During nine years the peace
remained
un- the whole empire.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - a
et Theodosio II.
.
Coss,
against his son Constans ; and he entered Italy at Theodosio Aug. IV. Cons. )
[W. P. ]
the head of a strong army, his secret intention
being to depose Honorius and to make himself
master of the whole Western empire. He had
halted under the walls of Verona, when he was
suddenly recalled to Gaul by the rebellion of his
general, Gerontius, who, having the command of
the army in Spain, persuaded the troops to support
his revolt. In a short time, Gerontius was master
of Spain ; but, instead of assuming the purple,
COMOR
he had his friend Maximus proclaimed emperor,
and hastened into Gaul, where Constantine had
COIN OF CONSTANTINUS, THE TYRANT.
just arrived from Italy. Constans, the son of CONSTANTI'NUS I. , FLAVIUS VALE'-
Constantine, was taken prisoner at Vienna, and RIUS AUREʼLIUS, surnamed MAGNUS or
put to death, and his father shut himself up in “the Great,” Roman emperor, A. D. 306-337, the
Arles, where he was besieged by Gerontius. This eldest son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus by
state of things was suddenly changed by the arrival his first wife Helena. His descent and the prin-
of Constantius, the general of Honorius, with an cipal members of his family are represented in the
army strong enough to compel Gerontius to raise following genealogical table :-
RESMODIO
SAR
ACCS.
Crispus, brother of the emperors Claudius II. and Quintilius.
Claudia, married Eutropius.
Constantius Chlorus, Augustus in A. D. 305; died at York in A. D. 306; married 1. Helena the Saint,
2. Theodora
CONSTANTINUS MAGNUS. Married, 1. Minervina ; 2. Fausta,
daughter of the emperor Galerius and his second wife Eutropia.
Further issue of Constantius Chlo
rus by Theodora, see below,
1. Crispus;
Caesar, 316;
put to death
by order of
his father,
326; married
Helena;
issue un-
known.
2. Constantinus 3. Constantius II. ; 4. Constans; 5. Constantius or Constantia ;
II. , surnamed the born, 317; Caesar, born, 320; married 1. her kinsman Han-
Younger; born, 326(? ); Emperor, Caesar, 333 nibalianus, king of Pontus;
312; Caesar, 337; sole Emp. (335? ); 2. Constantine Gallus, emp.
316 ; Emperor, 353; died, 361; Emp. 337; 6. Constantia or Constantina ;
337; died, 340. mart. 1. unknown; killed, 350;
Twice mar- 2. Flavia Aurelia marr. Olym- 7. Helena, Flavia Maximiana ;
ried (? ); no
Eusebia; 3. Maxi- pia ; no issue
married the emperor Julian,
issue known. ma Faustina. known.
her kinsman.
.
Flavia Maxima Constantia, married the emperor Gratianus.
nun.
## p. 832 (#852) ############################################
832
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
From above. Further issue of CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS by his second wife, Thcodora.
I
1. Constantinus, murdered
by the emperor Constan-
tius II. ; no issue known.
2. Dalmatius Flavius
Hannibalianus ; time
of death unknown.
3. Constantius, Consul, 335; murdered
by the emperor Constantius ; married,
1. Galla ; 2. Basilina.
1. Dalmatius, Flavius Julius, Consul in
A. D. 333.
Put to death by the em-
peror Constantine the Younger in 339
or 340 ; no issue known.
2. Hannibalianus, Flavius Claudius, king of
Pontus; married Constantina, eldest daughter
of Constantine the Great; perished in the
wholesale murder of his kinsmen.
A Son,
killed
by the
emperor
Constan-
tius II.
in 341.
2. Gallus, Flavius Julius, born in
325; Caesar, 34) ; disobedient ;
put to death by the emperor Con-
stantius II. near Pola, in Istria, in
354; married Constantina, widow
of Hannibalianus and eldest daugh-
ter of Constantine the Great.
3. A
daugh-
ter, mar-
ried the
emperor
Constan-
tius.
4. Julianus, surnamed the Apostate ;
born 332 (? ); Caesar, 355 ; succeeded
Constantius in 361; killed in the Per-
sian war, 26th of June, 363. Married
Helena, Flavia Maximiana, youngest
daughter of Constantine the Great ;
left issue whose fute is unknown.
From above. Further issue of CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS by Theodora.
4. Constantia or Constantina (CoN- 5. Anastasia, married Bassianus Caesar, 6. Eutropia, mar-
STANTIA] Flavia Valeria, married and after his death, probably, Lucius Ra- ried Popilius Ne
in 313 Valeria Licinianus Licinius, mius Aconitus Optatus, consul.
potianus, consul.
Augustus; died between 328 and 330.
1
Flavius Licinianus Licinius, put to Flavius Popilius Nepotianus; assumed the purple in Gaul
death by Constantine the Great.
in 350 ; killed at Rome in the same year.
Constantine was born in the month of February, position as a kind of hostage he was exposed to
A. n. 272. There are many different opinions re- the machinations of the ambitious, the jealous, and
specting his birth-place; but it is most probable, the designing; and the dangers by which he was
and it is now generally believed, that he was born surrounded increased after the abdication of Dio-
at. Naissus, now Nissa, a well-known town in cletian and Maximian and the accession of his
Dardania or the upper and southern part of Moesia father and Galerius as emperors (A. D. 305). He
Superior. *
continued to live in the East under the eyes of
Constantine was distinguished by the choicest | Galerius, whose jealousy of the superior qualities
gifts of nature, but his education was chiefly of Constantine was so great, that he meditated his
military. When his father obtained the supreme ruin by exposing him to personal dangers, from
command in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, he did not which Constantine, however, escaped unhurt. In
accompany him, but remained with the emperor such circumstances he was compelled to cultivate
Diocletian as a kind of hostage for the fidelity of and improve his natural prudence and sagacity,
his parent, and he attended that emperor on his and to accustom himself to that reserve and dis-
celebrated expedition in Egypt. After the capture cretion to which he afterwards owed a considerable
of Alexandria and the pacification of that country part of his greatness, and which was the more re-
in A. D. 296, Constantine served under Galerius in markable in him as he was naturally of a most
the Persian war, which resulted in the conquest lively disposition. The jealousy of Galerius be-
and final cession to the Romans of Iberia, Arme came conspicuous when he conferred the dignity of
nia, Mesopotamia, and the adjoining countries, for Caesar upon his sons, Severus and Maximin, a
which Diocletian and Maximian celebrated a dignity to which Constantine seemed to be en-
triumph in Rome in 303. In these wars Constan- titled by his birth and merits, but which was
tine distinguished himself so much by personal withheld from him by Galerius and not conferred
courage as well as by higher military talents, that upon him by his father. In this, however, Con-
he became the favourite of the army, and was as stantius Chlorus acted wisely, for as his son was
a reward appointed tribunus militum of the first still in the hands of Galerius, he would have
class. But he was not allowed to enjoy quietly caused his immediate ruin had he proclaimed him
the honours which he so justly deserved. In his Caesar; so that if Constantine spoke of disappoint-
ment he could only feel disappointed at not being
Stephanus Byzantinus (s. v. Načocós) calls in the camp of his father. To bring him thither
this town Κτίσμα και πατρίς Κωνσταντίνου του became now the great object of the policy of both
Barthéw's, meaning by Krioua that that town was father and son. Negotiations were carried on for
enlarged and embellished by Constantine, which that purpose with Galerius, who, aware of the
was the case. The opinion that Constantine was consequences of the departure of Constantine, de
born in Britain is ably refuted in Schöpfiin's dis-layed his consent by every means in his power,
sertation, “ Constantinus Magnus non fuit Britan- | till at last his pretexts were exhausted, and he was
nus,” contained in the author's “ Conimentationes obliged to allow him to join his father. Jusily
Historicae," Pasel, 1741, 4to.
afraid of being detained once more, or of being cut
## p. 833 (#853) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
833
CONSTANTINUS.
:
off by treachery on his journey, Constantine had acknowledged as Augustus by Maximian and
no sooner obtained the permission of Galerius than Maxentius. But before long serious quarrels broke
he departed from Nicomedeia, where they both out between Maxentius and Maximian ; the latter
resided, without taking leave of the emperor, and was forced by his son to fly from Rome, and
travelled through Thrace, Illyricum, Pannonia, finally took refuge with Constantine, by whom he
and Gaul with all possible speed, till he reached was well received. Maximian once more abdi-
his father at Boulogne just in time to accompany cated the throne ; but during the absence of Con-
him to Britain on bis expedition against the Picts, stantine, who was then on the Rhine, he re-
and to be present at his death at York (25th of assumed the purple, and entered into secret
July, 306). Before dying, Constantius declared negotiations with his son Maxentius for the pur-
his son as his successor.
pose of ruining Constantine. He was surprised in
The moment for seizing the supreme power, or his plots by Constantine, who on the news of his
for shrinking back into death or obscurity, hnd rebellion had left the Rhine, and embarking his
now come for Constantine. He was renowned for troops in boats, descended the Saone and Rhône,
his victories in the East, admired by the legions, appeared under the walls of Arles, where Maxi-
and beloved by the subjects, both heathen and mian then resided, and forced him to take refuge
Christian, of Constantius, who did not hesitate to in Marseilles. That town was immediately be-
believe that the son would follow the example of sieged; the inhabitants gave up Maximian, and
justice, toleration, and energy set by the father. Constantine quelled the rebellion by one of those
The legions proclaimed him emperor ; the barbarian acts of bloody energy which the world hesitates to
auxiliaries, headed by Crocus, king of the Alemanni, call murder, since the kings of the world cannot
acknowledged him; yet he hesitated to place the maintain themselves on their thrones without blood.
fatal diadem on his head. But his hesitation was Maximian was put to death (A. D. 309); he had
mere pretence; he was well prepared for the deserved punishment, yet he was the father of
event, and in the quick energy with which he Constantine's wife. [MAXIMIANUS. )
acted, he gave a sample of that marvellous combi- The authority of Constantine was now unre-
nation of boldness, cunning, and wisdom in which strained in his dominions. He generally resided
but a few great men have surpassed him. In a at Trier (Trèves), and was greatly beloved by
conciliatory letter to Galerius, he protested that he his subjects on account of his excellent adminis
had not taken the purple on his own account, but | tration. The inroads of the barbarians were
thut he had been pressed by the troops to do so, punished by him with great severity : the captive
and he solicited to be acknowledged as Augustus. chiefs of the Franks were devoured by wild beasts
At the same time he made preparations to take in the circus of Trier, and many robbers or rebels
the field with all his father's forces, if Galerius suffered the same barbarous punishment. These
should refuse to grant him his request. But Ga- occasional cruelties did not prejudice him in the
lerius dreaded a struggle with the brave legions of eyes of the people, and among the emperors who
the West, headed by a man like Constantine. He then ruled the world Constantine was undoubtedly
disguised his resentment, and acknowledged Con- the most beloved, a circumstance which was of
stantine as master of the countries beyond the great advantage to him when he began his struggle
Alps, but with the title of Caesar only: hc con- with his rivals. This struggle commenced with
ferred the dignity of Augustus upon his own son Maxentius, who pretended to feel resentment for
Severus.
the death of his father, insulted Constantine, and
The peace in the empire was of short duration from insults proceeded to hostile demonstrations.
The rapacity of Galerius, his absence from the With a large force assembled in Italy he intended
capital of the empire, and probably also the ex- to invade Gaul, but so great was the aversion of
ample of Constantine, caused a rebellion in Rome, his subjects to his cruel and rapacious character,
which resulted in Maxentius, the son of Maximian, that Roman deputies appeared before Constantine
seizing the purple ; and when Maximian was imploring him to deliver them from a tyrant.
informed of it, he left his retirement and reassumed Constantine was well aware of the dangers to
the diadem, which he had formerly renounced with which he exposed himself by attacking Maxentius,
his colleague Diocletian. The consequence of their who was obeyed by a numerous army, chiefly com-
rebellion was a war with Galerius, whose son, posed of veterans, who had fought under Diocletian
Severus Augustus, entered Italy with a powerful and Maximian. At the same time, the army of
force; but he was shut up in Ravenna ; and, un- Constantine was well disciplined and accustomed
able to defend the town or to escape, he surren- to fight with the brave barbarians of Germany, and
dered himself up to the besiegers, and was while his rival was only obeyed by soldiers he met
treacherously put to death by order of Maxentius. with obedience among both his troops and his
(A. D. 307. ) Galerius chose C. Valerius Licini- subjects. To win the affections of the people he
anus Licinius as Augustus instead of Severus, and protected the Christians in his own dominions,
he was forced to acknowledge the claims of Maxi- and he persuaded Galerius and Maximin to put a
min likewise, who had been proclaimed Augustus stop to the persecutions to which they were ex-
by the legions under his command, which were posed in the East. This was a measure of pru-
stationed in Syria and Egypt. The Roman em- dence, but the Christians in their joy, which
pire thus obeyed six masters: Galerius, Licinius, increased in proportion as Constantine gave them
and Maximin in the East, and Maximian, Maxen- still more proofs of his conviction, that Christianity
tins, and Constantine in the West (308). The had become a moral element in the nations which
union between the masters of the West was would give power to him who understood how to
cemented by the marriage of Constantine, whose wield it, attributed the politic conduct of their
first wife Minervina was dead, with Fausta, the master to divine inspiration, and thus the fable
daughter of Maximian, which took place as early became believed, that on his march to Italy, either
as 306; and at the same time Constantine was at Autun in France, or at Verona, or near Ander-
Зн
## p. 834 (#854) ############################################
634
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
nach on the Rhine in Germany as some pretend, I of the Roman empire. llis fame as a great mon-
Constantine had a vision, secing in his sleep a arch, distinguished both by civil and military abi-
cross with the inscription èv TOÚTIV vira. Thus, it lities, increased cvery year, and the consciousness
is said, he adopted the cross, and in that sign was of his talents and power induced him to make a
victorious. *
final struggle for the undivided government of the
Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps (Mount empirc. In 323, he declared war against Licinius,
Cénis), defeated the vanguard of Maxentius at who was then advanced in years and was detested
Turin, entered Milan, and laid seige to Verona, for his cruelties, but whose land forces were equal
under the walls of which Maxentius suffered a to those of Constantine, while his navy was more
severe defeat.
Another battle fought near Roine numerous and manned with more experienced
on the 28th of October, 312, decided the fate of sailors. The first battle took place near Adrianople
Maxentius : his army was completely routed, and on the 3rd of July, 323. Each of the emperors
while he tried to escape over the Milvian bridge had above a hundred thousand men under his com-
into Rome, he was driven by the throng of the mand; but, after a hard struggle, in which Con-
fugitives into the Tiber and perished in the river. stantine gare fresh proofs of his skill and personal
[MAXENTIUS. ] Constantine entered Rome, and courage, Licinius was routed with grcat slaughter,
displayed great activity in restoring peace to that his fortified camp was stormed, and he fled to Bys
city, and in removing the causes of the frequent zantium. Constantine followed him thither, and
disturbances by which Rome had been shaken while he laid siege to the town, his eldest son
during the reign of Maxentius; he disbanded the Crispus forced the entrance of the Hellespont, and
body of the Praetorians, and in order that the in a three days' battle defeated Amandus, the ad-
empire might derive some advantage from the ex- miral of Licinius, who lost one-third of his feet.
istence of the senators, he subjected them and their Unable to defend Byzantium with success, Licinius
families to a heavy poll-tax. He also accepted went to Bithynia, assembled his troops, and offered
the title of Pontifex Maximus, which shews that a second battle, which was fought at Chrysopolis,
at that time he had not the slightest intention of now Skutari, opposite Byzantium. Constantino
elevating Christianity at the expense of Paganism. obtained a complete victory, and Licinius fled to
The fruit of Constantine's victories was the un- Nicomedeia. He surrendered himself on condition
disputed mastership of the whole western part of of having his life spared, a promise which Con-
the empire, with its ancient capital, Rome, which, stantine made on the intercession of his sister Con
however, had then ceased to be the ordinary resi- stantina, the wife of Licinius; but, after spending
dence of the emperors. At the same time, impor- a short time in false security at Thessalonica, the
tant events took place in the East. The emperor place of his exile, he was put to death by order of
Galerius died in a. D. 311, and Licinius, having his fortunate rival. We cannot believe that he
united his dominions with his own, was involved was killed for forming a conspiracy; the cause of
in a war with Maximin, who, after having taken his death was undoubtedly the dangerous import-
Byzantium by surprise, was defeated in several ance of his person. (Licinius; CONSTANTINA. ]
battles, and died, on his flight to Egypt, at Tarsus Constantine acted towards his memory as, during
in Cilicia, in 313. [MAXIMINUS. ] Thus Licinius the restoration in France, the memory of Napoleon
became sole master of the whole East, and the em- was treated by the Bourbons : his reign was con-
pire had now only two heads. In the following sidered as an usurpation, his laws were declared
year, 314, a war broke out between Licinius and void, and infamy was cast upon his name.
Constantine. At Cibalis, a town on the junction Constantine was now sole master of the empire,
of the Sau with the Danube, in the southernmost and the measures which he adopted to maintain
part of Pannonia, Constantine defeated his rival himself in his lofty station were as vigorous, though
with an inferior force ; a second battle, at Mardia | less bloody, as those by which he succeeded in at-
in Thrace, was indecisive, but the loss which Lici- taining the great object of his ambition. The
nius sustained was immense, and he sought for West and the East of the empire had gradually
peace. This was readily granted him by Constan- become more distinct from each other, and as each
tine, who perhaps felt himself not strong enough of those great divisions had already been governed
to drive his rival to extremities; but, satisfied during a considerable period by different rulers,
with the acquisition of Illyricum, Pannonia, and that distinction became dangerous for the integrity
Greece, which Licinius ceded to him, he establish- of the whole, in proportion as the people were
ed a kind of mock friendship between them by accustomed to look upon each other as belong-
giving to Licinius the hand of his sister Constan- ing to either of those divisions, rather than to
tina.
During nine years the peace remained un- the whole empire. Rome was only a nomi-
disturbed, a time which Constantine employed in nal capital, and Italy, corrupted by luxury and
reforming the administration of the empire by vices, had ceased to be the source of Roman gran-
those laws of which we shall speak below, and in deur. Constantine felt the necessity of creating a
defending the northern frontiers against the in- new centre of the empire, and, after some hesita-
roads of the barbarians. Illyricum and Pannonia tion, chose that city which down to the present
were the principal theatres of these devastations, day is a gate both to the East and the West. He
and among the various barbarians that dwelt north made Byzantium the capital of the empire and the
of the Danube and the Black Sea, the Goths, who residence of the emperors, and called it after his
had occupied Dacia, were the most dangerous. own name, Constantinople, or the city of Constan-
Constantine chastised them several times in Illyri- tine. The solemn inauguration Constantinople
cum, and finally crossed the Danube, entered took place in a. D. 330, according to Idatius and
Dacia, and compelled them to respect the dignity the Chronicon Alexandrinum. The possibility of
Rome ceasing to be the capital of the Roman em-
Compare “ Dissertation sur la Vision de Con- pire, bad been already observed by Tacitus, who
etantin le Grand,” by Du Voisin, bishop of Nantes. says (Hisl. i. 4), “ Evulgato imperii arcano, posse
:
## p. 835 (#855) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
835
principem alibi quam Romae fieri. ” Constantinople have stung him to the quick. That a father should
was enlarged and embellished by Constantine and order his own son to be put to death is certainly
his successors; but when it is said that it equalled repulsive to our feelings, but it is rash and incon-
Rome in splendour, the cause must partly be attri- siderate to assert that Crispus was innocent. It
buted to the fact, that the beauty of Constantino- is to me highly probable that Constantine himself
ple was ever increasing, while that of Rome was was quite convinced of his son's guilt: I infer this
constantly decreasing under the rough hands of from his conduct towards the three step-brothers
her barbarian conquerors. (Comp. Ciampini, De of Crispus, whom he always treated with the high-
Sacris Aedificiis a Constantino Magno constructis. ) est respect, and his unity and harmony with his
By making Constantinople the residence of the sons is truly exemplary. It is related that Fausta
emperors, the centre of the empire was removed was suffocated, by Constantine's command, by the
from the Latin world to the Greek; and although steam of a bath; but Gibbon has raised some
Latin continued to be the official language for se weighty doubts about this incredible and unac-
veral centuries, the influence of Greek civilization countable act, and I cannot therefore attach any
soon obtained such an ascendancy over the Latin, importance to the story. "
that while the Roman empiro perished by the bar- During the latter part of his reign, Constantine
barians in the West, it was changed into a Greek enjoyed his power in peace. As early as 315,
empire by the Greeks in the East. There was, Arius denied at Alexandria the divinity of Christ.
however, such a prestige of grandeur connected His doctrine, which afterwards gave rise to so
with Rome, that down to the capture of Constan- many troubles and wars, was condemned by the
tinople by the Turks, in 1453, the rulers of the general council assembled at Nicaea in 325, one of
Enstern empire retained the name of Roman em- the most important events in ecclesiastical history.
perors as a title by which they thought that they Constantine protected the orthodox fathers, though
inherited the government of the world. The same he must be looked upon as still a Pagan, but he
title and the same presumption were assumed by did not persecute the Arians; and the dissensions
the kings of the German barbarians, seated on the of a church to which he did not belong, did not
ruins of Rome, and they were the pride of their occupy much of his attention, since the domestic
successors till the downfall of the Holy Roman peace of the empire was not yet in danger from
empire in Germany in 1806.
them. Notwithstanding the tranquillity of the
The year 324 was signalized by an event which empire, the evident result of a man of his genius
caused the greatest consternation in the empire, being the sole ruler, Constantine felt that none
and which in the opinion of many writers has of his sons was his equal ; and by dividing his
thrown indelible disgrace upon Constantine. His empire among them, he hoped to remove the
accomplished son, Crispus, whose virtues and glory causes of troubles like those to which he
would perhaps have been the joy of a father, but owed his own accession. He therefore assigned
for their rendering him popular with the nation, to Constantine, the eldest, the administration of
and producing ambition in the mind of Crispus Gaul, Britain, Spain, and Tingitania; to Con-
himself, was accused of high treason, and, during stantius, the second, Egypt and the Asiatic pro-
the celebration at Rome of the twentieth anniver- vinces, except the countries given to Hanniba-
sary of Constantine's victory over Maxentius, was lianus; to Constans, the youngest, Italy, Western
arrested and sent to Pola in Istria. There he was Illyricum, and the rest of Africa : they all received
put to death. Licinius Caesar, the son of the em- the title of Augustus. He conferred the title of
peror Licinius and Constantina, the sister of Con- Caesar upon his nephew Dalmatius, who obtained
stantine, was accused of the same crime, and the administration of Eastern Illyricum, Macedo-
suffered the same fate. Many other persons ac- nia, Thrace, and Greece ; and his nephew Hanni-
cused of being connected with the conspiracy were balianus, who received the new title of Nobilissi-
likewise punished with death. It is said, that mus, was placed over Pontus, Cappadocia, and
Crispus had been calumniated by his step-mother, Armenia Minor, with Caesareia as capital. They
Fausta, and that Constantine, repenting the inno- were to govern the empire, after his death, as a
cent death of his son, and discorering that Fausta joint property. Among the three Augusti, Con-
lived in criminal intercourse with a slave, com- stantine, the eldest, was to be the first in rank,
manded her to be suffocated in a warm bath. As but they were to be equal in authority: the Caesar
our space does not allow us to present more than a and the Nobilissimus, though sovereign in their
short sketch of these complicated events, some ad dominions, were inferior in rank, and, with regard
ditions to which are given in the lives of Priscus to the administration of the whole empire, in au-
and Fausta, we refer the reader to the opinion thority also to the Augusti. The failure of this plan
of Niebuhr, who remarks (History of Rome, ed. by of Constantine’s is related in the lives of his sons
Dr. L. Schmitz, vol. v. p. 360), “ Every one knows In 337, Constantine was going to take the field
the miserable death of Constantine's son, Crispus, against Sapor II. , king of Persia, who claimed the
who was sent into exile to Pola, and then put to provinces taken from him by Galerius and Maxi-
death. If however people will make a tragedy of inian. But his health was bad ; and having re-
this event, I must confess that I do not see how it tired to Nicomedeia for the sake of the air and the
can be proved that Crispus was innocent. When waters, he died there, after a short illness, on the
I read of so many insurrections of sons against 22nd of May, 337. Shortly before his death, he
their fathers, I do not see why Crispus, who was declared his intention of becoming a Christian, and
Caesar, and demanded the title of Augustus, which I was accordingly baptized. His death was the sig.
his father refused him, should not have thought,- nal for the massacre of nearly all his kinsmen,
"Well
, if I do not make anything of myself, my which was contrived by his own sons, and subse-
father will not, for he will certainly prefer the sons quently of the violent death of two of his sons,
of Fausta to me, the son of a repudiated woman. ' while the second, Constantius, succeeded in be-
Such a thought, if it did occur to Crispus, must coming sole emperor.
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## p. 836 (#856) ############################################
836
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
tum.
The following were the most important of the cerns as a secretary for home affairs; the Quaestor,
laws and regulations of Constantine. He devel- or Lord Chancellor and Scal-Keeper; the Comes
oped and brought to perfection the hierarchical Sacrarum Largitionum, or Chancellor of the Ex-
bystem of state dignities established by Diocletian chequer for the public revenue; the Comes Rerum
on the model of the Eastern courts, and of which Privatarum Divinae Domus for the private pro-
the details are contained in the Notitia Dignita- perty of the emperor ; and, finally, two Comites
The principal officers were divided into Domesticorum, or simply Domestici, the com-
three classes : the Illustres, the Spectabiles, and the manders of the imperial life-guard. For further
Clarissimi ; for officers of a lower rank other titles details we refer to the authorities enumerated at
were invented, the pompous sounds of which con- the end of this article, and to Gutherius, “ De
trasted strangely with the pettiness of the func- Officiis Domus Augustae. ”
tions of the bearers. The consulship was a mere
Constantine deserves the name of Great: he rose
title, and so was the dignity of patricius; both of to the highest pinnacle of power, and owed his for-
these titles were in later years often conferred tune to nobody but himself. His birth was a source
upon barbarians. The number of public officers of dangers to him; his exalted qualities caused
was immense, and they all derived their authority jealousy among his enemies, and during the greater
from the supreme chief of the empire, who could part of his reign his life was one continued struggle.
thus depend upon a host of men raised by their He overcame all obstacles through his own exer-
education above the lower classes, and who, hav- tions; his skill vanquished his enemies ; his
ing generally nothing but their appointments, were energy kept the hydra of anarchy headless; his
obliged to do all in their power to prevent revolu- prudence conducted him in safety through con-
tions, by which they would have been deprived spiracies, rebellions, battles, and murder, to the
of their livelihood. A similar artificial system, throne of Rome ; his wisdom created a new organi-
strengthening the government, is established, in zation for an empire, which consisted of huge frag-
our days, in Prussia, Austria, France, and most of ments, and which no human hand seemed powerful
the states of Europe. The dignity and dangerous enough to raise to a solid edifice. Christianity
military power of the praefecti praetorio were abo- was made by him the religion of the state, but
lished. Under Diocletian and Maximian there Paganism was not persecuted though discouraged.
were four praefecti, but they were only lieutenants The Christianity of the emperor himself has been
of the two Augusti and their two Caesars. Con- a subject of warm controversy both in ancient and
stantine continued the number, and limited their modern times, but the graphic account which
power by making them civil officers : under him Niebuhr gives of Constantine's belief seems to be
there was the Praefectus Orienti over the Asiatic perfectly just. Speaking of the murder of Licinius
provinces and Thrace; the Praefectus Italiae, over and his own son Crispus, Niebuhr remarks (Hist. of
Italy, Rhaetia, Noricum, and Africa between Rome, vol. v. p. 359), “ Many judge of him by
Egypt and Tingitanja; the Praefectus Illyrico, too severe a standard, because they look upon him
who had Illyricum, Pannon Macedonia, and as a Christian; but I cannot regard him in that
Greece; and the Praefectus Galliae, over Gaul, light. The religion which he had in his head
Britain, Spain, and Tingitania or the westernmost must have been a strange compound indeed. The
part of Africa. Rome and Constantinople had man who had on his coins the inscription Sol
each their separate praefect. Under the praefecti invictus, who worshipped pagan divinities, consult
there were thirteen high functionaries, who were ed the haruspices, indulged in a number of pagan
civil governors of the thirteen dioceses into which superstitions, and, on the other band, built
the empire was divided, and who had either the churches, shut up pagan temples, and interfered
title of comes or count, or of vicarius or vice-prae- with the council of Nicaea, must have been a re-
fecta Between these officers and the praefecti pulsive phaenomenon, and was certainly not a
there were three proconsuls, of Asia, Achaia, and Christian. He did not allow himself to be bap-
Africa, who however were but governors of pro tized till the last moments of his life, and those
vinces, the whole number of which was one hun who praise him for this do not know what they
dred and sixteen, and which were governed, be are doing. He was a superstitious man, and
sides the proconsuls, by thirty-seven consulares, mixed up his Christian religion with all kinds of
five correctores, and seventy-one presidentes. absurd superstitions and opinions. When, there
The military administration was entirely sepa- fore, certain Oriental writers call him loanootoAOS
rated from the civil, and as the Praefecti Praetorio they do not know what they are saying, and to
were changed into civil officers, as has been men- speak of him as a saint is a profanation of the word. ”
tioned above, the supreme military command was The blame which falls upon Constantine for the
conferred at first upon two, then four, and finally death of Maximian, Licinius, and Crispus, will fall
eight Magistri Militum, under whom were the upon many kings, and we have only fabulous ac-
military Comites and Duces. The number of counts of the mental sufferings which his bloody
legions was diminished, but the army was never- deeds might have caused him. Constantine was
theless much increased, especially by barbarian not so great during the latter part of his reign.
auxiliaries, a dangerous practice, which hastened In proportion as he advanced in years he lost that
the overthrow of the Western and shook the
serene generosity which had distinguished him
Eastern empire to its foundations. The increase while he was younger; his temper grew acrimonious,
of the army rendered various oppressive taxes and he gave way to passionate bursts of resent-
necessary, which were unequally assessed, and ment which he would have suppressed while he was
caused many revolts. There were seven high in the bloom of manhood. He felt that the gran-
functionaries, who may be compared with some of deur of Rome could be maintained only in the
the great officers of state in our country, viz, the East, and he founded Constantinople; but the
Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi, or Lord Chamberlain ; spirit of the East overwhelmed him, and he sacri-
the Magister Officiorum, who acted in many con- ficed the heroic majesty of a Roman emperor 10
## p. 837 (#857) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
837
CONSTANTINUS.
:
PVC
the showy pomp and the vain ceremonies of an Constantine, he received some exterior marks of
Asiatic court. His life is an example of a great respect from the other emperors, but he had 110
historical lesson : the West may conquer the East, authority over them. Dissatisfied with his share
but the conqueror will die on his trophies by the of the spoil
, he exacted from his younger brother
poison of sensuality.
Constans the rest of Africa and the co-administra-
As Constantine the Great was a successful tion of Italy. Constans refused to give up those
political reformer, and the protector of a new provinces. Constantine declared war against him,
religion, he has received as much undeserved re- and invaded Italy by sea and by land, and
proaches as praise ; the Christian writers generally at Aquileia met with the army of Constans, who
deified him, and the Pagan historians have cast approached from Dacia. Having raslly pursued
infamy on his memory. To judge him fairly was the enemy when they gave way in a mock flight,
reserved for the historians of later times.
Constantine was suddenly surrounded by them and
(Euseb. Vita Constantini ; Eutrop. lib. x. ; fell under their swords. (A. D. 340. ) His body was
Sextus Rufus, Brev. 26; Aurel. Vict. Epit. 40, thrown into the river Alsa, but was afterwards
41, de Cacs. 40, &c. ; Zosim. lib. ii. , Zosimus is found and buried with royal honours. He was
a violent antagonist of Constantine ; Zonar. lib. twice married, but the names of his wives are not
xiii. ; Lactant. de Mort. Persecut. 24—52; Oros. known; they probably both died before him, and he
lib. vii. ; Amm. Marc. lib. xiv. , &c. , Excerpta, p. left no issue. An unknown author pronounced a
710, &c. , ed. Valesius. The accounts of, and the monody on his death, which is contained in Ha-
opinions on, Constantine given by Eumenius, vercamp's edition of Eutropius. (Zosim. lib. ii. ;
Nazarius, &c. , in the Panegyrics (especially vi. - Zonar. lib. xiii. ; Euseb. Vita Const. iv. 40-49;
xi. ), and by the emperor Julian, in his Caesars as Prosper, Chron. Acyndino et Proculo Coss; more
well as in his Orations, are of great importance, authorities are given in the lives of his brothers,
but full of partiality : Julian treats Constantine Constantius and Constans. )
[W. P. ]
very badly, and the Panegyrics are what their
name indicates. Among the ecclesiastical writers,
Eusebius, Lactantius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theo-
phanes, &c. , are the principal; but it has already
been observed that their statements must be pe
rused with great precaution. The Life of Constan-
tine by Praxagoras, which was known to the
Byzantines, is lost. Besides these sources, there
is scarcely a writer of the time of Constantine and
COIN OF CONSTANTINUS II.
the following centuries, who does not give some CONSTANTI'NUS III. , FLAVIUS HE-
account of Constantine; and even in the works of RA'CLIUS, called NOVUS CONSTANTI'NUS,
the later Byzantines, such as Constantine Porphy- emperor of the East, A. D. 641, the son of the emperor
rogenitus and Cedrenus, we find valuable additions Heraclius by his first wife, Eudoxia, was born in
to the history of that great emperor. The most com- May, 612, and succeeded his father on the 11th of
plete list of sources, with critical observations, is con- March (February), 641, together with his younger
tained in Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs. See half-brother Heracleonas, the succession being thus
also Manso, Leben Constantins des Grossen. ) [W. P. ] established by the testament of their father. Con-
stantine died as early as the 22nd of June (25th
of May) A. D. 641, after a reign of 103 days, either
from ill-health, or probably from poison adminis-
tered to him by his step-mother Martina. His
successor was his brother Heracleonas. (HERA-
CLEONAS; CONSTANS II. ] Constantine distin-
guished himself personally in a war against the
SARTS
Persians. Advised by his rapacious treasurer,
Philagrius, he sacrilegiously ordered the grave of
COIN OP CONSTANTINUS L
his father to be robbed of a golden crown of seventy
CONSTANTI'NUS II. FLAVIUS CLAU'- pounds' weight, which stuck so fast to the head of
DIUS, surnamed the Younger, Roman emperor, the dead emperor, that the corpse was mutilated
A. D. 3374-340, the second son of Constantine in removing the crown from it. (Theophan. Pp.
the Great, and the first whom he had by his second 251, 275, &c. , ed. Paris; Cedren. p. 430, &c. , ed.
wife, Fausta, was born at Arelatum, now Arles, in Paris ; Zonar. vol. ii. pp. 71, 87, &c. , ed. Paris;
Gaul, on the 7th of August, A. D. 312. As early Glycas, p. 276, ed.
against his son Constans ; and he entered Italy at Theodosio Aug. IV. Cons. )
[W. P. ]
the head of a strong army, his secret intention
being to depose Honorius and to make himself
master of the whole Western empire. He had
halted under the walls of Verona, when he was
suddenly recalled to Gaul by the rebellion of his
general, Gerontius, who, having the command of
the army in Spain, persuaded the troops to support
his revolt. In a short time, Gerontius was master
of Spain ; but, instead of assuming the purple,
COMOR
he had his friend Maximus proclaimed emperor,
and hastened into Gaul, where Constantine had
COIN OF CONSTANTINUS, THE TYRANT.
just arrived from Italy. Constans, the son of CONSTANTI'NUS I. , FLAVIUS VALE'-
Constantine, was taken prisoner at Vienna, and RIUS AUREʼLIUS, surnamed MAGNUS or
put to death, and his father shut himself up in “the Great,” Roman emperor, A. D. 306-337, the
Arles, where he was besieged by Gerontius. This eldest son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus by
state of things was suddenly changed by the arrival his first wife Helena. His descent and the prin-
of Constantius, the general of Honorius, with an cipal members of his family are represented in the
army strong enough to compel Gerontius to raise following genealogical table :-
RESMODIO
SAR
ACCS.
Crispus, brother of the emperors Claudius II. and Quintilius.
Claudia, married Eutropius.
Constantius Chlorus, Augustus in A. D. 305; died at York in A. D. 306; married 1. Helena the Saint,
2. Theodora
CONSTANTINUS MAGNUS. Married, 1. Minervina ; 2. Fausta,
daughter of the emperor Galerius and his second wife Eutropia.
Further issue of Constantius Chlo
rus by Theodora, see below,
1. Crispus;
Caesar, 316;
put to death
by order of
his father,
326; married
Helena;
issue un-
known.
2. Constantinus 3. Constantius II. ; 4. Constans; 5. Constantius or Constantia ;
II. , surnamed the born, 317; Caesar, born, 320; married 1. her kinsman Han-
Younger; born, 326(? ); Emperor, Caesar, 333 nibalianus, king of Pontus;
312; Caesar, 337; sole Emp. (335? ); 2. Constantine Gallus, emp.
316 ; Emperor, 353; died, 361; Emp. 337; 6. Constantia or Constantina ;
337; died, 340. mart. 1. unknown; killed, 350;
Twice mar- 2. Flavia Aurelia marr. Olym- 7. Helena, Flavia Maximiana ;
ried (? ); no
Eusebia; 3. Maxi- pia ; no issue
married the emperor Julian,
issue known. ma Faustina. known.
her kinsman.
.
Flavia Maxima Constantia, married the emperor Gratianus.
nun.
## p. 832 (#852) ############################################
832
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
From above. Further issue of CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS by his second wife, Thcodora.
I
1. Constantinus, murdered
by the emperor Constan-
tius II. ; no issue known.
2. Dalmatius Flavius
Hannibalianus ; time
of death unknown.
3. Constantius, Consul, 335; murdered
by the emperor Constantius ; married,
1. Galla ; 2. Basilina.
1. Dalmatius, Flavius Julius, Consul in
A. D. 333.
Put to death by the em-
peror Constantine the Younger in 339
or 340 ; no issue known.
2. Hannibalianus, Flavius Claudius, king of
Pontus; married Constantina, eldest daughter
of Constantine the Great; perished in the
wholesale murder of his kinsmen.
A Son,
killed
by the
emperor
Constan-
tius II.
in 341.
2. Gallus, Flavius Julius, born in
325; Caesar, 34) ; disobedient ;
put to death by the emperor Con-
stantius II. near Pola, in Istria, in
354; married Constantina, widow
of Hannibalianus and eldest daugh-
ter of Constantine the Great.
3. A
daugh-
ter, mar-
ried the
emperor
Constan-
tius.
4. Julianus, surnamed the Apostate ;
born 332 (? ); Caesar, 355 ; succeeded
Constantius in 361; killed in the Per-
sian war, 26th of June, 363. Married
Helena, Flavia Maximiana, youngest
daughter of Constantine the Great ;
left issue whose fute is unknown.
From above. Further issue of CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS by Theodora.
4. Constantia or Constantina (CoN- 5. Anastasia, married Bassianus Caesar, 6. Eutropia, mar-
STANTIA] Flavia Valeria, married and after his death, probably, Lucius Ra- ried Popilius Ne
in 313 Valeria Licinianus Licinius, mius Aconitus Optatus, consul.
potianus, consul.
Augustus; died between 328 and 330.
1
Flavius Licinianus Licinius, put to Flavius Popilius Nepotianus; assumed the purple in Gaul
death by Constantine the Great.
in 350 ; killed at Rome in the same year.
Constantine was born in the month of February, position as a kind of hostage he was exposed to
A. n. 272. There are many different opinions re- the machinations of the ambitious, the jealous, and
specting his birth-place; but it is most probable, the designing; and the dangers by which he was
and it is now generally believed, that he was born surrounded increased after the abdication of Dio-
at. Naissus, now Nissa, a well-known town in cletian and Maximian and the accession of his
Dardania or the upper and southern part of Moesia father and Galerius as emperors (A. D. 305). He
Superior. *
continued to live in the East under the eyes of
Constantine was distinguished by the choicest | Galerius, whose jealousy of the superior qualities
gifts of nature, but his education was chiefly of Constantine was so great, that he meditated his
military. When his father obtained the supreme ruin by exposing him to personal dangers, from
command in Gaul, Britain, and Spain, he did not which Constantine, however, escaped unhurt. In
accompany him, but remained with the emperor such circumstances he was compelled to cultivate
Diocletian as a kind of hostage for the fidelity of and improve his natural prudence and sagacity,
his parent, and he attended that emperor on his and to accustom himself to that reserve and dis-
celebrated expedition in Egypt. After the capture cretion to which he afterwards owed a considerable
of Alexandria and the pacification of that country part of his greatness, and which was the more re-
in A. D. 296, Constantine served under Galerius in markable in him as he was naturally of a most
the Persian war, which resulted in the conquest lively disposition. The jealousy of Galerius be-
and final cession to the Romans of Iberia, Arme came conspicuous when he conferred the dignity of
nia, Mesopotamia, and the adjoining countries, for Caesar upon his sons, Severus and Maximin, a
which Diocletian and Maximian celebrated a dignity to which Constantine seemed to be en-
triumph in Rome in 303. In these wars Constan- titled by his birth and merits, but which was
tine distinguished himself so much by personal withheld from him by Galerius and not conferred
courage as well as by higher military talents, that upon him by his father. In this, however, Con-
he became the favourite of the army, and was as stantius Chlorus acted wisely, for as his son was
a reward appointed tribunus militum of the first still in the hands of Galerius, he would have
class. But he was not allowed to enjoy quietly caused his immediate ruin had he proclaimed him
the honours which he so justly deserved. In his Caesar; so that if Constantine spoke of disappoint-
ment he could only feel disappointed at not being
Stephanus Byzantinus (s. v. Načocós) calls in the camp of his father. To bring him thither
this town Κτίσμα και πατρίς Κωνσταντίνου του became now the great object of the policy of both
Barthéw's, meaning by Krioua that that town was father and son. Negotiations were carried on for
enlarged and embellished by Constantine, which that purpose with Galerius, who, aware of the
was the case. The opinion that Constantine was consequences of the departure of Constantine, de
born in Britain is ably refuted in Schöpfiin's dis-layed his consent by every means in his power,
sertation, “ Constantinus Magnus non fuit Britan- | till at last his pretexts were exhausted, and he was
nus,” contained in the author's “ Conimentationes obliged to allow him to join his father. Jusily
Historicae," Pasel, 1741, 4to.
afraid of being detained once more, or of being cut
## p. 833 (#853) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
833
CONSTANTINUS.
:
off by treachery on his journey, Constantine had acknowledged as Augustus by Maximian and
no sooner obtained the permission of Galerius than Maxentius. But before long serious quarrels broke
he departed from Nicomedeia, where they both out between Maxentius and Maximian ; the latter
resided, without taking leave of the emperor, and was forced by his son to fly from Rome, and
travelled through Thrace, Illyricum, Pannonia, finally took refuge with Constantine, by whom he
and Gaul with all possible speed, till he reached was well received. Maximian once more abdi-
his father at Boulogne just in time to accompany cated the throne ; but during the absence of Con-
him to Britain on bis expedition against the Picts, stantine, who was then on the Rhine, he re-
and to be present at his death at York (25th of assumed the purple, and entered into secret
July, 306). Before dying, Constantius declared negotiations with his son Maxentius for the pur-
his son as his successor.
pose of ruining Constantine. He was surprised in
The moment for seizing the supreme power, or his plots by Constantine, who on the news of his
for shrinking back into death or obscurity, hnd rebellion had left the Rhine, and embarking his
now come for Constantine. He was renowned for troops in boats, descended the Saone and Rhône,
his victories in the East, admired by the legions, appeared under the walls of Arles, where Maxi-
and beloved by the subjects, both heathen and mian then resided, and forced him to take refuge
Christian, of Constantius, who did not hesitate to in Marseilles. That town was immediately be-
believe that the son would follow the example of sieged; the inhabitants gave up Maximian, and
justice, toleration, and energy set by the father. Constantine quelled the rebellion by one of those
The legions proclaimed him emperor ; the barbarian acts of bloody energy which the world hesitates to
auxiliaries, headed by Crocus, king of the Alemanni, call murder, since the kings of the world cannot
acknowledged him; yet he hesitated to place the maintain themselves on their thrones without blood.
fatal diadem on his head. But his hesitation was Maximian was put to death (A. D. 309); he had
mere pretence; he was well prepared for the deserved punishment, yet he was the father of
event, and in the quick energy with which he Constantine's wife. [MAXIMIANUS. )
acted, he gave a sample of that marvellous combi- The authority of Constantine was now unre-
nation of boldness, cunning, and wisdom in which strained in his dominions. He generally resided
but a few great men have surpassed him. In a at Trier (Trèves), and was greatly beloved by
conciliatory letter to Galerius, he protested that he his subjects on account of his excellent adminis
had not taken the purple on his own account, but | tration. The inroads of the barbarians were
thut he had been pressed by the troops to do so, punished by him with great severity : the captive
and he solicited to be acknowledged as Augustus. chiefs of the Franks were devoured by wild beasts
At the same time he made preparations to take in the circus of Trier, and many robbers or rebels
the field with all his father's forces, if Galerius suffered the same barbarous punishment. These
should refuse to grant him his request. But Ga- occasional cruelties did not prejudice him in the
lerius dreaded a struggle with the brave legions of eyes of the people, and among the emperors who
the West, headed by a man like Constantine. He then ruled the world Constantine was undoubtedly
disguised his resentment, and acknowledged Con- the most beloved, a circumstance which was of
stantine as master of the countries beyond the great advantage to him when he began his struggle
Alps, but with the title of Caesar only: hc con- with his rivals. This struggle commenced with
ferred the dignity of Augustus upon his own son Maxentius, who pretended to feel resentment for
Severus.
the death of his father, insulted Constantine, and
The peace in the empire was of short duration from insults proceeded to hostile demonstrations.
The rapacity of Galerius, his absence from the With a large force assembled in Italy he intended
capital of the empire, and probably also the ex- to invade Gaul, but so great was the aversion of
ample of Constantine, caused a rebellion in Rome, his subjects to his cruel and rapacious character,
which resulted in Maxentius, the son of Maximian, that Roman deputies appeared before Constantine
seizing the purple ; and when Maximian was imploring him to deliver them from a tyrant.
informed of it, he left his retirement and reassumed Constantine was well aware of the dangers to
the diadem, which he had formerly renounced with which he exposed himself by attacking Maxentius,
his colleague Diocletian. The consequence of their who was obeyed by a numerous army, chiefly com-
rebellion was a war with Galerius, whose son, posed of veterans, who had fought under Diocletian
Severus Augustus, entered Italy with a powerful and Maximian. At the same time, the army of
force; but he was shut up in Ravenna ; and, un- Constantine was well disciplined and accustomed
able to defend the town or to escape, he surren- to fight with the brave barbarians of Germany, and
dered himself up to the besiegers, and was while his rival was only obeyed by soldiers he met
treacherously put to death by order of Maxentius. with obedience among both his troops and his
(A. D. 307. ) Galerius chose C. Valerius Licini- subjects. To win the affections of the people he
anus Licinius as Augustus instead of Severus, and protected the Christians in his own dominions,
he was forced to acknowledge the claims of Maxi- and he persuaded Galerius and Maximin to put a
min likewise, who had been proclaimed Augustus stop to the persecutions to which they were ex-
by the legions under his command, which were posed in the East. This was a measure of pru-
stationed in Syria and Egypt. The Roman em- dence, but the Christians in their joy, which
pire thus obeyed six masters: Galerius, Licinius, increased in proportion as Constantine gave them
and Maximin in the East, and Maximian, Maxen- still more proofs of his conviction, that Christianity
tins, and Constantine in the West (308). The had become a moral element in the nations which
union between the masters of the West was would give power to him who understood how to
cemented by the marriage of Constantine, whose wield it, attributed the politic conduct of their
first wife Minervina was dead, with Fausta, the master to divine inspiration, and thus the fable
daughter of Maximian, which took place as early became believed, that on his march to Italy, either
as 306; and at the same time Constantine was at Autun in France, or at Verona, or near Ander-
Зн
## p. 834 (#854) ############################################
634
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
nach on the Rhine in Germany as some pretend, I of the Roman empire. llis fame as a great mon-
Constantine had a vision, secing in his sleep a arch, distinguished both by civil and military abi-
cross with the inscription èv TOÚTIV vira. Thus, it lities, increased cvery year, and the consciousness
is said, he adopted the cross, and in that sign was of his talents and power induced him to make a
victorious. *
final struggle for the undivided government of the
Constantine crossed the Cottian Alps (Mount empirc. In 323, he declared war against Licinius,
Cénis), defeated the vanguard of Maxentius at who was then advanced in years and was detested
Turin, entered Milan, and laid seige to Verona, for his cruelties, but whose land forces were equal
under the walls of which Maxentius suffered a to those of Constantine, while his navy was more
severe defeat.
Another battle fought near Roine numerous and manned with more experienced
on the 28th of October, 312, decided the fate of sailors. The first battle took place near Adrianople
Maxentius : his army was completely routed, and on the 3rd of July, 323. Each of the emperors
while he tried to escape over the Milvian bridge had above a hundred thousand men under his com-
into Rome, he was driven by the throng of the mand; but, after a hard struggle, in which Con-
fugitives into the Tiber and perished in the river. stantine gare fresh proofs of his skill and personal
[MAXENTIUS. ] Constantine entered Rome, and courage, Licinius was routed with grcat slaughter,
displayed great activity in restoring peace to that his fortified camp was stormed, and he fled to Bys
city, and in removing the causes of the frequent zantium. Constantine followed him thither, and
disturbances by which Rome had been shaken while he laid siege to the town, his eldest son
during the reign of Maxentius; he disbanded the Crispus forced the entrance of the Hellespont, and
body of the Praetorians, and in order that the in a three days' battle defeated Amandus, the ad-
empire might derive some advantage from the ex- miral of Licinius, who lost one-third of his feet.
istence of the senators, he subjected them and their Unable to defend Byzantium with success, Licinius
families to a heavy poll-tax. He also accepted went to Bithynia, assembled his troops, and offered
the title of Pontifex Maximus, which shews that a second battle, which was fought at Chrysopolis,
at that time he had not the slightest intention of now Skutari, opposite Byzantium. Constantino
elevating Christianity at the expense of Paganism. obtained a complete victory, and Licinius fled to
The fruit of Constantine's victories was the un- Nicomedeia. He surrendered himself on condition
disputed mastership of the whole western part of of having his life spared, a promise which Con-
the empire, with its ancient capital, Rome, which, stantine made on the intercession of his sister Con
however, had then ceased to be the ordinary resi- stantina, the wife of Licinius; but, after spending
dence of the emperors. At the same time, impor- a short time in false security at Thessalonica, the
tant events took place in the East. The emperor place of his exile, he was put to death by order of
Galerius died in a. D. 311, and Licinius, having his fortunate rival. We cannot believe that he
united his dominions with his own, was involved was killed for forming a conspiracy; the cause of
in a war with Maximin, who, after having taken his death was undoubtedly the dangerous import-
Byzantium by surprise, was defeated in several ance of his person. (Licinius; CONSTANTINA. ]
battles, and died, on his flight to Egypt, at Tarsus Constantine acted towards his memory as, during
in Cilicia, in 313. [MAXIMINUS. ] Thus Licinius the restoration in France, the memory of Napoleon
became sole master of the whole East, and the em- was treated by the Bourbons : his reign was con-
pire had now only two heads. In the following sidered as an usurpation, his laws were declared
year, 314, a war broke out between Licinius and void, and infamy was cast upon his name.
Constantine. At Cibalis, a town on the junction Constantine was now sole master of the empire,
of the Sau with the Danube, in the southernmost and the measures which he adopted to maintain
part of Pannonia, Constantine defeated his rival himself in his lofty station were as vigorous, though
with an inferior force ; a second battle, at Mardia | less bloody, as those by which he succeeded in at-
in Thrace, was indecisive, but the loss which Lici- taining the great object of his ambition. The
nius sustained was immense, and he sought for West and the East of the empire had gradually
peace. This was readily granted him by Constan- become more distinct from each other, and as each
tine, who perhaps felt himself not strong enough of those great divisions had already been governed
to drive his rival to extremities; but, satisfied during a considerable period by different rulers,
with the acquisition of Illyricum, Pannonia, and that distinction became dangerous for the integrity
Greece, which Licinius ceded to him, he establish- of the whole, in proportion as the people were
ed a kind of mock friendship between them by accustomed to look upon each other as belong-
giving to Licinius the hand of his sister Constan- ing to either of those divisions, rather than to
tina.
During nine years the peace remained un- the whole empire. Rome was only a nomi-
disturbed, a time which Constantine employed in nal capital, and Italy, corrupted by luxury and
reforming the administration of the empire by vices, had ceased to be the source of Roman gran-
those laws of which we shall speak below, and in deur. Constantine felt the necessity of creating a
defending the northern frontiers against the in- new centre of the empire, and, after some hesita-
roads of the barbarians. Illyricum and Pannonia tion, chose that city which down to the present
were the principal theatres of these devastations, day is a gate both to the East and the West. He
and among the various barbarians that dwelt north made Byzantium the capital of the empire and the
of the Danube and the Black Sea, the Goths, who residence of the emperors, and called it after his
had occupied Dacia, were the most dangerous. own name, Constantinople, or the city of Constan-
Constantine chastised them several times in Illyri- tine. The solemn inauguration Constantinople
cum, and finally crossed the Danube, entered took place in a. D. 330, according to Idatius and
Dacia, and compelled them to respect the dignity the Chronicon Alexandrinum. The possibility of
Rome ceasing to be the capital of the Roman em-
Compare “ Dissertation sur la Vision de Con- pire, bad been already observed by Tacitus, who
etantin le Grand,” by Du Voisin, bishop of Nantes. says (Hisl. i. 4), “ Evulgato imperii arcano, posse
:
## p. 835 (#855) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
835
principem alibi quam Romae fieri. ” Constantinople have stung him to the quick. That a father should
was enlarged and embellished by Constantine and order his own son to be put to death is certainly
his successors; but when it is said that it equalled repulsive to our feelings, but it is rash and incon-
Rome in splendour, the cause must partly be attri- siderate to assert that Crispus was innocent. It
buted to the fact, that the beauty of Constantino- is to me highly probable that Constantine himself
ple was ever increasing, while that of Rome was was quite convinced of his son's guilt: I infer this
constantly decreasing under the rough hands of from his conduct towards the three step-brothers
her barbarian conquerors. (Comp. Ciampini, De of Crispus, whom he always treated with the high-
Sacris Aedificiis a Constantino Magno constructis. ) est respect, and his unity and harmony with his
By making Constantinople the residence of the sons is truly exemplary. It is related that Fausta
emperors, the centre of the empire was removed was suffocated, by Constantine's command, by the
from the Latin world to the Greek; and although steam of a bath; but Gibbon has raised some
Latin continued to be the official language for se weighty doubts about this incredible and unac-
veral centuries, the influence of Greek civilization countable act, and I cannot therefore attach any
soon obtained such an ascendancy over the Latin, importance to the story. "
that while the Roman empiro perished by the bar- During the latter part of his reign, Constantine
barians in the West, it was changed into a Greek enjoyed his power in peace. As early as 315,
empire by the Greeks in the East. There was, Arius denied at Alexandria the divinity of Christ.
however, such a prestige of grandeur connected His doctrine, which afterwards gave rise to so
with Rome, that down to the capture of Constan- many troubles and wars, was condemned by the
tinople by the Turks, in 1453, the rulers of the general council assembled at Nicaea in 325, one of
Enstern empire retained the name of Roman em- the most important events in ecclesiastical history.
perors as a title by which they thought that they Constantine protected the orthodox fathers, though
inherited the government of the world. The same he must be looked upon as still a Pagan, but he
title and the same presumption were assumed by did not persecute the Arians; and the dissensions
the kings of the German barbarians, seated on the of a church to which he did not belong, did not
ruins of Rome, and they were the pride of their occupy much of his attention, since the domestic
successors till the downfall of the Holy Roman peace of the empire was not yet in danger from
empire in Germany in 1806.
them. Notwithstanding the tranquillity of the
The year 324 was signalized by an event which empire, the evident result of a man of his genius
caused the greatest consternation in the empire, being the sole ruler, Constantine felt that none
and which in the opinion of many writers has of his sons was his equal ; and by dividing his
thrown indelible disgrace upon Constantine. His empire among them, he hoped to remove the
accomplished son, Crispus, whose virtues and glory causes of troubles like those to which he
would perhaps have been the joy of a father, but owed his own accession. He therefore assigned
for their rendering him popular with the nation, to Constantine, the eldest, the administration of
and producing ambition in the mind of Crispus Gaul, Britain, Spain, and Tingitania; to Con-
himself, was accused of high treason, and, during stantius, the second, Egypt and the Asiatic pro-
the celebration at Rome of the twentieth anniver- vinces, except the countries given to Hanniba-
sary of Constantine's victory over Maxentius, was lianus; to Constans, the youngest, Italy, Western
arrested and sent to Pola in Istria. There he was Illyricum, and the rest of Africa : they all received
put to death. Licinius Caesar, the son of the em- the title of Augustus. He conferred the title of
peror Licinius and Constantina, the sister of Con- Caesar upon his nephew Dalmatius, who obtained
stantine, was accused of the same crime, and the administration of Eastern Illyricum, Macedo-
suffered the same fate. Many other persons ac- nia, Thrace, and Greece ; and his nephew Hanni-
cused of being connected with the conspiracy were balianus, who received the new title of Nobilissi-
likewise punished with death. It is said, that mus, was placed over Pontus, Cappadocia, and
Crispus had been calumniated by his step-mother, Armenia Minor, with Caesareia as capital. They
Fausta, and that Constantine, repenting the inno- were to govern the empire, after his death, as a
cent death of his son, and discorering that Fausta joint property. Among the three Augusti, Con-
lived in criminal intercourse with a slave, com- stantine, the eldest, was to be the first in rank,
manded her to be suffocated in a warm bath. As but they were to be equal in authority: the Caesar
our space does not allow us to present more than a and the Nobilissimus, though sovereign in their
short sketch of these complicated events, some ad dominions, were inferior in rank, and, with regard
ditions to which are given in the lives of Priscus to the administration of the whole empire, in au-
and Fausta, we refer the reader to the opinion thority also to the Augusti. The failure of this plan
of Niebuhr, who remarks (History of Rome, ed. by of Constantine’s is related in the lives of his sons
Dr. L. Schmitz, vol. v. p. 360), “ Every one knows In 337, Constantine was going to take the field
the miserable death of Constantine's son, Crispus, against Sapor II. , king of Persia, who claimed the
who was sent into exile to Pola, and then put to provinces taken from him by Galerius and Maxi-
death. If however people will make a tragedy of inian. But his health was bad ; and having re-
this event, I must confess that I do not see how it tired to Nicomedeia for the sake of the air and the
can be proved that Crispus was innocent. When waters, he died there, after a short illness, on the
I read of so many insurrections of sons against 22nd of May, 337. Shortly before his death, he
their fathers, I do not see why Crispus, who was declared his intention of becoming a Christian, and
Caesar, and demanded the title of Augustus, which I was accordingly baptized. His death was the sig.
his father refused him, should not have thought,- nal for the massacre of nearly all his kinsmen,
"Well
, if I do not make anything of myself, my which was contrived by his own sons, and subse-
father will not, for he will certainly prefer the sons quently of the violent death of two of his sons,
of Fausta to me, the son of a repudiated woman. ' while the second, Constantius, succeeded in be-
Such a thought, if it did occur to Crispus, must coming sole emperor.
Зн2
## p. 836 (#856) ############################################
836
CONSTANTINUS.
CONSTANTINUS.
tum.
The following were the most important of the cerns as a secretary for home affairs; the Quaestor,
laws and regulations of Constantine. He devel- or Lord Chancellor and Scal-Keeper; the Comes
oped and brought to perfection the hierarchical Sacrarum Largitionum, or Chancellor of the Ex-
bystem of state dignities established by Diocletian chequer for the public revenue; the Comes Rerum
on the model of the Eastern courts, and of which Privatarum Divinae Domus for the private pro-
the details are contained in the Notitia Dignita- perty of the emperor ; and, finally, two Comites
The principal officers were divided into Domesticorum, or simply Domestici, the com-
three classes : the Illustres, the Spectabiles, and the manders of the imperial life-guard. For further
Clarissimi ; for officers of a lower rank other titles details we refer to the authorities enumerated at
were invented, the pompous sounds of which con- the end of this article, and to Gutherius, “ De
trasted strangely with the pettiness of the func- Officiis Domus Augustae. ”
tions of the bearers. The consulship was a mere
Constantine deserves the name of Great: he rose
title, and so was the dignity of patricius; both of to the highest pinnacle of power, and owed his for-
these titles were in later years often conferred tune to nobody but himself. His birth was a source
upon barbarians. The number of public officers of dangers to him; his exalted qualities caused
was immense, and they all derived their authority jealousy among his enemies, and during the greater
from the supreme chief of the empire, who could part of his reign his life was one continued struggle.
thus depend upon a host of men raised by their He overcame all obstacles through his own exer-
education above the lower classes, and who, hav- tions; his skill vanquished his enemies ; his
ing generally nothing but their appointments, were energy kept the hydra of anarchy headless; his
obliged to do all in their power to prevent revolu- prudence conducted him in safety through con-
tions, by which they would have been deprived spiracies, rebellions, battles, and murder, to the
of their livelihood. A similar artificial system, throne of Rome ; his wisdom created a new organi-
strengthening the government, is established, in zation for an empire, which consisted of huge frag-
our days, in Prussia, Austria, France, and most of ments, and which no human hand seemed powerful
the states of Europe. The dignity and dangerous enough to raise to a solid edifice. Christianity
military power of the praefecti praetorio were abo- was made by him the religion of the state, but
lished. Under Diocletian and Maximian there Paganism was not persecuted though discouraged.
were four praefecti, but they were only lieutenants The Christianity of the emperor himself has been
of the two Augusti and their two Caesars. Con- a subject of warm controversy both in ancient and
stantine continued the number, and limited their modern times, but the graphic account which
power by making them civil officers : under him Niebuhr gives of Constantine's belief seems to be
there was the Praefectus Orienti over the Asiatic perfectly just. Speaking of the murder of Licinius
provinces and Thrace; the Praefectus Italiae, over and his own son Crispus, Niebuhr remarks (Hist. of
Italy, Rhaetia, Noricum, and Africa between Rome, vol. v. p. 359), “ Many judge of him by
Egypt and Tingitanja; the Praefectus Illyrico, too severe a standard, because they look upon him
who had Illyricum, Pannon Macedonia, and as a Christian; but I cannot regard him in that
Greece; and the Praefectus Galliae, over Gaul, light. The religion which he had in his head
Britain, Spain, and Tingitania or the westernmost must have been a strange compound indeed. The
part of Africa. Rome and Constantinople had man who had on his coins the inscription Sol
each their separate praefect. Under the praefecti invictus, who worshipped pagan divinities, consult
there were thirteen high functionaries, who were ed the haruspices, indulged in a number of pagan
civil governors of the thirteen dioceses into which superstitions, and, on the other band, built
the empire was divided, and who had either the churches, shut up pagan temples, and interfered
title of comes or count, or of vicarius or vice-prae- with the council of Nicaea, must have been a re-
fecta Between these officers and the praefecti pulsive phaenomenon, and was certainly not a
there were three proconsuls, of Asia, Achaia, and Christian. He did not allow himself to be bap-
Africa, who however were but governors of pro tized till the last moments of his life, and those
vinces, the whole number of which was one hun who praise him for this do not know what they
dred and sixteen, and which were governed, be are doing. He was a superstitious man, and
sides the proconsuls, by thirty-seven consulares, mixed up his Christian religion with all kinds of
five correctores, and seventy-one presidentes. absurd superstitions and opinions. When, there
The military administration was entirely sepa- fore, certain Oriental writers call him loanootoAOS
rated from the civil, and as the Praefecti Praetorio they do not know what they are saying, and to
were changed into civil officers, as has been men- speak of him as a saint is a profanation of the word. ”
tioned above, the supreme military command was The blame which falls upon Constantine for the
conferred at first upon two, then four, and finally death of Maximian, Licinius, and Crispus, will fall
eight Magistri Militum, under whom were the upon many kings, and we have only fabulous ac-
military Comites and Duces. The number of counts of the mental sufferings which his bloody
legions was diminished, but the army was never- deeds might have caused him. Constantine was
theless much increased, especially by barbarian not so great during the latter part of his reign.
auxiliaries, a dangerous practice, which hastened In proportion as he advanced in years he lost that
the overthrow of the Western and shook the
serene generosity which had distinguished him
Eastern empire to its foundations. The increase while he was younger; his temper grew acrimonious,
of the army rendered various oppressive taxes and he gave way to passionate bursts of resent-
necessary, which were unequally assessed, and ment which he would have suppressed while he was
caused many revolts. There were seven high in the bloom of manhood. He felt that the gran-
functionaries, who may be compared with some of deur of Rome could be maintained only in the
the great officers of state in our country, viz, the East, and he founded Constantinople; but the
Praepositus Sacri Cubiculi, or Lord Chamberlain ; spirit of the East overwhelmed him, and he sacri-
the Magister Officiorum, who acted in many con- ficed the heroic majesty of a Roman emperor 10
## p. 837 (#857) ############################################
CONSTANTINUS.
837
CONSTANTINUS.
:
PVC
the showy pomp and the vain ceremonies of an Constantine, he received some exterior marks of
Asiatic court. His life is an example of a great respect from the other emperors, but he had 110
historical lesson : the West may conquer the East, authority over them. Dissatisfied with his share
but the conqueror will die on his trophies by the of the spoil
, he exacted from his younger brother
poison of sensuality.
Constans the rest of Africa and the co-administra-
As Constantine the Great was a successful tion of Italy. Constans refused to give up those
political reformer, and the protector of a new provinces. Constantine declared war against him,
religion, he has received as much undeserved re- and invaded Italy by sea and by land, and
proaches as praise ; the Christian writers generally at Aquileia met with the army of Constans, who
deified him, and the Pagan historians have cast approached from Dacia. Having raslly pursued
infamy on his memory. To judge him fairly was the enemy when they gave way in a mock flight,
reserved for the historians of later times.
Constantine was suddenly surrounded by them and
(Euseb. Vita Constantini ; Eutrop. lib. x. ; fell under their swords. (A. D. 340. ) His body was
Sextus Rufus, Brev. 26; Aurel. Vict. Epit. 40, thrown into the river Alsa, but was afterwards
41, de Cacs. 40, &c. ; Zosim. lib. ii. , Zosimus is found and buried with royal honours. He was
a violent antagonist of Constantine ; Zonar. lib. twice married, but the names of his wives are not
xiii. ; Lactant. de Mort. Persecut. 24—52; Oros. known; they probably both died before him, and he
lib. vii. ; Amm. Marc. lib. xiv. , &c. , Excerpta, p. left no issue. An unknown author pronounced a
710, &c. , ed. Valesius. The accounts of, and the monody on his death, which is contained in Ha-
opinions on, Constantine given by Eumenius, vercamp's edition of Eutropius. (Zosim. lib. ii. ;
Nazarius, &c. , in the Panegyrics (especially vi. - Zonar. lib. xiii. ; Euseb. Vita Const. iv. 40-49;
xi. ), and by the emperor Julian, in his Caesars as Prosper, Chron. Acyndino et Proculo Coss; more
well as in his Orations, are of great importance, authorities are given in the lives of his brothers,
but full of partiality : Julian treats Constantine Constantius and Constans. )
[W. P. ]
very badly, and the Panegyrics are what their
name indicates. Among the ecclesiastical writers,
Eusebius, Lactantius, Socrates, Sozomen, Theo-
phanes, &c. , are the principal; but it has already
been observed that their statements must be pe
rused with great precaution. The Life of Constan-
tine by Praxagoras, which was known to the
Byzantines, is lost. Besides these sources, there
is scarcely a writer of the time of Constantine and
COIN OF CONSTANTINUS II.
the following centuries, who does not give some CONSTANTI'NUS III. , FLAVIUS HE-
account of Constantine; and even in the works of RA'CLIUS, called NOVUS CONSTANTI'NUS,
the later Byzantines, such as Constantine Porphy- emperor of the East, A. D. 641, the son of the emperor
rogenitus and Cedrenus, we find valuable additions Heraclius by his first wife, Eudoxia, was born in
to the history of that great emperor. The most com- May, 612, and succeeded his father on the 11th of
plete list of sources, with critical observations, is con- March (February), 641, together with his younger
tained in Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs. See half-brother Heracleonas, the succession being thus
also Manso, Leben Constantins des Grossen. ) [W. P. ] established by the testament of their father. Con-
stantine died as early as the 22nd of June (25th
of May) A. D. 641, after a reign of 103 days, either
from ill-health, or probably from poison adminis-
tered to him by his step-mother Martina. His
successor was his brother Heracleonas. (HERA-
CLEONAS; CONSTANS II. ] Constantine distin-
guished himself personally in a war against the
SARTS
Persians. Advised by his rapacious treasurer,
Philagrius, he sacrilegiously ordered the grave of
COIN OP CONSTANTINUS L
his father to be robbed of a golden crown of seventy
CONSTANTI'NUS II. FLAVIUS CLAU'- pounds' weight, which stuck so fast to the head of
DIUS, surnamed the Younger, Roman emperor, the dead emperor, that the corpse was mutilated
A. D. 3374-340, the second son of Constantine in removing the crown from it. (Theophan. Pp.
the Great, and the first whom he had by his second 251, 275, &c. , ed. Paris; Cedren. p. 430, &c. , ed.
wife, Fausta, was born at Arelatum, now Arles, in Paris ; Zonar. vol. ii. pp. 71, 87, &c. , ed. Paris;
Gaul, on the 7th of August, A. D. 312. As early Glycas, p. 276, ed.
