of
army of Celtiberians, and he afterwards defeated, Cicero. In B. c. 163 he was raised to the consul-
by a stratagem, another army near Complega, which ship a second time. Polybius mentions several
had endeavoured to ensnare him. In this manner other embassies on which he was employed by the
he gradually subdued all the Celtiberians, and be senate, and in which he acted as a kind mediator
afterwards showed that he was as great in the between foreign princes and Rome, and afforded
peaceful administration of his province, as he had protection where it was needed. The time of his
before been at the head of his armies. He adopted death is unknown: Orelli (Onom. Tull. ii. p.
various excellent measures, which tended not only to 531) commits the blunder of saying that he fell in
secure his conquests, but to win the affections of the battle in Lucania, thus confounding him with
Spaniards to such a degree, that nearly fifty years No. 2.
afterwards they evinced their gratitude towards his Tib. Sempronius Gracchus had twelve children
son Tiberius. He assigned lands and habitations by Cornelia, nine of whom appear to have died at
to the poorer people, and established a series of an early age. The remaining three were Tiberius
laws to regulate their relations to Rome. In com- and Caius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who was
memoration of his achievements in Spain, he married to the younger Scipio Africanus. In his
changed the name of the town of Illurcis into private and family life Gracchus was as amiable a
Gracchuris.
man as he was great in his public career: he was
In B. c. 178 Gracchus returned to Rome, where he the worthy husband of Cornelia, and the worthy
celebrated a splendid triumph over the Celtiberians father of the Gracchi, and, like his two sons, he
and their allies, and was elected consul for the year combined with the virtues of a Roman those of a
following, with C. Claudius Pulcher. He obtained man.
Cicero mentions him in several passages in
Sardinia for his province, where he had to carry on terms of high praise, and also acknowledges that he
a war against the revolted inhabitants. He gained had some merits as an orator. (Liv. xxxvii. 7,
a brilliant victory over the enemy, and then led xxxviii. 52, 53, 57, 60, xxxix. 5, 55, xl. 35, 44,
his army into winter quarters. In the spring 47–50, xli. 3, 11, 12, 21, 26, 33, xliii. 16–18,
of the year following he continued his successful xliv. 16, xlv. 15; Polyb. xxiii. 6, xxvi. 4, 7,
operations against the Sardinians, and reduced xxxi. 5, 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, 23, xxxii. 3, 4, 5, xxxv.
them to submission. When this was achieved, and | 2; Appian, Ilispan. 43; Plut. 776. Gracch. 1, &c. ,
hostnges were received, he sent envoys to Rome to Marcell. 5; Cic. Brut. 20, de lie Publ. vi. 2, de
solicit permission to return with his army and cele Invcnt. i. 30, 49, de Nat. Deor. ii. 4, ad Q. Frut.
brate a triumph. But public thanksgivings only ii. 2, de Divinal. i. 17, 18, ii. 35, de Amic. 27,
were decreed, and Gracchus was ordered to remain in de Orat. i. 9, 48, de Fin. iv. 24, de Off. ii. 12,
his province as proconsul. At the close of B. c. 175, de Prov. Cons. 8 ; comp. Meyer, Fragm. Orat. Rom.
however, he returned to Rome, and was honoured p. 151, &c, 2nd edit. ; Niebuhr, lectures on Ro.
with a triumph over the Sardinians. He is said to mun llist. vol. i. p. 269. )
VOL. 11.
## p. 290 (#306) ############################################
290
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
7. TIB. SEMPRONIOS GRACCHUS, the elder son among the Romans who scaled the walls of Car.
of No. 6. If Plutarch is right, that Tib. Gracchus thage.
was not thirty years old at his death, in B. C. About ten years after his return from this expe
133, he must have been born in B. c. 164 ; | dition, B. c. 137, Tiberius was appointed quaestor,
but we know that he was quaestor in B. c. 137, and in this capacity be accompanied the consul,
an office which by law he could not hold till C. Hostilius Mancinus, to his province of Hispania
he had completed his thirty-first year, whence it Citerior, where in a short time he gained both the
would follow that he was born about five years affection of the Roman soldiers, and the esteem
carlier, and that at his death he was about thirty- and confidence of the victorious enemy. When
five years old. He lost his father at an early age, Mancinus, after being defeated by the Numan-
but this did not prevent his inheriting his father's tines, sent messengers to treat with them for a
excellent qualities, and his illustrious mother, Cor- truce and terms of peace, the Spaniards, who had
nelia, made it the object of her life to render her so often been deceived by the Romans in their
sons worthy of their father and of her own ances- negotintions, declared that they would not treat
tors. It was owing to the care she bestowed upon with any one except Tib. Gracchus ; for the confi-
the education of her sons, rather than to their dence they placed in him personally was heightened
natural talents, that they surpassed all the Roman by the recollection of the just and fair treatment
youths of the time. She was assisted in her ex- they had received from his victorious father. Ti-
ertions by eminent Greeks, who exercised great in-berius accordingly was sent to Numantia, and con-
Auence upon the minds of the two brothers, and cluded a peace with the Numantines on equitable
among whom we have especial mention of Dio- terms. Considering the defeat which Mancinus
phanes of Mytilene, Menelaus of Marathon, and had suffered, the terms were favourable to the
Blossius of Cumae. As the Gracchi grew up, the Romans, and Gracchus saved by it an army of
relation between them and their teachers gradually upwards of 20,000 men from uiter annihilation ;
became one of intimate friendship, and of the highest but the concessions made to the Numantines were
mutual esteem and admiration. Tiberius was nine nevertheless more than the pride of the Roman
years older than his brother Caius ; and although senate could brook. After the conclusion of the
they grew up under the same influence, yet their peace, an incident occurred which gave further proof
natural talents and dispositions were developed in of the confidence which the Numantines placed in
different ways, so that their characters, though Tiberius. The Roman camp, and all that it contained,
resembling each other in their main outlines, yet had fallen into the hands of the enemy; aná
presented great differences. Tiberius, who was in- / when the army had already commenced its retreat,
ferior to his brother in point of talent, surpassed Tiberius discovered that the tablets containing the ac-
him in the amiable traits of his gentle nature: his counts of the money he had had to dispose of as quaes-
noble bearing, the softness of his voice, the sim- tor were lost; and being anxious to recover them,
plicity of his demeanour, and his calm dignity, won that he might not be exposed to annoyances after his
for him the hearts of the people. His eloquence, arrival at Rome, he returned with a few companions
too, formed a strong contrast with the passionate to Numantia. On his arrival he sent to the magis-
and impetuous harangues of Caius; for it was tem- trates, and begged of them to restore him the
perate, graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as it tablets. They were delighted at the opportunity
did from the fulness of his own heart, it found a of doing him a service ; they invited him to enter
ready entrance into the hearts of his hearers. If the city, and received him in a manner with which
the two brothers had been of an equal age, and they would have treated their sincerest friend, -
could have united their efforts, their power would they honoured him with a public banquet, restored
have been irresistible ; but as it was, each had to to him the tablets, and when he left, they gave
fight single-handed, and each fell a victim to the him permission to take with him, as a remem-
selfishness of the oligarchy, and the faithlessness brance, any thing he might please. But Tiberius
and shortsightedness of the people, whose rights took only some incense, which he wanted for a
they had undertaken to defend.
sacrifice.
When Tib. Gracchus had arrived at the age When Mancinus and Tiberius returned to Rome,
of manhood, he was elected augur, and App. the feelings which there prevailed formed a great
Claudius, who otherwise was not free from the contrast to each other; for while the friends and
haughtiness and selfishness so peculiar to his family, relatives of the soldiers who had served in Spain were
showed his esteem for Tiberius by offering him the rejoiced at their saſe return, and looked upon Grac-
hand of his daughter Claudia ; and most historians, chus as their saviour, the senate and the rest of the
according to Plutarch, related, that as App. Clau- people regarded the treaty with Numantia as a dis-
dius had made the engagement without his wife's grace to the Roman name. The odium of the treaty,
consent, she exclaimed, on being informed of it, however, was thrown on Mancinus alone, who of
Why in such a hurry, unless you have got Tib. course was the only responsible person. He was
Gracchus for our daughter's husband ? "
tripped naked, and with his bands bound, he was
When P. Scipio Africanus the younger, who delivered up to the Numantines, that the treaty
was married to a sister of the Gracchi, undertook might thus be annulled (B. c. 136). Tiberius, for
the command against Carthage, Tib. Gracchus the first time, enjoyed the admiration of the
accompanied him, and was a witness of the fearful people, who rewarded his good services in the
fall of that city. Tiberius thus received the affair with affection and gratitude. P. Scipio
first practical lessons in military affairs from the Africanus, the brother-in-law of Gracchus, and then
most illustrious general of the time, in whose tent at the head of the aristocracy, took an active part
he lived, and whose friendship he enjoyed. The in the proceedings against Mancinus, withoat
contemporary historian, Fannius, even related, that attempting either to save him or to get the treaty
Tiberius, who surpassed all other soldiers in with Numantia ratified. It would seem that even
courage and attention to discipline, was the first as early as this time, Scipio and the whole body
3
## p. 291 (#307) ############################################
GRACCHUS.
291
GRACCHUS.
---
a
of the aristocracy watched with fear and jealousy | he felt that his work was too serious and import-
the career of Tiberius, whose popularity was gain- ant to be undertaken without the advice and
ing fresh strength every day.
assistance of others. His Greek friends, Diophanes
But the sympathy of Tiberius with the people and Blossius, and his mother, Cornelia, urged him
was excited much more by its distress than by the on; and he was supported by the counsel of the
demonstrations of its favour. His brother Caius most eminent men of the time, such as App. Clau-
related in some of his works, that Tiberius, on his dius, his father-in-law, the consul and great jurist,
march to Spain, in B. c. 137, as he was passing Mucius Scaevola, and Crassus, the pontifex maxi-
through Etruria, observed with grief and indigna- mus, all of whom were probably as much losers
tion the deserted state of that fertile country ; by the measures which Gracchus was going to bring
thousands of foreign slaves in chains were employed forward as the Scipios and others who opposed
in cultivating the land and tending the flocks upon him. The first bill which he brought before the
the immense estates of the wealthy, while the people proposed, that the agrarian law of Licinius,
poorer classes of Roman citizens, who were thus which had in fact never been abolished, should be
thrown out of employment, had scarcely their daily renewed and enforced, with this modification, that
bread or a clod of earth to call their own. He is said besides the 500 jugera allowed by that law, any
to have been roused through that circumstance to one might possess 250 jugera of the public land
exert himself in endeavouring to remedy this evil. C. for each of his sons. This clause, however, seems
Laelius had, before him entertained the thought of to have been limited to two; so that a father of
interfering, but, for want of courage, had despaired two sons might occupy 1000 jugera of public land.
of success. Had the Licinian law, which regulated The surplus was to be taken from them and distri-
the amount of public land which a person might buted in small farms among the poor citizens. The
occupy, and the number of cattle he might keep on business of measuring and distributing the land
the public pastures, been observed, such a state was to be entrusted to triumvirs, who were to be
of things could never have arisen. If Tiberius had elected as a permanent magistracy. He further
wished to enforce obedience to the letter of that enacted, that in future the possession of public
law, he would have acted with perfect justice, and land should not be transferred by sale or purchase,
no one could have censured bim for it, but the in order that the wealthy might not be able gra-
greedy aristocracy, who had enriched themselves dually to acquire again more land than the law
by the violation of the law, would have moved allowed. In the case of buildings erected on land
beaven and earth to prevent such a measure. The which was to be thus given up, the possessors were
state of things, moreover, bad, by a long-continued to be indemnified by a sum of money determined
neglect of the law, become so complicated, that a by a fair valuation of the buildings.
There re-
renewal of the Licinian law, without any modifi- mains only one point in this agrarian law, for
cation, would bave been unfair towards a large class which the legislator is open to censure, not indeed
of the occupiers of public land, and it required the on the ground of injustice, but merely on that of
greatest care to act in the affair with prudence and unfairness. A considerable, though probably not a
moderation, and in a manner equitable and satis- very great number of those who had to give up a
factory towards all parties. Large tracts of public portion of their possessions, had acquired either the
land had passed from father to son, and no one whole or a part by purchase ; and as they had to
ever seems to have thought of the possibility of their give up their surplus, like those who had not paid
being reclaimed by the state. Through this feeling for their land, those men were positive losers, just
of security many persons bad erected buildings on as much as if Gracchus had taken from them their
their possessions, or had otherwise laid out large private property. To remove all complaints on
sums of money upon them ; many also, who now this ground, Gracchus ought to have added a
possessed more than the five hundred jugera allowed clause, that such persons should receive from the
by the Licinian law, had acquired either the public treasury the sums for which they had bonâ
whole or part of their possession by purchase, and fide purchased the land, or else that the land thus
were accustomed to look upon it as real property, purchased should not come within the law, and
although a moment's consideration would have con should be treated as private property, with which
vinced them that they were only precarious tenants the law had nothing to do. The state ought, at all
of the republic, which might at any time claim its events, to have made this sacrifice. The opposition
right of ownership.
of the aristocracy would not indeed have been
Amid these clashing interests, Tib.
Gracchus silenced by such a measure, but there would cer-
determined to remedy the evil by endeavouring to tainly have been no ground for that bitter exas-
create an industrious middle class of agriculturists, peration which Gracchus now called forth. It is
and to put a check upon the unbounded avarice of ever to be lamented that Gracchus did not intro-
the aristocracy, whose covetousness, combined with duce into his law a clause of that description.
the disasters of the second Punic war, had com- The faction of the opposition, consisting of the
pletely destroyed the middle class of small land-senate and the aristocracy, was not numerous, but
With this view, he offered himself as violent in the highest degree, and the thousands
a candidate for the tribuneship, and obtained it who were to be benefited by the measure were
for the year B. c. 133. It should be observed, that ready to support Gracchus at any risk; the issue
at this period the tribunes were elected in the of the struggle, therefore, could not be doubtful,
month of June, the harvest time in Italy, but they and it would have been hopeless to oppose the
did not enter upon their office till the 10th of agrarian law in the ordinary constitutional way,
December.
for as soon as the bill was passed by the tribes,
The people appear to have anticipated that it became law, the sanction of the senate not
Gracchus was going to undertake something on being required. The senatorial party, therefore, re-
their behalf, for placards were seen in all parts of sorted to intrigues. A noble specimen of the
the city calling upon him to protect them; but deeply-felt and impressive eloquence with which
:
1
1
1
.
i
.
owners.
V 2
## p. 292 (#308) ############################################
292
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
:
Gracchus addressed the people in those days is I ing of the public land possessed by the menlthy, to
preserved in Plutarch (Tib. Gracc. 8): it bears all deprive them of that which was beyond the amount
the marks of genuineness, and has unjustly been allowed by the law, and to distribute it among the
considered by modern critics as a spurious piece of poor. The persons appointed as triumvirs were
declamation. When Tiberius brought forward his Tib. Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father-in-law,
bill, and it was manifest that it would be carried, and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then little
the senatorial party resorted to the only means that more than twenty years old, and was serving
was left them,--they gained over to their side one in the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. Fortune
of the tribunes, M. Octavius Caecina, a man of a thus seemed to favour the undertakings of Grac-
most obstinate character, who himself occupied chus, and the people evinced a most enthusiastie
more of the public domain than the law allowed. attachment to him ; but the treatment which he
His interposition would of course have thwarted all experienced in the senate, where P. Scipio Nasica
the plans of Tiberius. The disputes between the was at the head of the aristocracy, was of a very
two tribunes went on day after day, nnd Tiberius, different kind : he was attacked with contumely
though he was by no means in afluent circum- and the most unbridled fury. At the same time.
stances, offered to indemnify Octavius out of his one of his intimate friends suddenly died, and his
own purse, for the loss which he might sustain body bore marks of poison. Such things were just
through the agrarian law. This offer was refused so many proofs to Gracchus that it required the
with indignation. Tiberius was prevailed upon to greatest precaution not to fall into the hands of
refer the matter to the senate ; but there he was some secret assassin. Whenever, therefore, he ap-
only abused, and the question did not adrance one peared in public, he was surrounded by a body of
step further. When the people again met, and friends, who formed a sort of body-guard.
Tiberius saw no other way of carrying his measure, About this time a messenger arrived from Asian
he declared that, as two tribunes differed in their with the will of king Attalus, who had bequeathed
opinions upon the public good, and could not come his kingdom and his property to the Roman people.
to any understanding, one of them must resign his Gracchus availed himself of this opportunity for
office. Tiberius suspended the entire administration enabling the poor, who were to receive lands, to
of government, and under heavy penalties forbade the purchase the necessary implements, cattle and the
magistrates to exercise their official authority, until like ; and he accordingly proposed that the money
this question was settled. Fear and exasperation which Attalus had bequeathed to the Romans
increased, and the people looked forward with should be distributed among the people. It is ge-
trembling to the day when the matter was to come nerally stated that this law was carried, but in the
to a decision. When the day of the assembly ar- Epitome of Livy (lib. 58) we read that he only
rived, Tiberius publicly implored Octavius to yield promised the people to bring forward the bill. His
to the wishes of the people, who desired nothing agrarian law had evidently the object of creating an
but what they had a right to claim. When this industrious middle class of husbandmen ; and, in
request was also repudiated, Tiberius proceeded to order to infuse some better blood into them, he is
carry his threat into execution, but offered that his said to have entertained the idea of extending the
own case should be put to the vote first. When Roman franchise, by admitting the Italian allies to
all attempts failed, Tiberius proposed the deposition the full rights of Roman citizens. (Vell. Pat. ii. 2. )
of Octavius, and put it to the vote at once. When The matter certainly appears to have been discussed
seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already at the time, but no steps seem to have been taken,
voted for his deposition, Tiberius stopped the pro- though it would have been one of the wisest and
ceedings, and again implored Octavius to desist most salutary measures that could hare been de-
from his opposition ; but Octavius indignantly ex- vised. He further abridged the time that Roman
claimed, “ Complete what thou hast begun. ” The citizens had to serve in the armies. Macrobius
eighteenth tribe voted, and the tribuneship of (Sal. ii. 10) mentions a ler judiciaria of Tiberius,
Octavius was gone: he was dragged from the but this seems to be only a istake, the name of
hustings, and with difficulty escaped being mur- Tiberius being there written instead of Caius.
dered on the spot. The deposition of a tribune was Tiberius went even so far as to threaten to de-
a thing unheard of in the history of Rome, and was, prive the senate of the administration, inasmuch
accordingly, proclaimed by the opposition as an as he declared that the senate had no right to de-
unconstitutional act. They now triumphed over cide upon the towns and cities of the kingdom of
Gracchus, since he had given them a handle, and Pergamus. Tiberius had thus reached the zenith
by his own act seemed to justify their hostility of his power, but fortune began to turn against
against him. The deposition of Octavius for the him. The opinion of his opponents that he had
lawful exercise of his rights has been looked upon violated the sacred character of a tribune in the
by both ancient and modern writers as a violation person of Octavius, had gradually spread among the
of the laws of the Roman constitution, but its in- people, which in its short-sightedness could not
justice was only of a formal nature, a mere irre distinguish between the motives of the two parties,
gularity; and Tiberius, as Niebuhr (Lectures on and merely looked for momentary advantages and
Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 333) justly remarks, might gratifications. Hence they began not only to show
have said that a tribune who acted independent indifference towards their sincere and disinterested
of the people was an abuse, and a still greater irre- protector, but even turned against bim. In ad-
gularity ; the people surely had the right to take dition to this, his enemies spread the absurd report
away a commission from a man to whom they had that Tiberius had secretly received a diadem and a
given it; it is an absurdity if in a republic this purple robe from the Pergamenian messenger, and
right is not maintained.
that he entertained the thought of making himself
After the removal of Octavius, the agrarian law king of Rome. This report, which every one must
was carried without opposition, and permanent tri- have known to be a mere malicious calumny, was
umvirs were appointed to superintend the measur-spread abroad by the contemptible Pompeius, with
## p. 293 (#309) ############################################
GRACCHUS.
293
GRACCHUS.
whom Scipio Nasica, and other persons of distinc- | immediately prepared to repel force by force.
tion, made common cause.
Those who were at a greater distance wanted to
The period at which the tribunes for the next know the cause of this sudden commotion, and as
year were to be elected was now drawing near, and Tiberius could not make his voice heard, on account
Tiberius himself, as well as his friends, were fully of the tumultuous noise, he pointed with his hand
convinced that after the expiration of his office to his head, to indicate that his life was in danger.
his laws would be abolished, and that his life This act was maliciously interpreted by his enemies
would be in imminent danger as so as he as a sign by which he demanded the diadem, and
should be divested of the sacred office of tribune. they hastened to inform the senate of it. The
He therefore resolved to offer himself as a can- senators pretended to be greatly alarmed, and
didntė for the tribuneship of the following year. P. Scipio Nasica called upon the consuls to save
This was indeed an irregularity, for up to that the republic; but the consuls refused to have re-
time no man had ever been invested with the course to violence. The people, who in the mean
office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius was
time had learned that the life of their tribune was
compelled by necessity, and the duty of self- threatened, immediately armed theniselves with
defence, to offer himself as a candidate. It was sticks, the legs of the benches, and any other wea-
unfortunate for him that the election of the tri- pons they could lay hold of, and drove the aristo-
bunes fell in the month of June, when the coun- crats from the assembly. The confusion became
try-people, on whom he could rely most, were general, and the tribunes took to fight. A report
occupied with the harvest in the fields. The was quickly spread that Tiberius had deposed his
peo assembled thus consisted, for the most colleagues, and was going to continue in his office
part, of the city populace, who had little or no without any election.
sympathy with him. His heart was filled with dark This was the moment which the aristocratic
apprehensions and misgivings. He went about, party had been anxiously looking for. Scipio Na-
leading his little son by the hand, and imploring sica sprang up, and exclaimed, “ As the consul
the people not to desert him, and not to expose him betrays the republic, do you who wish to maintain
to the fury of his enemies, against whom he bad the constitution follow me. " The senators rushed
protected them. The tribes began to vote, and towards the assembly from the temple of Fides,
iwo had already declared in favour of Tiberius, where they had held their meeting. The people dis-
when the aristocrats, who were mingled among the persed all directions, and all who did not give
people, exclained that the election was illegal, and way to the senators, or ventured to oppose them,
that no man could be elected tribune for two suc- were knocked down with clubs and sticks. Tibe
cessive years. The presiding tribune, Rubrius, did rius, in endeavouring to escape, fell over the body
not know wbat to do; another tribune offered to of a man who was killed, and as he was attempting
take the presidency, but the rest maintained that to rise, he received a blow on his head, and was
this could be decided only by lot. Amid such dis- killed. He fell at the entrance of the temple of
putes the day passed away, and seeing that his Fides, in front of the statues of the kings. The
enemies were gaining the upper hand, Tiberius honour of being the murderer of Gracchus was dis-
proposed to defer the election till the next day. puted between P. Satureius, one of his own col-
He now went about with his child, and endeavoured leagues, and L. Rufus. Upwards of 300 persons
to rouse the people's sympathy. They were moved by were killed on that day by sticks and stones, but
his fear and danger; a large crowd gathered around none by the sword. In the night following their
him ; they conducted him home, urged him not to bodies were thrown into the Tiber, and the sur-
despair, and kept watch about his house all night, viving friends of Gracchus had to suffer imprison-
to protect him against any unforeseen attack. ment, exile, and death, at the hands of their infuri-
Cheered by this demonstration of the people's fa- ated and merciless opponents.
vour, he, in conjunction with his friends, devised These, and other calamities which afterwards re-
during the night a plan on which they were to act, sulted from the legislation of Tiberius, though it
if his enemies should use violence.
was by no means their cause, might perhaps have
At day break the auspices were consulted, but been avoided by a little more prudence on the part
the signs were unfavourable, and Tiberius was of Tiberius. We may indeed regret that he did
doubtful as to whether he should go to the assem- not all he might have done, but we cannot blame
bly or not ; but his friend Blossius urged him on him for what he did : his motives were the
not to give up his plans for things which perhaps purest, and he suffered the death of a martyr in
were merely accidental. The people were assem- the noblest cause that a statesman can enibrace-
bled in the area of the capitol, and many of them the protection of the poor and oppressed. All the
came down to invite him and conduct him thither. odium that has for many centuries been thrown
When he arrived he was received with loud cheers upon Tiberius and his brother Caius arose partly
and acclamations, and all promised well ; but when from party prejudice, and more especially from a
the voting began, the aristocrats did all they could misunderstanding of the nature of a Roman agrarian
to disturb the proceedings, and the noise and tu- law, which, although it had been pretty clearly
mult became so great that no one could be heard. explained by Sigonius, was yet never generally
At this moinent a senator, who was a friend of recognised till the time of Niebuhr. Velleius Pa.
Gracchus, made his way through the crowd up to terculus, who is otherwise biassed against the
him, and informed him that the senators were as- agrarian law of Gracchus, gives a noble testimony
sembled, and that, as they could not prevaił upon to his character, in these words, “ Vita innocentis-
the consuls to carry out their commands, they simus, ingenio florentissimus, proposito sanctissimus,
themselves were resolved to kill Tiberius, and had tantis denique adornatus virtutibus, quantas, per-
for this purpose armed many of their slaves and fecta et natura et industria, mortalis conditio
partisans. When Tiberius communicated this in- recipit. ” (Plut. Vita Tib. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C.
ielligence to those who stood nearest to him, they li. 9–17; Liv. Epit. 58 ; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3;
W
U 3
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294
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
Dion Cass. Frugm. Peir. 86—88 ; Oros. v. 8, | the enemy, just towards his inferiors, princtual in
&c. ; Aur. Vict. de Vir. Illustr. 57; and the pas- the discharge of his duties, and in temperance and
sages of Cicero which are collected in Orelli's Ono- frugality he excelled even his elders. His popu-
masticon, vol. ii. p. 531, &c. ; comp. F. D. Gerlach, larity in the province is attested by two occurrences.
Tib. und C. Gracchus, pp. 1–30; Meyer, Fragm. As ihe winter in Sardinia had been very severe
Orat. Rom. p. 215, &c. 2d edit. ; Ahrens, Die drei and unhealthy, and as the soldiers were suffering
Volkstribunen Tib. Gracchus, Drusus und Sulpicius ; in consequence, the consul demanded clothing for
Niebuhr, Lectures on Rum. Hist. vol. i. p. 223, &c. , his men from the allied towns of the island. The
ed. Schmitz. )
towns sent a petition against this demand to the
8. C. SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the brother of senate at Rome, which thereupon directed the con-
No. 7, and son of No. 6, was, according to Plu- sul to get what he wanted by other means. But
tarch, nine years younger than his brother Tiberius, as he was unable to do this, Caius went round to
but he enjoyed the same careful education. He the towns, and prevailed upon them voluntarily to
was unquestionably a man of greater power and supply the army with clothing and other necessa-
talent than his brother, and had also more oppor- ries. About the same time ambassadors of king
tunity for displaying his abilities ; for, while the Micipsa arrived at Rome to inform the senate, that
career of Tiberius lasted scarcely seven months, out of regard for C. Gracchus, the king would send
that of Caius extends over a series of years. a supply of coru for the Roman army in Sardinia.
At the tiine of his brother's murder, in B. c. 133, These proofs of the great popularity and reputation
Caius was in Spain, where he received his first of Caius were the cause of fresh fear and uneasiness
military trnining in the army of P. Scipio Africa to the optimates. He had now been absent in
nus, who, although his wife was the sister of the Sardinia for two years, and his return was dreaded.
Gracchi, exclaimed, on receiving the intelligence of In order to prevent this, fresh troops were sent to
the murder of Tiberius, “ So perish all who do the Sardinia to replace the old ones ; and Orestes was
like again! " It was probably in the year after his ordered to remain in the island, it being intended
brother's murder, B. c. 132, that Caius returned by this measure to keep Caius there also, on ac-
with Scipio from Spain. The calamity which had count of his office. But he saw through their
befallen his brother had unnerved him, and an scheme, and thwarted it. It appears that during the
inner voice dissuaded him from taking any part in latter period of his stay in Sardinia he had altered
public affairs. The first time that he spoke in his mind, and that his vocation had become clear
public was on behalf of his friend Vettius, who was to him. It is reported that the shade of his brother
under persecution, and whom he defended. On appeared to him in his dreams, and said, " Caius,
that occasion he is said to have surpassed all the why dost thou linger? There is no escape, thou
other Roman orators. The people looked forward must die, like myself, in defending the rights of the
with great anticipations to his future career, but people. " It is attested by Cicero and Plutarch
the aristocracy watched him with jealousy, seeing that Caius was not a demagogue, and that he was
that he promised greater talent, energy, and passion drawn into his political career by a sort of fatality
than his brother, in whose footsteps it was pre- or necessity rather than by his own free will, and
sumed that he would follow. In B. C. 131, C. Pa- that had it not been for the exhortation of his
pirius Carbo, a friend of the Gracchi, brought brother's shade, he would never have sought any
forward a bill to enable a person to hold the office public office. But when he heard the call of
of tribune for two or more consecutive years. C. Tiberius, and was at the same time informed of
Gracchus supported the bill, but it was rejected.
several skirmishes took place, until at last, by a was dedicated by him in the temple of the Mater
feigned flight of his own men, he succeeded in Matuta, on which the reduction of Sardinia was
drawing the Celtiberians away from their camp, of recorded, and on which were represented the
which he immediately took possession. On this island itself and the battles Gracchus had fought
occasion 9000 enemies are said to have been slain. there.
Gracchus now proceeded to ravage the country, In B. C. 169 Gracchus was appointed censor with
which, together with his victory, had such an C. Claudius Pulcher. His censorship was charc-
effect upon the people, that in a short tiine 103 terised by a strictness bordering on severity: seve-
Celtiberian towns submitted to him. Laden with ral persons were ejected from the senate, and many
immense booty, Graccbus then returned 20 Alce, equites lost their horses. In consequence of this,
which he besieged. The place at first made a gal the tribunes brought an accusation against the
lant resistance, but was compelled to surrender. censors before the people, but both were acquitted.
le again gained great booty, but treated the On that occasion Gracchus acted with great mag-
conquered people with kindness ; and one Celti-nanimity towards his colleague, who was unpo-
berian chief, 'ihurtus, even entered the Roman pular, while he himself enjoyed the highest cs
army, and assisted Gracchus as a faithful ally. The teem and popularity, for he declared, that if his
large and powerful city of Ergavica opened its colleague should be condemned, he would accom-
gates to the Romans. historians, says Livy, pany him into exile. With the money assigned
stated that these conquests were not so easily made, to him for the public works he purchased the site
but that the Celtiberians invariably revolted after of the house of P. Scipio Africanus, and of some
their submission, as soon as the enemy was out of adjoining buildings, and there erected a basilica,
sight, until at last a fearful battle was fought, the which was afterwards called the Basilica Sem-
irreparable loss of which induced the Celtiberians pronia. A more important act of his censorship
to conclude a permanent peace. This may indeed was his throwing all the libertini together in the
have been so, for the Spaniards had been treated by four tribus urbanae, whereas before they had gra-
nearly all the previous Roman generals with cruelty dually spread over all the tribes. This measure is
and treachery ; and they could not know that they called by Cicero one of the most salutary regula-
had now to do with a bold, gallant, and formidable, tions, and one which for a time checked the ruin of
but at the same time a kind and honest enemy. the republic. In B. c. 164 Gracchus was sent by the
In the year following Gracchus remained in Spain; senate as ambassador into Asia, to inspect the affairs
and by his usual prudence and valour he again of the Roman allies ; and it appears that on that
achieved the most brilliant exploits ; he relieved occasion he addressed the Rhodians in a Greek
the town of Carabis, which was besieged by a large speech, which was still extant in the time of
army of Celtiberians, and he afterwards defeated, Cicero. In B. c. 163 he was raised to the consul-
by a stratagem, another army near Complega, which ship a second time. Polybius mentions several
had endeavoured to ensnare him. In this manner other embassies on which he was employed by the
he gradually subdued all the Celtiberians, and be senate, and in which he acted as a kind mediator
afterwards showed that he was as great in the between foreign princes and Rome, and afforded
peaceful administration of his province, as he had protection where it was needed. The time of his
before been at the head of his armies. He adopted death is unknown: Orelli (Onom. Tull. ii. p.
various excellent measures, which tended not only to 531) commits the blunder of saying that he fell in
secure his conquests, but to win the affections of the battle in Lucania, thus confounding him with
Spaniards to such a degree, that nearly fifty years No. 2.
afterwards they evinced their gratitude towards his Tib. Sempronius Gracchus had twelve children
son Tiberius. He assigned lands and habitations by Cornelia, nine of whom appear to have died at
to the poorer people, and established a series of an early age. The remaining three were Tiberius
laws to regulate their relations to Rome. In com- and Caius, and a daughter, Cornelia, who was
memoration of his achievements in Spain, he married to the younger Scipio Africanus. In his
changed the name of the town of Illurcis into private and family life Gracchus was as amiable a
Gracchuris.
man as he was great in his public career: he was
In B. c. 178 Gracchus returned to Rome, where he the worthy husband of Cornelia, and the worthy
celebrated a splendid triumph over the Celtiberians father of the Gracchi, and, like his two sons, he
and their allies, and was elected consul for the year combined with the virtues of a Roman those of a
following, with C. Claudius Pulcher. He obtained man.
Cicero mentions him in several passages in
Sardinia for his province, where he had to carry on terms of high praise, and also acknowledges that he
a war against the revolted inhabitants. He gained had some merits as an orator. (Liv. xxxvii. 7,
a brilliant victory over the enemy, and then led xxxviii. 52, 53, 57, 60, xxxix. 5, 55, xl. 35, 44,
his army into winter quarters. In the spring 47–50, xli. 3, 11, 12, 21, 26, 33, xliii. 16–18,
of the year following he continued his successful xliv. 16, xlv. 15; Polyb. xxiii. 6, xxvi. 4, 7,
operations against the Sardinians, and reduced xxxi. 5, 6, 9, 13, 14, 19, 23, xxxii. 3, 4, 5, xxxv.
them to submission. When this was achieved, and | 2; Appian, Ilispan. 43; Plut. 776. Gracch. 1, &c. ,
hostnges were received, he sent envoys to Rome to Marcell. 5; Cic. Brut. 20, de lie Publ. vi. 2, de
solicit permission to return with his army and cele Invcnt. i. 30, 49, de Nat. Deor. ii. 4, ad Q. Frut.
brate a triumph. But public thanksgivings only ii. 2, de Divinal. i. 17, 18, ii. 35, de Amic. 27,
were decreed, and Gracchus was ordered to remain in de Orat. i. 9, 48, de Fin. iv. 24, de Off. ii. 12,
his province as proconsul. At the close of B. c. 175, de Prov. Cons. 8 ; comp. Meyer, Fragm. Orat. Rom.
however, he returned to Rome, and was honoured p. 151, &c, 2nd edit. ; Niebuhr, lectures on Ro.
with a triumph over the Sardinians. He is said to mun llist. vol. i. p. 269. )
VOL. 11.
## p. 290 (#306) ############################################
290
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
7. TIB. SEMPRONIOS GRACCHUS, the elder son among the Romans who scaled the walls of Car.
of No. 6. If Plutarch is right, that Tib. Gracchus thage.
was not thirty years old at his death, in B. C. About ten years after his return from this expe
133, he must have been born in B. c. 164 ; | dition, B. c. 137, Tiberius was appointed quaestor,
but we know that he was quaestor in B. c. 137, and in this capacity be accompanied the consul,
an office which by law he could not hold till C. Hostilius Mancinus, to his province of Hispania
he had completed his thirty-first year, whence it Citerior, where in a short time he gained both the
would follow that he was born about five years affection of the Roman soldiers, and the esteem
carlier, and that at his death he was about thirty- and confidence of the victorious enemy. When
five years old. He lost his father at an early age, Mancinus, after being defeated by the Numan-
but this did not prevent his inheriting his father's tines, sent messengers to treat with them for a
excellent qualities, and his illustrious mother, Cor- truce and terms of peace, the Spaniards, who had
nelia, made it the object of her life to render her so often been deceived by the Romans in their
sons worthy of their father and of her own ances- negotintions, declared that they would not treat
tors. It was owing to the care she bestowed upon with any one except Tib. Gracchus ; for the confi-
the education of her sons, rather than to their dence they placed in him personally was heightened
natural talents, that they surpassed all the Roman by the recollection of the just and fair treatment
youths of the time. She was assisted in her ex- they had received from his victorious father. Ti-
ertions by eminent Greeks, who exercised great in-berius accordingly was sent to Numantia, and con-
Auence upon the minds of the two brothers, and cluded a peace with the Numantines on equitable
among whom we have especial mention of Dio- terms. Considering the defeat which Mancinus
phanes of Mytilene, Menelaus of Marathon, and had suffered, the terms were favourable to the
Blossius of Cumae. As the Gracchi grew up, the Romans, and Gracchus saved by it an army of
relation between them and their teachers gradually upwards of 20,000 men from uiter annihilation ;
became one of intimate friendship, and of the highest but the concessions made to the Numantines were
mutual esteem and admiration. Tiberius was nine nevertheless more than the pride of the Roman
years older than his brother Caius ; and although senate could brook. After the conclusion of the
they grew up under the same influence, yet their peace, an incident occurred which gave further proof
natural talents and dispositions were developed in of the confidence which the Numantines placed in
different ways, so that their characters, though Tiberius. The Roman camp, and all that it contained,
resembling each other in their main outlines, yet had fallen into the hands of the enemy; aná
presented great differences. Tiberius, who was in- / when the army had already commenced its retreat,
ferior to his brother in point of talent, surpassed Tiberius discovered that the tablets containing the ac-
him in the amiable traits of his gentle nature: his counts of the money he had had to dispose of as quaes-
noble bearing, the softness of his voice, the sim- tor were lost; and being anxious to recover them,
plicity of his demeanour, and his calm dignity, won that he might not be exposed to annoyances after his
for him the hearts of the people. His eloquence, arrival at Rome, he returned with a few companions
too, formed a strong contrast with the passionate to Numantia. On his arrival he sent to the magis-
and impetuous harangues of Caius; for it was tem- trates, and begged of them to restore him the
perate, graceful, persuasive, and, proceeding as it tablets. They were delighted at the opportunity
did from the fulness of his own heart, it found a of doing him a service ; they invited him to enter
ready entrance into the hearts of his hearers. If the city, and received him in a manner with which
the two brothers had been of an equal age, and they would have treated their sincerest friend, -
could have united their efforts, their power would they honoured him with a public banquet, restored
have been irresistible ; but as it was, each had to to him the tablets, and when he left, they gave
fight single-handed, and each fell a victim to the him permission to take with him, as a remem-
selfishness of the oligarchy, and the faithlessness brance, any thing he might please. But Tiberius
and shortsightedness of the people, whose rights took only some incense, which he wanted for a
they had undertaken to defend.
sacrifice.
When Tib. Gracchus had arrived at the age When Mancinus and Tiberius returned to Rome,
of manhood, he was elected augur, and App. the feelings which there prevailed formed a great
Claudius, who otherwise was not free from the contrast to each other; for while the friends and
haughtiness and selfishness so peculiar to his family, relatives of the soldiers who had served in Spain were
showed his esteem for Tiberius by offering him the rejoiced at their saſe return, and looked upon Grac-
hand of his daughter Claudia ; and most historians, chus as their saviour, the senate and the rest of the
according to Plutarch, related, that as App. Clau- people regarded the treaty with Numantia as a dis-
dius had made the engagement without his wife's grace to the Roman name. The odium of the treaty,
consent, she exclaimed, on being informed of it, however, was thrown on Mancinus alone, who of
Why in such a hurry, unless you have got Tib. course was the only responsible person. He was
Gracchus for our daughter's husband ? "
tripped naked, and with his bands bound, he was
When P. Scipio Africanus the younger, who delivered up to the Numantines, that the treaty
was married to a sister of the Gracchi, undertook might thus be annulled (B. c. 136). Tiberius, for
the command against Carthage, Tib. Gracchus the first time, enjoyed the admiration of the
accompanied him, and was a witness of the fearful people, who rewarded his good services in the
fall of that city. Tiberius thus received the affair with affection and gratitude. P. Scipio
first practical lessons in military affairs from the Africanus, the brother-in-law of Gracchus, and then
most illustrious general of the time, in whose tent at the head of the aristocracy, took an active part
he lived, and whose friendship he enjoyed. The in the proceedings against Mancinus, withoat
contemporary historian, Fannius, even related, that attempting either to save him or to get the treaty
Tiberius, who surpassed all other soldiers in with Numantia ratified. It would seem that even
courage and attention to discipline, was the first as early as this time, Scipio and the whole body
3
## p. 291 (#307) ############################################
GRACCHUS.
291
GRACCHUS.
---
a
of the aristocracy watched with fear and jealousy | he felt that his work was too serious and import-
the career of Tiberius, whose popularity was gain- ant to be undertaken without the advice and
ing fresh strength every day.
assistance of others. His Greek friends, Diophanes
But the sympathy of Tiberius with the people and Blossius, and his mother, Cornelia, urged him
was excited much more by its distress than by the on; and he was supported by the counsel of the
demonstrations of its favour. His brother Caius most eminent men of the time, such as App. Clau-
related in some of his works, that Tiberius, on his dius, his father-in-law, the consul and great jurist,
march to Spain, in B. c. 137, as he was passing Mucius Scaevola, and Crassus, the pontifex maxi-
through Etruria, observed with grief and indigna- mus, all of whom were probably as much losers
tion the deserted state of that fertile country ; by the measures which Gracchus was going to bring
thousands of foreign slaves in chains were employed forward as the Scipios and others who opposed
in cultivating the land and tending the flocks upon him. The first bill which he brought before the
the immense estates of the wealthy, while the people proposed, that the agrarian law of Licinius,
poorer classes of Roman citizens, who were thus which had in fact never been abolished, should be
thrown out of employment, had scarcely their daily renewed and enforced, with this modification, that
bread or a clod of earth to call their own. He is said besides the 500 jugera allowed by that law, any
to have been roused through that circumstance to one might possess 250 jugera of the public land
exert himself in endeavouring to remedy this evil. C. for each of his sons. This clause, however, seems
Laelius had, before him entertained the thought of to have been limited to two; so that a father of
interfering, but, for want of courage, had despaired two sons might occupy 1000 jugera of public land.
of success. Had the Licinian law, which regulated The surplus was to be taken from them and distri-
the amount of public land which a person might buted in small farms among the poor citizens. The
occupy, and the number of cattle he might keep on business of measuring and distributing the land
the public pastures, been observed, such a state was to be entrusted to triumvirs, who were to be
of things could never have arisen. If Tiberius had elected as a permanent magistracy. He further
wished to enforce obedience to the letter of that enacted, that in future the possession of public
law, he would have acted with perfect justice, and land should not be transferred by sale or purchase,
no one could have censured bim for it, but the in order that the wealthy might not be able gra-
greedy aristocracy, who had enriched themselves dually to acquire again more land than the law
by the violation of the law, would have moved allowed. In the case of buildings erected on land
beaven and earth to prevent such a measure. The which was to be thus given up, the possessors were
state of things, moreover, bad, by a long-continued to be indemnified by a sum of money determined
neglect of the law, become so complicated, that a by a fair valuation of the buildings.
There re-
renewal of the Licinian law, without any modifi- mains only one point in this agrarian law, for
cation, would bave been unfair towards a large class which the legislator is open to censure, not indeed
of the occupiers of public land, and it required the on the ground of injustice, but merely on that of
greatest care to act in the affair with prudence and unfairness. A considerable, though probably not a
moderation, and in a manner equitable and satis- very great number of those who had to give up a
factory towards all parties. Large tracts of public portion of their possessions, had acquired either the
land had passed from father to son, and no one whole or a part by purchase ; and as they had to
ever seems to have thought of the possibility of their give up their surplus, like those who had not paid
being reclaimed by the state. Through this feeling for their land, those men were positive losers, just
of security many persons bad erected buildings on as much as if Gracchus had taken from them their
their possessions, or had otherwise laid out large private property. To remove all complaints on
sums of money upon them ; many also, who now this ground, Gracchus ought to have added a
possessed more than the five hundred jugera allowed clause, that such persons should receive from the
by the Licinian law, had acquired either the public treasury the sums for which they had bonâ
whole or part of their possession by purchase, and fide purchased the land, or else that the land thus
were accustomed to look upon it as real property, purchased should not come within the law, and
although a moment's consideration would have con should be treated as private property, with which
vinced them that they were only precarious tenants the law had nothing to do. The state ought, at all
of the republic, which might at any time claim its events, to have made this sacrifice. The opposition
right of ownership.
of the aristocracy would not indeed have been
Amid these clashing interests, Tib.
Gracchus silenced by such a measure, but there would cer-
determined to remedy the evil by endeavouring to tainly have been no ground for that bitter exas-
create an industrious middle class of agriculturists, peration which Gracchus now called forth. It is
and to put a check upon the unbounded avarice of ever to be lamented that Gracchus did not intro-
the aristocracy, whose covetousness, combined with duce into his law a clause of that description.
the disasters of the second Punic war, had com- The faction of the opposition, consisting of the
pletely destroyed the middle class of small land-senate and the aristocracy, was not numerous, but
With this view, he offered himself as violent in the highest degree, and the thousands
a candidate for the tribuneship, and obtained it who were to be benefited by the measure were
for the year B. c. 133. It should be observed, that ready to support Gracchus at any risk; the issue
at this period the tribunes were elected in the of the struggle, therefore, could not be doubtful,
month of June, the harvest time in Italy, but they and it would have been hopeless to oppose the
did not enter upon their office till the 10th of agrarian law in the ordinary constitutional way,
December.
for as soon as the bill was passed by the tribes,
The people appear to have anticipated that it became law, the sanction of the senate not
Gracchus was going to undertake something on being required. The senatorial party, therefore, re-
their behalf, for placards were seen in all parts of sorted to intrigues. A noble specimen of the
the city calling upon him to protect them; but deeply-felt and impressive eloquence with which
:
1
1
1
.
i
.
owners.
V 2
## p. 292 (#308) ############################################
292
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
:
Gracchus addressed the people in those days is I ing of the public land possessed by the menlthy, to
preserved in Plutarch (Tib. Gracc. 8): it bears all deprive them of that which was beyond the amount
the marks of genuineness, and has unjustly been allowed by the law, and to distribute it among the
considered by modern critics as a spurious piece of poor. The persons appointed as triumvirs were
declamation. When Tiberius brought forward his Tib. Gracchus, App. Claudius, his father-in-law,
bill, and it was manifest that it would be carried, and his brother C. Gracchus, who was then little
the senatorial party resorted to the only means that more than twenty years old, and was serving
was left them,--they gained over to their side one in the camp of P. Scipio at Numantia. Fortune
of the tribunes, M. Octavius Caecina, a man of a thus seemed to favour the undertakings of Grac-
most obstinate character, who himself occupied chus, and the people evinced a most enthusiastie
more of the public domain than the law allowed. attachment to him ; but the treatment which he
His interposition would of course have thwarted all experienced in the senate, where P. Scipio Nasica
the plans of Tiberius. The disputes between the was at the head of the aristocracy, was of a very
two tribunes went on day after day, nnd Tiberius, different kind : he was attacked with contumely
though he was by no means in afluent circum- and the most unbridled fury. At the same time.
stances, offered to indemnify Octavius out of his one of his intimate friends suddenly died, and his
own purse, for the loss which he might sustain body bore marks of poison. Such things were just
through the agrarian law. This offer was refused so many proofs to Gracchus that it required the
with indignation. Tiberius was prevailed upon to greatest precaution not to fall into the hands of
refer the matter to the senate ; but there he was some secret assassin. Whenever, therefore, he ap-
only abused, and the question did not adrance one peared in public, he was surrounded by a body of
step further. When the people again met, and friends, who formed a sort of body-guard.
Tiberius saw no other way of carrying his measure, About this time a messenger arrived from Asian
he declared that, as two tribunes differed in their with the will of king Attalus, who had bequeathed
opinions upon the public good, and could not come his kingdom and his property to the Roman people.
to any understanding, one of them must resign his Gracchus availed himself of this opportunity for
office. Tiberius suspended the entire administration enabling the poor, who were to receive lands, to
of government, and under heavy penalties forbade the purchase the necessary implements, cattle and the
magistrates to exercise their official authority, until like ; and he accordingly proposed that the money
this question was settled. Fear and exasperation which Attalus had bequeathed to the Romans
increased, and the people looked forward with should be distributed among the people. It is ge-
trembling to the day when the matter was to come nerally stated that this law was carried, but in the
to a decision. When the day of the assembly ar- Epitome of Livy (lib. 58) we read that he only
rived, Tiberius publicly implored Octavius to yield promised the people to bring forward the bill. His
to the wishes of the people, who desired nothing agrarian law had evidently the object of creating an
but what they had a right to claim. When this industrious middle class of husbandmen ; and, in
request was also repudiated, Tiberius proceeded to order to infuse some better blood into them, he is
carry his threat into execution, but offered that his said to have entertained the idea of extending the
own case should be put to the vote first. When Roman franchise, by admitting the Italian allies to
all attempts failed, Tiberius proposed the deposition the full rights of Roman citizens. (Vell. Pat. ii. 2. )
of Octavius, and put it to the vote at once. When The matter certainly appears to have been discussed
seventeen out of the thirty-five tribes had already at the time, but no steps seem to have been taken,
voted for his deposition, Tiberius stopped the pro- though it would have been one of the wisest and
ceedings, and again implored Octavius to desist most salutary measures that could hare been de-
from his opposition ; but Octavius indignantly ex- vised. He further abridged the time that Roman
claimed, “ Complete what thou hast begun. ” The citizens had to serve in the armies. Macrobius
eighteenth tribe voted, and the tribuneship of (Sal. ii. 10) mentions a ler judiciaria of Tiberius,
Octavius was gone: he was dragged from the but this seems to be only a istake, the name of
hustings, and with difficulty escaped being mur- Tiberius being there written instead of Caius.
dered on the spot. The deposition of a tribune was Tiberius went even so far as to threaten to de-
a thing unheard of in the history of Rome, and was, prive the senate of the administration, inasmuch
accordingly, proclaimed by the opposition as an as he declared that the senate had no right to de-
unconstitutional act. They now triumphed over cide upon the towns and cities of the kingdom of
Gracchus, since he had given them a handle, and Pergamus. Tiberius had thus reached the zenith
by his own act seemed to justify their hostility of his power, but fortune began to turn against
against him. The deposition of Octavius for the him. The opinion of his opponents that he had
lawful exercise of his rights has been looked upon violated the sacred character of a tribune in the
by both ancient and modern writers as a violation person of Octavius, had gradually spread among the
of the laws of the Roman constitution, but its in- people, which in its short-sightedness could not
justice was only of a formal nature, a mere irre distinguish between the motives of the two parties,
gularity; and Tiberius, as Niebuhr (Lectures on and merely looked for momentary advantages and
Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 333) justly remarks, might gratifications. Hence they began not only to show
have said that a tribune who acted independent indifference towards their sincere and disinterested
of the people was an abuse, and a still greater irre- protector, but even turned against bim. In ad-
gularity ; the people surely had the right to take dition to this, his enemies spread the absurd report
away a commission from a man to whom they had that Tiberius had secretly received a diadem and a
given it; it is an absurdity if in a republic this purple robe from the Pergamenian messenger, and
right is not maintained.
that he entertained the thought of making himself
After the removal of Octavius, the agrarian law king of Rome. This report, which every one must
was carried without opposition, and permanent tri- have known to be a mere malicious calumny, was
umvirs were appointed to superintend the measur-spread abroad by the contemptible Pompeius, with
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GRACCHUS.
293
GRACCHUS.
whom Scipio Nasica, and other persons of distinc- | immediately prepared to repel force by force.
tion, made common cause.
Those who were at a greater distance wanted to
The period at which the tribunes for the next know the cause of this sudden commotion, and as
year were to be elected was now drawing near, and Tiberius could not make his voice heard, on account
Tiberius himself, as well as his friends, were fully of the tumultuous noise, he pointed with his hand
convinced that after the expiration of his office to his head, to indicate that his life was in danger.
his laws would be abolished, and that his life This act was maliciously interpreted by his enemies
would be in imminent danger as so as he as a sign by which he demanded the diadem, and
should be divested of the sacred office of tribune. they hastened to inform the senate of it. The
He therefore resolved to offer himself as a can- senators pretended to be greatly alarmed, and
didntė for the tribuneship of the following year. P. Scipio Nasica called upon the consuls to save
This was indeed an irregularity, for up to that the republic; but the consuls refused to have re-
time no man had ever been invested with the course to violence. The people, who in the mean
office for two consecutive years; but Tiberius was
time had learned that the life of their tribune was
compelled by necessity, and the duty of self- threatened, immediately armed theniselves with
defence, to offer himself as a candidate. It was sticks, the legs of the benches, and any other wea-
unfortunate for him that the election of the tri- pons they could lay hold of, and drove the aristo-
bunes fell in the month of June, when the coun- crats from the assembly. The confusion became
try-people, on whom he could rely most, were general, and the tribunes took to fight. A report
occupied with the harvest in the fields. The was quickly spread that Tiberius had deposed his
peo assembled thus consisted, for the most colleagues, and was going to continue in his office
part, of the city populace, who had little or no without any election.
sympathy with him. His heart was filled with dark This was the moment which the aristocratic
apprehensions and misgivings. He went about, party had been anxiously looking for. Scipio Na-
leading his little son by the hand, and imploring sica sprang up, and exclaimed, “ As the consul
the people not to desert him, and not to expose him betrays the republic, do you who wish to maintain
to the fury of his enemies, against whom he bad the constitution follow me. " The senators rushed
protected them. The tribes began to vote, and towards the assembly from the temple of Fides,
iwo had already declared in favour of Tiberius, where they had held their meeting. The people dis-
when the aristocrats, who were mingled among the persed all directions, and all who did not give
people, exclained that the election was illegal, and way to the senators, or ventured to oppose them,
that no man could be elected tribune for two suc- were knocked down with clubs and sticks. Tibe
cessive years. The presiding tribune, Rubrius, did rius, in endeavouring to escape, fell over the body
not know wbat to do; another tribune offered to of a man who was killed, and as he was attempting
take the presidency, but the rest maintained that to rise, he received a blow on his head, and was
this could be decided only by lot. Amid such dis- killed. He fell at the entrance of the temple of
putes the day passed away, and seeing that his Fides, in front of the statues of the kings. The
enemies were gaining the upper hand, Tiberius honour of being the murderer of Gracchus was dis-
proposed to defer the election till the next day. puted between P. Satureius, one of his own col-
He now went about with his child, and endeavoured leagues, and L. Rufus. Upwards of 300 persons
to rouse the people's sympathy. They were moved by were killed on that day by sticks and stones, but
his fear and danger; a large crowd gathered around none by the sword. In the night following their
him ; they conducted him home, urged him not to bodies were thrown into the Tiber, and the sur-
despair, and kept watch about his house all night, viving friends of Gracchus had to suffer imprison-
to protect him against any unforeseen attack. ment, exile, and death, at the hands of their infuri-
Cheered by this demonstration of the people's fa- ated and merciless opponents.
vour, he, in conjunction with his friends, devised These, and other calamities which afterwards re-
during the night a plan on which they were to act, sulted from the legislation of Tiberius, though it
if his enemies should use violence.
was by no means their cause, might perhaps have
At day break the auspices were consulted, but been avoided by a little more prudence on the part
the signs were unfavourable, and Tiberius was of Tiberius. We may indeed regret that he did
doubtful as to whether he should go to the assem- not all he might have done, but we cannot blame
bly or not ; but his friend Blossius urged him on him for what he did : his motives were the
not to give up his plans for things which perhaps purest, and he suffered the death of a martyr in
were merely accidental. The people were assem- the noblest cause that a statesman can enibrace-
bled in the area of the capitol, and many of them the protection of the poor and oppressed. All the
came down to invite him and conduct him thither. odium that has for many centuries been thrown
When he arrived he was received with loud cheers upon Tiberius and his brother Caius arose partly
and acclamations, and all promised well ; but when from party prejudice, and more especially from a
the voting began, the aristocrats did all they could misunderstanding of the nature of a Roman agrarian
to disturb the proceedings, and the noise and tu- law, which, although it had been pretty clearly
mult became so great that no one could be heard. explained by Sigonius, was yet never generally
At this moinent a senator, who was a friend of recognised till the time of Niebuhr. Velleius Pa.
Gracchus, made his way through the crowd up to terculus, who is otherwise biassed against the
him, and informed him that the senators were as- agrarian law of Gracchus, gives a noble testimony
sembled, and that, as they could not prevaił upon to his character, in these words, “ Vita innocentis-
the consuls to carry out their commands, they simus, ingenio florentissimus, proposito sanctissimus,
themselves were resolved to kill Tiberius, and had tantis denique adornatus virtutibus, quantas, per-
for this purpose armed many of their slaves and fecta et natura et industria, mortalis conditio
partisans. When Tiberius communicated this in- recipit. ” (Plut. Vita Tib. Gracchi ; Appian, B. C.
ielligence to those who stood nearest to him, they li. 9–17; Liv. Epit. 58 ; Vell. Pat. ii. 2, 3;
W
U 3
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294
GRACCHUS.
GRACCHUS.
Dion Cass. Frugm. Peir. 86—88 ; Oros. v. 8, | the enemy, just towards his inferiors, princtual in
&c. ; Aur. Vict. de Vir. Illustr. 57; and the pas- the discharge of his duties, and in temperance and
sages of Cicero which are collected in Orelli's Ono- frugality he excelled even his elders. His popu-
masticon, vol. ii. p. 531, &c. ; comp. F. D. Gerlach, larity in the province is attested by two occurrences.
Tib. und C. Gracchus, pp. 1–30; Meyer, Fragm. As ihe winter in Sardinia had been very severe
Orat. Rom. p. 215, &c. 2d edit. ; Ahrens, Die drei and unhealthy, and as the soldiers were suffering
Volkstribunen Tib. Gracchus, Drusus und Sulpicius ; in consequence, the consul demanded clothing for
Niebuhr, Lectures on Rum. Hist. vol. i. p. 223, &c. , his men from the allied towns of the island. The
ed. Schmitz. )
towns sent a petition against this demand to the
8. C. SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the brother of senate at Rome, which thereupon directed the con-
No. 7, and son of No. 6, was, according to Plu- sul to get what he wanted by other means. But
tarch, nine years younger than his brother Tiberius, as he was unable to do this, Caius went round to
but he enjoyed the same careful education. He the towns, and prevailed upon them voluntarily to
was unquestionably a man of greater power and supply the army with clothing and other necessa-
talent than his brother, and had also more oppor- ries. About the same time ambassadors of king
tunity for displaying his abilities ; for, while the Micipsa arrived at Rome to inform the senate, that
career of Tiberius lasted scarcely seven months, out of regard for C. Gracchus, the king would send
that of Caius extends over a series of years. a supply of coru for the Roman army in Sardinia.
At the tiine of his brother's murder, in B. c. 133, These proofs of the great popularity and reputation
Caius was in Spain, where he received his first of Caius were the cause of fresh fear and uneasiness
military trnining in the army of P. Scipio Africa to the optimates. He had now been absent in
nus, who, although his wife was the sister of the Sardinia for two years, and his return was dreaded.
Gracchi, exclaimed, on receiving the intelligence of In order to prevent this, fresh troops were sent to
the murder of Tiberius, “ So perish all who do the Sardinia to replace the old ones ; and Orestes was
like again! " It was probably in the year after his ordered to remain in the island, it being intended
brother's murder, B. c. 132, that Caius returned by this measure to keep Caius there also, on ac-
with Scipio from Spain. The calamity which had count of his office. But he saw through their
befallen his brother had unnerved him, and an scheme, and thwarted it. It appears that during the
inner voice dissuaded him from taking any part in latter period of his stay in Sardinia he had altered
public affairs. The first time that he spoke in his mind, and that his vocation had become clear
public was on behalf of his friend Vettius, who was to him. It is reported that the shade of his brother
under persecution, and whom he defended. On appeared to him in his dreams, and said, " Caius,
that occasion he is said to have surpassed all the why dost thou linger? There is no escape, thou
other Roman orators. The people looked forward must die, like myself, in defending the rights of the
with great anticipations to his future career, but people. " It is attested by Cicero and Plutarch
the aristocracy watched him with jealousy, seeing that Caius was not a demagogue, and that he was
that he promised greater talent, energy, and passion drawn into his political career by a sort of fatality
than his brother, in whose footsteps it was pre- or necessity rather than by his own free will, and
sumed that he would follow. In B. C. 131, C. Pa- that had it not been for the exhortation of his
pirius Carbo, a friend of the Gracchi, brought brother's shade, he would never have sought any
forward a bill to enable a person to hold the office public office. But when he heard the call of
of tribune for two or more consecutive years. C. Tiberius, and was at the same time informed of
Gracchus supported the bill, but it was rejected.
