No More Learning

The Empress Maria had died
.
early, still a virgin as rumour went, and Stilicho succeeded in persuading
the Emperor to marry his second daughter Thermantia. Now Alaric
tried to force his way into Italy. He had left Epirus and reached
Aemona. There he probably found the roads to the South barred; he
therefore crossed the river Aquilis and made his way to Virunum in
Noricum, whence he sent an embassy to Stilicho at Ravenna. The
ambassadors demanded the enormous sum of four thousand pounds of
gold as compensation for the long delay in Epirus and the present
campaign of the Goths. Stilicho went to Rome to discuss the matter
with the Emperor and the Senate. The majority of the Senate was
opposed to the concession of this demand and would have preferred war
with the Goths, but Stilicho's power in the assembly was still so great
that his opinion prevailed and the huge sum was paid. At this juncture
the rumour spread that the Emperor of the East was dead. Arcadius
had indeed died (1 May 408). This greatly altered the situation, for
Theodosius II, the heir to the Eastern throne, was but a child of seven.
Honorius now decided to go to Ravenna, but was opposed by Stilicho,
who wanted himself to inspect the troops there. But neither did
Stilicho succeed in dissuading Honorius nor could a mutiny among
the soldiers at Ravenna, which Sarus had promoted, induce the
Emperor to desist from his plan. Nevertheless he eventually diverged
from the route to Ravenna, and went to Bologna, where he ordered
Stilicho to meet him for the purpose of discussing the situation in
the East.
Stilicho's first concern at Bologna was to calm the agitation amongst
the soldiers and recommend the ringleaders to the Emperor's mercy ;
then he took counsel with Honorius. It was the Emperor's wish to go
in person to Constantinople and settle the affairs of the Eastern Empire,
but Stilicho tried to turn him from this purpose, pointing out that the
journey would cause too much expense, and that the Emperor could not
well leave Italy whilst Constantine was as yet powerful and residing
at Arles. Honorius bent his will to the prudent counsel of his great
statesman, and it was resolved that Stilicho should go to the East, whilst
Alaric was sent with an army to Gaul against Constantine. Stilicho,
however, neither departed for the East nor did he gather together the
troops which remained assembled at Pavia, and were ill-disposed towards
a


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408]
Fall of Stilicho
269
him. Meanwhile a cunning Greek, the chancellor Olympius, profited by
the change in the Emperor's feelings towards his great minister. Under
the mask of Christian piety he secretly intrigued against Stilicho in
order to undermine his position. Thus Olympius accompanied the
Emperor to Pavia and on this occasion spread the calumnious report,
that Stilicho intended to kill the child Theodosius and put his own son
Eucherius on the throne. The storm now gathered over Stilicho's head.
The prelude to the catastrophe, however, took place at Pavia.
When the Emperor had arrived with Olympius at this town, the
latter made an exhibition of his philanthropy by visiting the sick
soldiers; probably his real object was to gather the threads of the
conspiracy which he had already spun and to weave them further. On
the fourth day Honorius himself appeared among the troops and tried
to inspire them with enthusiasm for the fight against Constantine. At
this moment Olympius gave a sign to the soldiers, and, in accordance
with a previous arrangement, they threw themselves upon all the high
military and civil officers present, who were supposed to be Stilicho's
adherents. Some of them escaped to the town, but the soldiers rushed
through the streets and killed all the unpopular dignitaries. The
slaughter continued under the very eyes of the Emperor, who had
withdrawn at first but reappeared without his royal robes and tried to
check the mad fury of the soldiers. When the Emperor, fearing for his
own life, had a second time retired, Longinianus, the Praefectus Praetorio
for Italy, was also slain. News of this horrible mutiny reached Stilicho
at Bologna. He at once summoned all the generals of Teutonic race in
whose loyalty alone he could still trust. It was decided to attack the
Roman army, should the Emperor himself have been killed. When,
however, Stilicho learned that the mutiny had not been directed against
Honorius, he resolved to abstain from punishing the culprits, for his
enemies were numerous and he was no longer sure of the Emperor's
support. But to this the Teuton generals would not agree, and Sarus
even went so far as to have Stilicho's Hunnic body-guard killed during
the night. Stilicho now betook himself to Ravenna, and to this town
Olympius despatched a letter from the Emperor, addressed to the army,
with the order to arrest Stilicho and keep him in honourable custody.
During the night Stilicho took refuge in a church to secure the right of
sanctuary; but in the morning the soldiers fetched him away, solemnly
assuring him that his life was safe. Then a second letter from the
Emperor was read, which condemned Stilicho to death for high-treason.
The fallen man might still have saved his life by appealing to the
Teuton soldiers, who were devoted to him, and would readily have
fought for him. But he made no attempt to do so, probably to preserve
the Empire from a civil war, which would have been fatal at this time.
Without resistance he offered his neck to the sword. In him the Roman
Empire (23 August 408) lost one of its most prominent statesmen, and
a
CH. .


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270
Alaric in Italy
[408
at the same time one of its ablest generals, one who had been in command
of the army for twenty-three years.
Without doubt we should consider the fall of Stilicho as a mani-
festation of a national Roman reaction against the ever-increasing
Teutonic influence within the Empire, a reaction proceeding from the
political party which saw in the removal of the barbarians the salvation
of Rome. Whether this party was right or not, they certainly had acted
most unwisely, for Olympius, the successor to Stilicho's position, turned
his power to very foolish account. Even the severest tortures could not
wring from Stilicho's friends and followers the confession desired by
Olympius, that the executed minister had aspired to the imperial throne.
And still more injudicious was the edict by which all those who had
attained high office under Stilicho's administration forfeited their
property to the State. But most
But most incomprehensible of all was the fact
that the Roman soldiers were allowed to wander about murdering and
robbing the families of the Teuton troops in Italy. The consequence
was that thousands of these soldiers deserted, and went over to Alaric.
Thermantia was sent back to her mother Serena by Honorius, who also
sentenced Eucherius to death. But as the latter had escaped to Rome
and taken refuge in a church, he was left unmolested for a time.
Shortly afterwards, however, he was murdered by two eunuchs who were
rewarded by high offices in the State.
Alaric's opportunity had arrived, now that the Empire had of its
own free will lost the services of its great leader. At first the Gothic
chief tried to maintain the peace. He sent ambassadors to the Emperor
with the message that he would adhere to the treaties made with Stilicho,
if he received a moderate payment of money, and that if an exchange of
hostages were effected, he would withdraw his troops from Noricum to
Pannonia. Although Honorius rejected Alaric's proposals for a peaceful
arrangement, he did not take any active steps to ensure success in the
campaign which had now become inevitable. Instead of entrusting to
Sarus the command of the troops against Alaric, Olympius bestowed it
on two men who were faithfully devoted to him but absolutely devoid of
merit. This time Alaric did not tarry long. However, as the campaign
promised to assume greater dimensions, he sent for reinforcements from
his brother-in-law Ataulf, who was stationed in Upper Pannonia with
Hunnic and Gothic troops. Without waiting for Ataulf's arrival, Alaric
marched to Aquileia and thence westward to Cremona, where he crossed
the Po, without meeting with the slightest resistance. Then the Goths
proceeded south-east from Placentia to Ariminum, leaving Ravenna
unmolested, and through Picenum, until they arrived before Rome
without opposition. When Alaric surrounded the city the Senate
believed Serena, Stilicho's widow, to be in connivance with him, and as
Placidia, the sister of Honorius, was of the same opinion, Serena was put
to death. This act of violence had, of course, no influence upon Alaric's


## p. 271 (#301) ############################################

408–409]
Alaric's negotiations with Honorius
271
policy; on the contrary the investment of the city was carried on with
greater vigour than before. As the Goths also blockaded the Tiber, the
city was cut off from all supplies, and soon famine broke out. No help
came from Ravenna, and when the distress in the city was at its highest
ambassadors were sent to the hostile camp to ask for moderate terms.
At first Alaric demanded the surrender of all the gold and silver in the
city, inclusive of all precious movable goods, and the emancipation of all
Teuton slaves, but in the end he lowered his demand to an imposition,
which, however, was still so heavy that it necessitated the confiscation of
the sacred treasures stored in the temples. After this he withdrew his
troops from Rome and went into the neighbouring province of Tuscany
where he collected around his standard a great number of slaves, who had
escaped from Rome. But even in this situation Honorius declined the
negotiations for peace which were now urged by Alaric and the Senate
alike.
This temporising policy could not but bring ruin upon Italy, the
more so, as at the beginning of 409 ambassadors came to treat with
Honorius about the recognition of Constantine. The usurper had
raised his son Constans, who had returned from Spain to Gaul, to the
dignity of a co-emperor, and had had the two cousins of Honorius put
to death. The Emperor, who entertained hopes that they were still
alive and counted upon assistance from Constantine against Alaric, no
longer withheld his recognition, and even sent him an imperial robe.
During this time Olympius did not shew himself in any way equal to the
situation, but continued to persecute those whom he believed to be
Stilicho's adherents. Honorius now ordered a body of picked troops
from Dalmatia to come to the protection of Rome. These six thousand
men, however, under their leader Valens were on their way surprised by
Alaric, and all of them but one hundred were cut down. A second
Roman embassy, in which the Roman bishop Innocent took part, and
which was escorted by troops furnished by Alaric, was now sent to the
Emperor. In the meantime Ataulf had at last made his way from
Pannonia across the Alps, and although an army sent by the Emperor
caused him some loss, probably near Ravenna, his junction with Alaric
could not be prevented. Now at last a general outcry against Olympius,
who had shewn himself so utterly incompetent, arose at the imperial
Court. The Emperor was forced to give in and depose his favourite,
and after this he at length inclined his ear to more peaceful proposals.
When, however, the Gothic chief in an interview with the Praefectus
Praetorio Jovius at Ariminum demanded not only an annual subsidy of
money and corn, but also the cession of Venetia, Noricum and Dalmatia,
and when moreover the same Jovius in a letter to the Emperor proposed
that Alaric should be raised to the rank of a magister utriusque militiae,
because it was hoped that this would induce him to lower his
terms, Honorius refused everything and was determined to go to war.
а
H. .


## p. 272 (#302) ############################################

272
Attalus Emperor
[410
Apparently this bellicose mood continued, for shortly afterwards a fresh
embassy from Constantine appeared at the Court, promising Honorius
speedy support from British, Gaulish, and Spanish soldiers.
Even
Jovius had allowed himself to be persuaded by the Emperor and together
with other high officials had taken an oath on pain of death never to
make peace with Alaric.
At first all seemed to go well ; Honorius levied 10,000 Huns for his
army, and to his great satisfaction found that Alaric himself was inclined
to peace and was sending some Italian bishops as ambassadors to him.
Of his former conditions he only maintained the cession of Noricum and
a subsidy of corn, the amount of which was to be left to the Emperor's
decision. He requested Honorius not to allow the city of Rome, which
had ruled the world for more than thousand years, to be sacked and
burnt by the Teutons. There can be no doubt that the Goths were
forced by the pressure of circumstances to offer these conditions. But
Honorius was prevented from complying with them by Jovius, who is
said to have pleaded the sanctity of the oath which he and others had
taken. Alaric now had recourse to a simple device in order to attain
the object of his desires. As he could not out of consideration for the
Goths aspire to the imperial crown himself, he caused an emperor to be
proclaimed. In order to put this proclamation into effect he marched to
Rome, seized the harbour of Portus and told the Senate of his intention
to divide among his troops all the corn which he found stored there,
should the city refuse to obey his orders. The Senate gave in, and in
.
compliance with Alaric's wish Attalus was raised to the throne.
a Roman of noble descent, who had been given a high government post
by Olympius and shortly afterwards made praefect of the city by
Honorius. Attalus thereupon raised Alaric to the rank of magister
militum praesentalis, and Ataulf to that of comes domesticorum; but he
gave them each a Roman colleague in their office, and Valens was made
magister militum, while Lampadius, an enemy of Alaric, became praefect
of the city. On the next day Attalus delivered a high-flown oration in
the Senate, boasting that it would be a small matter for him and the
Romans to subjugate the whole world. Soon, however, his relations with
Alaric became strained. Formerly he had been a heathen, but though
he now accepted the Arian faith and was baptised by the Gothic bishop
Sigesar, he not only openly slighted the Goths but also, disregarding
Alaric's advice to send a Gothic army under Druma to Africa, despatched
the Roman Constans with troops ill-prepared for war to that country.
Africa was at that time held by Heraclian, one of Honorius' generals, the
murderer of Stilicho, and the province required the Emperor's whole
attention, as the entire corn supply of Rome depended upon its
possession.
Attalus himself now marched against Honorius at Ravenna. The
latter, who had already contemplated an escape to the East, sent Attalus
He was


## p. 273 (#303) ############################################

410]
Sack of Rome
273
a message to the effect that he would consent to acknowledge him as
co-emperor. Attalus replied, through Jovius, that he would order
Honorius to be mutilated and banish him to some remote island, besides
depriving him of his imperial dignity. At this critical moment, however,
Honorius was saved by four thousand soldiers of the Eastern Empire,
who disembarked at Ravenna and came to his assistance. When the
news arrived that the expedition against Heraclian in Africa had proved
a complete failure and that Rome was again exposed to a great famine,
owing to this victory of Honorius' arms, Attalus and Alaric abandoned
the siege of Ravenna. Alaric turned against Aemilia where he took
possession of all the cities except Bologna, and then advanced in a north-
westerly direction towards Liguria. Attalus on the other hand hastened
to Rome to take counsel with the Senate about the pressing African
question. The majority of the assembly decided to send an army of
Gothic and Roman troops to Africa under the command of the Goth
Druma, but Attalus opposed the plan. This brought about his fall;
for when Alaric heard of it he returned, stripped Attalus of the diadem
and purple at Ariminum and sent both to Honorius. He did not,
however, leave the deposed Emperor to his fate, but kept him and his
son Ampelius under his protection till peace had been concluded with
Honorius. Placidia, Honorius' sister, was also in Alaric's keeping. If
we may believe Zosimus, she was brought from Rome as a kind of hostage
by Alaric, who, however, granted her imperial honours.
The deposition of Attalus in May or June 410 was the starting-point
for renewed negotiations for peace between Alaric and the Emperor, in
the course of which the former perhaps claimed a part of Italy for himself.
But the peaceful propositions were nipped in the bud by the Goth Sarus.
He was hostile to Alaric and Ataulf; at that time he lay encamped in
Picenum. Under pretence of being menaced by Ataulf's strong body of
troops, he went over to the Emperor and violated the truce by an attack
on the Gothic camp.
Alaric now marched for the third time against
Rome, doubtless firmly resolved to punish the Emperor for his duplicity
by thoroughly chastising the city, and to establish at last a kingdom of
The investment by the Goths caused another terrible famine
in the city, and at last, during the night preceding 24 August 410, the
Salarian gate was treacherously opened. Then followed a complete sack
of the city, which did not, however, degenerate into mere wanton
destruction, especially as it only lasted three days. The deeds of
violence and cruelty which are mentioned more particularly in the writings
of contemporary Christians were probably for the greater part committed
by the slaves, who, as we know, had flocked to the Goths in great
numbers. As early as 27 August the Goths left Rome laden with
enormous spoil, and marched by Capua and Nola into southern Italy.
For Alaric, who had probably borne the title of king already for a con-
siderable time, had resolved to go to Africa by way of Sicily, and gain
his own.
C. BD. H. v0L. I. GH, Ix.
18


## p. 274 (#304) ############################################

274
Barbarian Conquest in Spain
[ 409-412
the dominion of Italy by the possession of that rich province. But when
part of the army had embarked at Rhegium, his ships were scattered and
destroyed by a storm. Alaric, therefore, turned back ; but on the way
north was seized by an illness which proved fatal before the end of the
year 410. He was laid to rest in the river Basentus (Busento) near
Cosentia. A large number of slaves were employed in first diverting the
course of the river and then bringing it back into its former channel after
the dead king and his treasures had been buried. In order that nobody
might ever know the burial place, all the slaves who had been employed
in the labour were killed. Ataulf was now elected king. He seems at
first to have thought of carrying out the plans of his brother-in-law,
Alaric; but on further consideration of the great power of Heraclian in
Africa, he abandoned them and resolved rather to lead the Goths against
Gaul. It is possible that on his march northward he again sacked Rome,
and he certainly married Placidia before he withdrew from Italy. He
invaded Gaul in 412, and in that year commenced the war which was
waged so long by the Teutons against the Roman supremacy in that
country.
A little earlier a similar struggle had begun in Spain, which
resulted in the victory of the barbarians. In the autumn of 409 the
Vandals, Alani, and Suevi had penetrated into Spain, tempted thither
no doubt by the treasures of that rich country and by the greater
security of a future settlement there. The course followed by those
tribes was towards the west of the peninsula, first of all passing through
Galicia and Lusitania. Constans, on leaving Spain, had certainly made
an unfortunate choice in appointing Gerontius praefect; for not only
did this official allow the Teutons to enter the country but he tried at the
same time to put an end to Constantine's rule, by deserting him and
causing one of his own followers, Maximus, to be proclaimed emperor.
Circumstances even forced Gerontius into an alliance with the barbarians.
For when Constans returned to Spain, the usurper could only drive him
out of the country by making common cause with the Teutons.
Gerontius followed Constans to Gaul, invested him at Vienne, and put
him to death at the beginning of 411. He then turned his attention to
Constantine, who concentrated his forces at Arles. But Honorius had
by now recovered sufficiently to make war against Constantine. For
that purpose he sent the Roman Constantius and a Goth named Wulfila
with an army to Gaul. When Gerontius advanced to meet them, his
soldiers deserted him and joined the imperial troops. He himself met
his death shortly afterwards in a burning house, whilst Maximus
succeeded in escaping. This sealed the fate of Constantine; for
Constantius and Wulfila defeated the army of the Frank Edobic,
who came to render him assistance. Constantius then proceeded to
besiege Arles, which for a considerable time withstood his efforts, but
eventually surrendered on conditions to the general of Honorius. The


## p. 275 (#305) ############################################

411]
Constantius
275
reason for this was that Constantius had heard that Guntiarius, king of
the Burgundians, and Goar, king of the Alani, had raised the Gaulish
noble Jovinus to the imperial throne at Mainz, and in these circum-
stances he deemed it necessary to offer easy terms of capitulation to
Constantine. The usurper submitted; but on the way to Ravenna he
and his youngest son were killed by Honorius' command. His head was
brought to Ravenna (18 Sept. 411). Meanwhile Jovinus with an army
consisting of Burgundians, Franks, and Alemanni had marched south-
ward, apparently in the belief that the critical situation of the Empire,
which was at war with both Goths and Vandals, would facilitate a rapid
extension of his power.
In these circumstances it was an easy matter for the Teutons who
had invaded Spain to spread over a large part of the peninsula. For
two years they scoured the west and south of the country, devastating
and plundering as they went, until the alteration in the political
situation, caused by the victories of Constantius, induced them to join
the united Empire as foederati. In 411 they concluded a treaty with
the Emperor, which imposed upon them the duty of defending Spain
from foreign invasions. In return the Asdingi and Suevi received landed
property for settlements in Galicia, the Silingi in Baetica, and the
Alani in Lusitania and Carthaginensis. The larger Roman landowners
probably ceded a third part of the land to them.
It was a time of the gravest convulsions for the Western Empire;
for during these years were laid the foundations, on which the first
important Teutonic States on Roman soil were built. Stilicho seems to
have thought it possible for a kind of organic whole to develop out of
the Roman and Teutonic nationalities ; at least, that great statesman
had always promoted peaceful relations between Romans and Teutons.
But the change in politics after his death, as well as the immense size of
the Empire, made a fusion of those two factors impossible. Now the
time of the Teutonic conquests begins, though the name of foederati
helped for a while to hide the real state of affairs. The very foundations
of the Western Empire were shaken ; but, above all, the future of Italy
as the ruling power of the West was endangered by violent agitations in
Africa, the country from which she drew her food-supplies. Just as
here, in the heart of the Empire, so too on its borders, could serious
danger be foreseen. Throughout the provinces the dissolution of the
Empire was threatening. It had probably only been delayed so far by
the lack of system in the Teutonic invasions and by the immense prestige
of the Empire. But in respect of this the last generation had wrought
& very perceptible change. During the long-continued warfare the
Teutons had had time to become familiar with the manners of the
Romans, their strategy, diplomacy, and political institutions, and it was
owing to this that the great coalitions of tribes in 405 and 406 had
already taken place. They are probably to be explained by the ever-
a
CH. .
18--2


## p. 276 (#306) ############################################

276
The Teutons
[410-412
increasing political discernment of the Teutons. Another result of those
years of war was that under Alaric's rule the principle of monarchy was
evolved out of military leadership; for the continuous warlike enterprises
could not but develop an appreciation of a higher and more com-
prehensive supreme power. Thus Alaric was no longer the mere adviser
of his tribe. His actions however do not shew that he abused his high
rank in his behaviour towards his tribesmen, while at the same time he
ever displayed towards the Romans a humane and generous spirit which
was remarkable in those times. On the other hand the Teutonic tribes,
and especially the Visigoths, had seen enough of the internal weakness
of the great Empire and of the impotence of its rulers to encourage
them to make more serious attacks on the Western half, although Alaric
in 410 would willingly have saved from pillage the capital of the world
—that capital which, according to his own words in a message brought
to Honorius by an embassy of bishops, had ruled the world for more
than a thousand years. The fact that he nevertheless led his army to
the sack of the city proves that he did not shrink from extreme measures
when it was important to display the superiority of the Gothic army
over the Roman mercenaries.
Thus it is evident that the Teutonic tribes, and more especially the
Visigoths, were at this time passing through a transition stage. They
had not yet forgotten their native customs and manner of living, whilst
at the same time the foreign influences to which they had been exposed
had been sufficiently strong to modify to some extent their original
disposition and mode of viewing things. But as far as may be gathered
from contemporary sources, their policy had not been influenced by
Christian principles, and Christianity altogether played an unimportant
part in the history of these migrating Teutons. It is true that, owing
to the scantiness of contemporary evidence, we have in many decisive
cases to trust to conjecture, and it is a cause for much regret that the
moving political forces and even more the real conditions of life among
the migrating Teutons are wrapt in impenetrable darkness, which is only
dispersed as they begin to live a more settled life, and in particular after
the establishment of the Visigoths in Gaul and Spain, the Vandals in
Africa, and the Ostrogoths in Italy.


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277
CHAPTER X.
(A)
THE VISIGOTHS IN GAUL, 412-507.
King ATAULF had no intention of establishing a permanent dominion
in Italy. As an occupation of Africa seemed hopeless he turned towards
Gaul in the year 412, probably making use of the military road which
crossed Mt Genèvre via Turin to the Rhone. Here he at first joined
the anti-emperor Jovinus (set up in the summer of 411) who had
a sure footing, especially in Auvergne, but was little pleased by the
arrival of the Visigoths, which interfered with his plans of governing the
whole of Gaul. Hence the two rulers soon came to open strife, especially
as Jovinus had not named the Gothic king co-ruler, as he had hoped,
but his own brother Sebastian. Ataulf went over to the side of the
Emperor Honorius and promised, in return for the assurance of supplies
of grain (and assignments of land), to deliver up the heads of both
usurpers and to set free Placidia, the Emperor's sister, who was held as
a prisoner by the Goths. He certainly succeeded without much trouble
in getting rid of the usurpers. As, however, Honorius kept back the
supply of grain and Ataulf, exasperated by this, did not give up Placidia,
hostilities once more began between the Goths and the Romans.
After
an unsuccessful attempt to surprise Marseilles, Ataulf captured the
towns of Narbonne, Toulouse and Bordeaux by force of arms (413).
But a complete alteration took place in the king's intentions, obviously
through the influence of Placidia, whom he took as his (second) wife in
January (414). As he himself repeatedly declared, he now finally gave
up his original cherished plan of converting the Roman Empire into a
Gothic one, and rather strove to identify his people wholly with the
Roman State. His political programme was therefore just the same as
that of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric, later on, when he accomplished
the founding of the Italian kingdom. In spite of these assurances the
Emperor refused him every concession ; influenced by the general Con-
stantius, who himself desired the hand of the beautiful princess, Honorius
looked upon the marriage of his sister with the Barbarian as a grievous
disgrace to his house. In consequence Ataulf was again compelled to
turn his arms against the Empire. He first appointed an anti-emperor
in the person of Attalus, without however achieving any success by this
CH. X.


## p. 278 (#308) ############################################

278
Ataulf, Wallia
[415-418
move, since Attalus had not the slightest support in Gaul. When Con-
stantius then blockaded the Gallic ports with his feet and cut off
supplies, the position of the Goths there became quite untenable, so
that Ataulf decided to seek a place of retreat in Spain. He evacuated
Gaul, after terrible devastation, and took possession of the Spanish
province of Tarraconensis (in the beginning of 415), but without quite
giving up the thought of a future understanding with the imperial
power. In Barcelona, Placidia bore him a son, who received the name
of Theodosius at his baptism, but he soon died. And not long after-
wards death overtook the king from a wound which one of his followers
inflicted out of revenge (in the summer of 415).
After Ataulf's death the anti-romanising tendencies among the
Visigoths, never quite suppressed, became active again. Many Pre-
tenders contended for the throne, but all, as it seems, were animated by
the thought of governing independently of Rome and not in subjection
to it. At length Sigerich, brother of the Visigoth prince Sarus,
murdered by Ataulf, succeeded in getting possession of the throne.
Sigerich at once had the children of Ataulf's first marriage slaughtered,
and Placidia suffered the most shameful treatment from him. However,
after reigning for one week only he was murdered ; certainly by the
instigation of Wallia, who now became head of the Goths (autumn
415).
Wallia, although no less an enemy to Rome than his predecessor,
at once granted the imperial princess a more humane treatment, and
first tried to develop further the dominion already founded in Spain.
But as the imperial fleet again cut off all supplies, and famine broke
out, he determined to take possession of the Roman granary in Africa.
But the undertaking miscarried because of the foundering in the Straits
of Gibraltar of a detachment sent on in advance, which was looked upon
as a bad omen (416). The king, obliged by necessity, concluded a treaty
with Constantius in consequence of which the Goths pledged themselves,
in return for a supply of 600,000 measures of grain from the Emperor, to
deliver up Placidia, to free Spain from the Vandals, Alans and Sueves
and to give hostages. After fierce protracted fighting the Gothic army
overcame first the Silingian Vandals and then the Alans (416–418).
But when Wallia also wanted to advance against the Asdingian Vandals
and the Sueves in Galicia he was suddenly called back by Constantius,
who did not wish the Goths to become too powerful, and land for his
people to settle upon was assigned to him in the province of Aquitanica
Secunda and in some adjoining districts by the terms of a treaty of
alliance (end of 418). Shortly after Wallia died, and was succeeded on
the Visigoth throne by Theodoric I, chosen by the people.
Historical tradition is silent over the first years of Theodoric's
reign ; they were taken up with the difficulties of devising and exe-
cuting the partition of the land with the settled Roman population.
>


## p. 279 (#309) ############################################

421-451]
Theodoric and Aëtius
279
The Goths kept their national constitution and were pledged to
give military assistance to the Empire. Their king was under the
supreme command of the Emperor ; he only possessed a real power over
his own people, while he had no legal authority over the Roman pro-
vincials. Such an indeterminate situation, after the endeavours so
long directed towards the attainment of political independence, could
not last long.
In 421 or 422 Theodoric fulfilled his agreement by sending a con-
tingent to the Roman army which was marching against the Vandals ; but
in the decisive battle these troops fell upon the Romans from behind and
so helped the Vandals to a brilliant victory. In spite of this base breach
of faith the Goths came off unpunished, and even dared to advance
southwards to the Mediterranean coast. In the year 425 a Gothic
corps was before the important fortress of Arles, the coveted key of the
Rhone valley; but it was forced to retreat by the rapid approach of an
army under Aëtius. After further fighting, about which unfortunately
nothing detailed is known to us, peace was made and the Goths were
granted full sovereignty over the provinces which had originally been
assigned to them for occupation only-Aquitanica Secunda and the
north-west corner of Narbonensis Prima—while they restored all their
conquests (c. 426).
This peace continued for a considerable period and was only inter-
rupted by the unsuccessful attempt of the Goths to surprise Arles (430).
But when in 435 fresh disturbances broke out in Gaul, Theodoric took
up once more his plans for the conquest of the whole of Narbonensian
Gaul. In 436 he appeared with a strong force before the town of
Narbonne, which however after a long siege was relieved by Roman
troops (437). The Goths went on fighting, but without success, and
were at last driven back as far as Toulouse. But in the decisive battle
which was fought before the walls of this town (439) the Romans suffered
a severe defeat, and only the heavy loss of life which the Goths them-
selves sustained could decide the king to agree to the provisional
restoration of the status quo.
Theodoric was certainly not disposed to be satisfied with the narrow
territory surrendered to him. Therefore (c. 442) we find him again on
the side of Rome's enemies. First he entered into close relations with
Gaiseric, the dreaded king of the Vandals; but this coalition, which
would have been so dangerous for the Roman Empire, was broken up by
the ingenious diplomacy of Aëtius. He next tried to attach himself to
the powerful and rising kingdom of the Sueves by giving King Rechiar
one of his daughters in marriage, and by furnishing troops to assist
his advance into Spain (449). It was only when danger threatened
the whole of the civilised West by the rise of the power of the Huns
under Attila, that the Goths again allied themselves with the Romans.
In the beginning of the year 451 Attila's mighty army, estimated at
CH. X.


## p. 280 (#310) ############################################

280
Invasion of Attila
[ 451
а
a
half a million, set out from Hungary, crossed the Rhine at Easter-time
and invaded Belgica. It was only now that Aëtius, who had been
deceived by the false representations of the king of the Huns, thought
of offering resistance; but the standing army at his command was
absolutely insufficient to hold the field against such a formidable opponent.
He found himself, therefore, obliged to beg for help from the king of
the Visigoths, who although he had at first intended to keep himself
neutral and await the development of events in his territory, thought,
after long hesitation, that it would be to his own interest to obey the
call. Theodoric joined the Romans with a fine army which he himself
led, accompanied by his sons Thorismud and Theodoric. Attila had
in the meantime advanced as far as Orleans, which Sangiban, the king
of the Alans who were settled there, promised to betray to him. The
proposed treachery, however, was frustrated, for the allies were already
on the spot before the arrival of the Huns, and had encamped in strength
before the city. Attila thought he could not venture an attack on the
strong fortifications with his troops, which principally consisted of
cavalry, so he retreated to Troyes and took up a position five miles
before that town on an extensive plain near the place called Mauriacus,
there to await a decisive battle with the Gotho-Roman army which was
following him. Attila occupied the centre of the Hun array with the
picked troops of his people, while both the wings were composed of
troops from the subjected German tribes. His opponents were so
arranged that Theodoric with the bulk of the Visigoths occupied the
right wing, Aëtius with the Romans and a part of the Goths under
Thorismud formed the left wing of the army, while the untrustworthy
Alans stood in the centre. Attila first tried to get possession of a height
commanding the battlefield, but Aëtius and Thorismud were beforehand
and successfully repulsed all the attacks of the Huns on their position.
The king of the Huns now hurled himself with great force on the
Visigothic main body commanded by Theodoric. After a long struggle
the Goths succeeded in driving the Huns back to their camp; great
losses occurred on both sides; the aged king of the Goths was among the
slain, as was also a kinsman of Attila's.
The battle however remained drawn, for both sides kept the field. The
moral effect, which told for the Romans and their allies, was, however,
very important, inasmuch as the belief that the powerful king of the
Huns was invincible had suffered a severe shock. At first it was decided
to shut up the Huns in their barricade of wagons and starve them
out. But when the body of Theodoric, who had been supposed up till
then to be among the survivors, had been found and buried, Thorismud,
who was recognised as king by the army, called upon his people to
revenge and to take the enemy's position by storm. But Aëtius, who
did not wish to let the Goths become too powerful, succeeded in per-
suading Thorismud to relinquish his scheme, advising his return to


## p. 281 (#311) ############################################

451–456]
Theodoric II
281
Toulouse, to prevent any attempt on his brother's part to get possession
of the crown by means of the royal hoard there. Thus were the Goths
deprived of the well-earned fruits of their famous exploit; the Huns
returned home unmolested (451).
Thorismud proved himself anxious to develop the national policy
adopted by his father, and in the same spirit. After he had succeeded,
for the time being, in keeping possession of the throne, he subdued the
Alans who had settled near Orleans and thereby made preparations for
extending the Gothic territory beyond the Loire. Then he tried to
bring Arles under his power, but without having attained his object he
returned once more to his country, where in the meanwhile his brothers
Theodoric (II) and Friedrich had stirred up a rebellion. After several
armed encounters Thorismud was assassinated (453).
Theodoric II succeeded him on the throne. The characteristic mark
of his rule is the close though occasionally interrupted connexion with
Rome. The treaty broken under Theodoric I—which implied the
supremacy of the Empire over the kingdom of Toulouse—was renewed
immediately after his accession to the throne. For the rest, this con-
nexion was never taken seriously by Theodoric but was principally used by
him as a means towards the attainment of that end which his predecessors
had vainly striven for by direct means—the spread of the Visigoth
dominion in Gaul and more especially in Spain. Already, in the year
454, Theodoric found an opportunity for activity in the interest of the
Roman Empire; a Gothic army under Friedrich marched into Spain
and pacified the rebellious Bagaudae ex auctoritate Romana. After
the murder of Valentinian III (March 455) Avitus went as magister
militum to Gaul to win over the most influential powers of the country
for the new Emperor, Petronius Maximus. In consequence of his
personal influence-he had formerly initiated Theodoric into the know-
ledge of Roman literature-he succeeded in bringing the king of the
Goths to recognise Maximus. When, however, soon after this, the news
of the murder of the Emperor arrived (31 May), Theodoric requested
him to take the imperium himself. On 9 July, Avitus, who had
been proclaimed Emperor, accompanied by Gothic troops marched
into Italy where he met with universal recognition. The close relations
between the Empire and the Goths came again into operation against
the Sueves. As the latter repeatedly made plundering expeditions into
Roman territory, Theodoric, with a considerable force to which the
Burgundians also added a contingent, marched over the Pyrenees in the
summer of 456, decisively defeated them and took possession of a large
part of Spain, nominally for the Empire, but actually for himself.
But the state of affairs changed at one stroke when Avitus, in the
autumn of the year 456, abdicated the purple. Theodoric had now no
longer any interest in adhering to the Empire. He had in fact required
the promotion of Avitus because he enjoyed a great reputation in Gaul
CH. X.


## p. 282 (#312) ############################################

282
Theodoric II, Euric
[457–466
and possessed there a strong support among the resident nobility.
Friendship with him could only be of use to the king of the Goths in
respect to the Roman provincials living in Toulouse. But the elevation
of the new Emperor Majorian, on 1 April 457, had occurred in direct
opposition to the wishes of the Gallo-Roman nobility to place one
of themselves upon the imperial throne. Taking advantage of the
consequent discord in Gaul, Theodoric appeared as the open foe of the
imperial power of Rome. He himself marched with an army into the
Gallic province of Narbonne and once more began with the siege of
Arles ; he also sent troops to Spain which, however, only fought with
varying success. But in the winter of 458 the Emperor appeared in
Gaul with considerable forces, quieted the rebellious Burgundians and
obliged the Visigoths to raise the blockade of Arles and again conclude
peace (spring 459).
Although in the year 461 yet another change took place on the
imperial throne, Theodoric thought it more advantageous for the time
being to maintain, at least formally, the imperial alliance. On the other
hand the chief general Aegidius, a faithful follower of Majorian,
supported by a fine army, marched against the new imperial ruler. In
the conflict which then ensued Theodoric found a favourable opportunity
for resuming his policy of expansion in Gaul. At the call of Count
Agrippinus, who was commanding in Narbonne and was hard pressed by
Aegidius, he marched into the Roman territory and quartered upon that
important town Gothic troops under the command of his brother
Friedrich (462). Driven out of southern Gaul, Aegidius turned north-
wards whither a Gothic army led by Friedrich followed him. A great
battle took place near Orleans in which the Goths suffered a severe
defeat, chiefly through the bravery of the Salian Franks, who were
opposed to them and lost their leader in the battle (463). Taking
advantage of the victory, Aegidius now began to press victoriously into
the Visigoth territory, but sudden death prevented him from carrying out
his purposes (464).
Theodoric, freed from his most dangerous enemy, did not delay
making good the losses he had suffered; but he died in the year 466
at the hand of his brother Euric, who was a champion of the anti-
Roman national party and now ascended the throne. Contemporaries
agree in describing the new king as characterised by great energy and
warlike ability. We may venture to add from historical facts that he
was also a man of distinguished political talent. The leading idea in
his policy—the entire rejection of even a formal suzerainty of the
Roman Empire-came into operation on his accession to the throne.
The embassy which he then sent off to the Emperor of Eastern
Rome can only have had for its object a request for the recognition of
the Visigoth sovereignty. As no agreement was arrived at he tried to
bring about an alliance with the Vandals and the Sueves, but the
VE


## p. 283 (#313) ############################################

467–475]
Euric
283
negotiations came to nothing when a strong East-Roman fleet appeared
in African waters (467). Euric at first pursued a neutral course, but as
the Roman expedition, set on foot with such considerable effort against
the Vandal kingdom, resulted so lamentably (468), he did not hesitate
to come forward as assailant, while he simultaneously pushed forward his
troops into Gaul and Spain (469). He opened hostilities in Gaul with
a sudden attack on the Bretons whom the Emperor had sent to
the town of Bourges ; at Déols, not far from Chateauroux, a battle
took place in which the Bretons were overthrown. Yet the Goths did
not succeed in pushing forward over the Loire to the north. Count
Paulus, supported by Frankish auxiliaries, successfully opposed them
here. Euric therefore concentrated his whole strength partly on the
conquest of the province of Aquitanica Prima, partly on the annexation
of the lower Rhone valley, especially the long-coveted Arles. The
provinces of Novempopulana and (for the most part) Narbonensis Prima
had been probably already occupied by the Goths under Theodoric II.
An army which the West-Roman Emperor Anthemius sent to Gaul
for the relief of Arles was defeated in the year 470 or 471, and for
the time being a large part of Provence was seized by the Goths. In
Aquitanica Prima, also, town after town fell into the hands of Euric's
general Victorius; only Clermont, the capital city of Auvergne, obstinately
defied the repeated attacks of the barbarians for many years. The
moving spirits in the resistance were the brave Ecdicius, a son of the
former Emperor Avitus, and the poet Sidonius Apollinaris, who had
been its bishop from about 470. The letters of the latter give us a
clear picture of the struggle which was waged with the greatest animosity
on both sides. Euric is said to have stated that he would rather give
up the much more valuable Septimania than renounce the possession of
that town. The wholly impotent Western Empire was unable to do
anything for the besieged. In the year 475 peace was at last made
between the Emperor Nepos and Euric by the intervention of Bishop
Epiphanius of Ticinum (Pavia). Unfortunately the conditions are not
more accurately known, but there can be no doubt that, besides the
previously conquered territory in Spain, the district between the Loire,
the Rhone, the Pyrenees and the two seas was relinquished to Euric in
sovereign possession. Thus Auvergne, so fiercely contended for, was
surrendered to the Goths.
But in spite of this important success the king of the Goths had by
no means reached the goal of his desires ; it may be seen from the line
of policy he followed later that the present moment seemed to him fit
for carrying out that subjection of the whole of the West which had
long since been the aim of Alaric I.
For this reason peace only lasted for a year, which was spent in
settling internal affairs. The most important event under Euric's
government at this time is the publication of a Code of Law which was
CH. X.


## p. 284 (#314) ############################################

284
Euric
[476–484
intended to settle the legal relations of the Goths, both amongst them-
selves and with the Romans who had come under the Gothic dominion.
The deposition of the last West-Roman Emperor, Romulus, by the
leader of the mercenaries, Odovacar (Sept. 476), gave the king a welcome
reason for renewing hostilities, as he looked upon the treaty made with
the Empire as dissolved. A Gothic army crossed the Rhone and
obtained final possession of the whole of southern Provence as far as the
Maritime Alps, together with the cities of Arles and Marseilles, after
a victorious battle against the Burgundians, who had ruled over this
district under Roman suzerainty. But when Euric also marched a
body of troops into Italy it suffered defeat from the officers of Odovacar.
Consequently a treaty was concluded by the East-Roman Emperor
Zeno and the king of the Burgundians whereby the newly conquered
territory in Gaul (between the Rhone and the Alps south of the
Durance) was surrendered by Odovacar to the Goths, while Euric
evidently pledged himself to undertake no further hostilities against
Italy (c. 477).
Euric was incessantly harassed by the difficulties of defending this
mighty conquest from foes without and within. In particular, very
frequent cause for interference was given by the conduct of the Catholic
clergy, who openly shewed their disloyalty, and in the Vandal kingdom
did not shrink from the most treacherous actions. Yet they seem only
in rare instances to have been answered by violence and cruelty. The
Saxon pirates who, according to old custom, infested the coast of Gaul
were vigorously punished by a fleet sent out against them. In the
same way it seems that an invasion of the Salian Franks was warded
off successfully. It is not strange that, owing to the prestige of the
Visigoth power, Euric's help was repeatedly requested by other peoples,
as by the Heruli, Warni and Tulingi who, settled in the Netherlands,
found themselves threatened by the overwhelming might of the Franks
and owed to the intervention of the Gothic king the maintenance of
their political existence. The poet Sidonius Apollinaris has left behind
a vivid description of the way in which, at that time, the representatives
of the most diverse nations pressed round Euric at the Visigoth Court,
even the Persians are said to have formed an alliance with him against the
Eastern Empire. It seems that envoys from the Roman population of
Italy also appeared at Toulouse to ask the king to expel Odovacar, whose
rule was only reluctantly endured by the Italians.
We do not know if Euric intended gratifying this last request, in
any case he was prevented from executing any such designs through
death, which overtook him in Arles in December 484. Under his son
Alaric II the Visigoth power fell from its height. To be sure, the
,
beginning of the decline originated at a time further back. Ataulf's
political programme, as already observed, had originally contemplated
the establishment of a national Gothic State in the place of the Roman


## p. 285 (#315) ############################################

484–502]
Alaric II
285
Empire. Yet not one of the Visigoth rulers, in spite of honest purpose,
could accomplish this task. It is to their credit that they succeeded at
last, after severe fighting, in freeing themselves from the suzerainty of
the Emperor and obtaining political autonomy, but the State which
thus resulted resembled a Germanic National State no more than it did a
Roman Imperium, and it could not contain the seeds of life because it was
in a great measure dependent on foreign obsolescent institutions. The
Goths had entered the world of Roman civilisation too suddenly to be
able either to resist or to absorb the foreign influences which pressed on
them from all sides. It was fortunate for the
progress
of Romanisation
that the Goths, cut off from the rest of the German world, could not
draw thence fresh strength to recuperate their nationality or to replace
their losses, and moreover that through the immense extension of the
kingdom under Euric the numerical proportion between the Roman and
Gothic population had altered very much in favour of the former. So
under the circumstances it was a certainty that the Gothic kingdom in
Gaul must succumb to the rising and politically creative power of the
Franks. Neither the personality of Alaric, who was little fitted for
ruling, nor the antagonism between Catholicism and Arianism caused
the downfall, they only hastened it.
Alaric ascended the throne on 28 December 484. The king was
of an indolent weak nature, altogether the opposite of his father, and
without energy or warlike capacity, as immediately became evident.
For example, he submitted to give up Syagrius, whom he had received
into his kingdom after the battle of Soissons (486), when the victorious
king of the Franks threatened him with war. The inevitable settlement
by arms of the rivalry between the two principal powers in Gaul was
of course only put off a little longer by this compliance. About 494
the war began. It lasted for many years and was carried on with varying
success on both sides. Hostilities were ended through the mediation
of the Ostrogoth king Theodoric-who in the meanwhile had become
Alaric's father-in-law-by the conclusion of a treaty of peace on the
terms of Uti possidetis (c. 502), but this condition could not last
long, for the antagonism was considerably aggravated by the conversion
of Clovis to the Catholic Church in the year 496 (25 Dec. ). Conse-
quently the greatest part of Alaric's Roman subjects, with the clergy of
course at their head, adhered to the Franks, and jealously endeavoured
to bring about the subjection of the Visigoth kingdom to their rule.
Alaric was obliged to adopt severe measures in some instances against
such treasonable desires, but usually he tried by gentleness and the
granting of favours to win over the Romans to his support, an attempt
which, in view of the prevalent and insurmountable antagonism, was of
course quite ineffectual and even defeated its own ends, being regarded
only as weakness. Thus he permitted the bishoprics kept vacant under
Euric to be again filled, he moreover permitted the Gallic bishops to
CH. X.


## p. 286 (#316) ############################################

286
Battle of Vouglé
[506–507
hold a Council at Agde in September 506, and—indication of the
ambiguous attitude of the clergy—it was opened with a prayer for
the prosperity of the Visigoth kingdom. The publication of the so-
called Lex Romana Visigothorum, also named Breviarium Alaricianum,
represented the most important act of conciliation. This Code of Law,
which had been composed by a commission of lawyers together with
prominent laymen and even clergy, and was drawn from extracts and
explanations of Roman law, was sanctioned by the king at Toulouse,
2 Feb. 506, after having received the approval of an assembly of
bishops and distinguished provincials, and was ordered to be used by
the Roman population in the Gothic kingdom.
Why the explosion was delayed until the year 507 is unknown. That
the king of the Franks was the aggressor is certain. He easily found a
pretext for beginning the war as champion and protector of Catholic Chris-
tianity against the absolutely just measures which Alaric took against his
treacherous orthodox clergy. Clovis had sufficiently appreciated the by
no means despicable power of the Visigoth kingdom, and had summoned
a very considerable army, one contingent of which was furnished by the
Ripuarian Franks. His allies, the Burgundians, approached from the
east in order to take the Goths in the flank. Among his allies Clovis
probably also counted on the Byzantines, who placed their fleet at his
disposal. On his part Alaric had not looked upon coming events
idly, but his preparations were hampered by the bad state of the finances
of his kingdom. In order to obtain the necessary funds he was obliged
to coin gold pieces of inferior value, which were soon discredited everywhere.
Apparently the fighting strength of the Gothic army was inferior to the
army of Clovis, but if the Ostrogoth troops, who had held out prospects
of coming, should arrive at the right time Alaric could hope to oppose
his foe successfully. The king of the Franks had to endeavour to bring
about a decisive action before the arrival of these allies. In the spring
of 507 he suddenly crossed the Loire and marched towards Poitiers,
where he probably joined the Burgundians. On the Campus Vocladensis,
ten miles from Poitiers, the Visigoths had taken up their position.
Alaric put off beginning battle because he was waiting for the Ostrogoth
troops, but as they were hindered by the appearance of a Byzantine fleet
in Italian waters he determined to fight instead of beating a retreat,
as it would have been wise to do. After a short engagement the Goths
turned and fed. In the pursuit the king of the Goths was killed, it was
said by Clovis' own hand (507). With this overthrow the rule of the
Visigoths in Gaul was ended for ever.
The principal town of the Gothic kingdom was Toulouse, where the
royal treasure was also kept; Euric from time to time also held court in
Bordeaux, Alaric II in Narbonne. The Gothic rule originally stretched,
as has been already mentioned, as far as the province of Aquitanica


## p. 287 (#317) ############################################

Goths and Romans
287
Secunda and some bordering municipalities, among which was the
district of Toulouse, but later on it extended not only over the whole
territory of the Gallic provinces, but in addition to several parts of the
provinces Viennensis, Narbonensis Secunda, Alpes Maritimae, and
Lugdunensis Tertia. The Gothic possessions included also the greater
part of the Iberian peninsula, i. e. the provinces of Baetica, Lusitania,
Tarraconensis and Carthaginensis. The provinces named were in Roman
times, in so far as it was a question of civil administration, governed by
consulares or praesides, and they were again divided into city-districts
(civitates or municipia). Under the sovereignty of the Goths this
constitution was maintained in its chief features.
The inhabitants of the kingdom of Toulouse were composed of two
races—the Goths and the Romans. The Goths were regarded by the
Romans as foreigners so long as the federal connexion remained in force,
yet both peoples lived side by side, each under its own law and jurisdic-
tion: intermarriage was forbidden. This rigid line of separation was
adhered to even when the Goths had shaken off the imperial suzerainty
and the Gothic king had become the sovereign of the native population
of Gaul. Theoretically, the Romans had equal privileges in the State;
thus they were not treated as a conquered people without rights, as
the Vandals and Langobards (Lombards) dealt with the inhabitants of
Africa and Italy.