into something like a
definite
system.
Thomas Carlyle
causas justas dandi
curatores regibus, scilicet si nesciunt
suum regnum defendere, vel in eo
justitiam et pacem servare, et ma xime
religiosis personis, locis, et pauperibus,
et etiam, quod plus est, si nesciunt
perdita recuperare, et idem quod
diximus in re gibus, servandum est in
ducibus, comitibus, et aliis qui habent
jurisdictionem super alios. Aliis autem
non datur curator, nisi sint furiosi,
vel prodigi C. de cur. fur. (Cod. , v. 70)
(Assumptus) bene dicit, sit assumptus,
q. per alios est enim hoc ordinarium,
quod curatorem regibus et similibus
personis petant subditi, et superior
proximus debet ipsum concedere, et
si non habct alium superiorem. Papa
hoc facere debet arg. i. qui fil. sint
legi. Per venerabilem (Decretals, iv.
17, 13) ft. de tu. et cu. da. divi (Dig. ,
26, 5, 24).
>> Id. id. , ii. 2, 17. Sol. Hie non
consentit in alium judioem nisi suum,
quia papa judex ordinarius est om-
nium, 9, q. 3. Cuncta (Decretum,
C. 9, 3, 17).
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? CHAP, v. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 321
his interposition in the election of Philip of Swabia; he re-
pudiated the claim " to elect" the emperor himself, but
asserted his right to declare a candidate unfit for the office,
and, in the case of a disputed election, to recognise the candi-
date whom he preferred. Innocent IV. in his comment
develops this into the assertion that if the electors were
negligent in carrying out their function, the Pope had the
right to appoint the emperor. 1
The most comprehensive statement of Innocent IV. 's
conception of the authority of the Pope in temporal matters
is to be found in his observations on that Decretal letter in
which Innocent HI. , while instructing the bishop of Vercelli
to declare null and void any letters which might be produced
from the Holy See dealing with matters which belonged
to the secular courts of Vercelli, asserted that if the secular
court failed to do justice, an appeal could be made to the
bishop, or to the Pope himself, especially at a time when
the empire was vacant. 2 Innocent IV. admits that the
prohibition of the interference of the ecclesiastical authority
with the normal jurisdiction of the secular court is right,
but he draws out the significance of the right to intervene
in the case of defect of justice in great detail, and especially
lays stress upon the authority of the Pope during a vacancy
of the empire. There is a special relation between the Pope
and the emperor, he is " advocatus " of the Pope and takes
an oath to him, and holds the empire from him, and therefore
the Pope takes the emperor's place during a vacancy. (If
Innocent rv. does not actually say that the emperor is a
vassal of the Pope, he seems plainly to imply it. )
If other kings or princes who have no superior are neg-
ligent, the Pope succeeds to their jurisdiction, not because
they hold the kingdom from him, but in virtue of that fulness
of power (plenitudo potestatis) which he possesses as vicar
of Christ. Some say that the Pope must not interfere in
1 Id. id. , i. 6, 34. Sed eis negli-
gentibus eligere, imperatorem Papa
eliget, et si plures elegerunt, Papa de
jure oognosoet inter eos, et diffiniet et
VOL. V.
si aliqua partium erit contumax, nihi-
lominus parte altera absente potest
procedere.
* Decretals, ii. 2, 10.
X
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? 322
[past n.
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS.
the affairs of vacant kingdoms unless appeal is made to
him. 1
After enumerating the various cases in which the ecclesi-
astical judge can interfere in matters belonging to the secular
jurisdiction, he answers the objection which may be made
that these principles rest only upon the decisions of the
popes themselves, and warns men that in arguing thus they
are incurring the guilt of sacrilege. In order to make this
clear, he sets out his conception of the origin and nature of
the government of the world.
Prom the creation of the world to the time of Noah, God
governed the world, he says, directly. From Noah to the
coming of Christ God governed the world by various ministers,
patriarchs, judges, kings, priests, and others. This con-
tinued till the coming of Christ, who was Himself the natural
lord and king. Christ established Peter and his successors
as His vicars. Therefore, though there are many different
offices and forms of government in the world, men can always
1 Innocent IV. , ' Apparatus,' ii.
2, 9. (Irritas. ) Cum enim papa in eis
jurisdictionem non babeat, jurisdictio
vel litera datse contra eos non valent,
nec quod per eas fit, arg. C. ne de eta.
defun. 1. pen. (Cod. , vii. 21, 7) et
videtur mirum quod post subjungit
dummodo etc. , quia, si irritee sunt
quo. modo scilicet per negligentiam
convalescunt. . . . Clausula autem qua'
bic aducitur, s. , dummodo etc. , non
oontradicit, quia non est sensus eius
literse, ut literse prius impetratse
valeant, si contingit judiocm secularem
fieri negligentem. Sed hoc vult dice re
quia cum fuerit negligens, quod ab
eo possit appellari ad Papam ot super
appellationem licite alisc literse impe-
trari. (Ad tuam. ) Hoc jus habet
episcopus in terra, quod ad eum ap-
pellatur, sed ad Papam jure imperii
appellatur. (Vacante. ) Hoc est prop-
ter defectum imperii, in jure enim
tantum imperii papa sucoedit. . . .
Nam specialia conjunctio est inter
Papam et Imperatorem, quia Papa
eum consecrat et examinat et est
lmperator ejus advooatus, et jurat ei,
et ab eo imperium tenet, a. de elec-
tione, venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6, 34),
i. 63 diat, ego et c. tibi domino (Decre-
tum, D. 63, c. 30 and 33). Et inde est
quia in jure quod ab ecclesia Romana
tenet, succedit Papa, imperio vacante.
. . . Sed quid si alius rex est negligens
vel alius princeps, qui superiorem non
habet ? diximus idem, scilicet quod
succedit in jurisdictionem ejus, arg.
15, q. 6, item alius (Decretum, C.
xv. 6, 3) et *. , de electione, quum inter
universes, in fi. (Decretals, i. 6, 18. )
Sed hoc non facit quia ab eo teneat
regnum, sed de plenitudine potestatis
quam habet quia vicarius est Christi,
<<. , tit. prox. novit ver. non enim
(Decretals, ii. 1, 13) vel die, quia
vacantibus regnis, non poterit se in-
tromittere, nisi ante peterotur in modo
? ? denunciationia, ut predicto c. novit
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? CHAP. V. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 323
have recourse to the Pope when need arises, whether it is
a difficulty about law, and the judge is uncertain what judg-
ment he ought to give, or a practical difficulty when there
is no superior, or when the judges cannot secure the execution
of their judgments, or will not render justice. 1
To complete the account of the position of Innocent IV. ,
we may observe that he is clear that the authority of the
Pope extends not only over Christian people, but over the
infidels and the Jews. He refers to this at the end of the
passage which we have just been considering, and develops
it at length in a later passage. 2 In this place also he appeals
to the evidence of the " Donation of Constantine " as showing
1 Id. id. Sed dicet aliquis, hoc
summi pontifices statuere pro se : undo
quum non sine culpa sacrilegii loquatur,
non est sibi tanta fides adhibenda, ff.
de inter, ac 1. de rotate, f 1 (Dig. , xi.
1, 11). Sed hi si diligenter attend iint
quod dicunt, veri sacrilegii culpam
incurrunt. Quod at melius intelligas,
est prenotandum, quod Deus croavit
in principio ccelum et terras, et omnia
quse in eis sunt, angelicam et humanam
naturam, spiritualia et temporalia,
ipsaque per se ipsum rexit, sicut factor
rem suam gubernat, et homini quom
fecit pra-cepta dedit, et transgredienti
pcenam imposuit, ut Gen. II. , Ex
omni ligno, etc. . . . Et tempore Noe,
coepit Deus creaturas suas regere per
ministros, quorum primus fuit Noe.
. . . In hac autem vicaria successerunt
patriarchse, judices, reges, sacerdotes
et alii, qui pro tempore fuerunt in
regimine populi Judeorum, et sic duravit
usque ad Christum, qui fuit naturalis
Dominus et Rex noster, de qua dicitur
in Psal. : Deus judicium tuum regi
da, etc. . . . Et ipse Christus Jesus,
vicarium suum constituit Petrum et
successores suos, quando ei dedit claves
regni ccelorum, et quando dixit ei:
Pasce oves meas. Licet in multa dis-
tincta sunt ofHcia et regimina mundi,
tamen quandocunque nocesse est ad
Papam requirendum est, si vn sit neces-
sitas juris, quia judex dubius est,
quam sententiam de jure proferre
debeat, vel necessitas facti, quia alius
non sit judex superior, sive facti, puta
quia de facto minorcs judices non
possunt suas sententias exequi, vel
nolunt ut debent justitiam exercere,
t. , qui filii sint legi. , per venerabilem
(Decretals, iv. 17, 13). Cf. id. , v. 39, 49.
* Id. id. , iii. 34, 8. Bene tamen
credimus quod Papa qui est vicarius
Jesu Christi, potestatem habet, non
tantum super Christianos, sed et super
omnes infideles; quum enim Christus
habuerit super omnes potestatem, undo
in Psalmo, Deus judicium tuum regi
da . . . Omnes autem tam fideles quam
infideles oves sunt Christi, per crea-
tionem, licet non sint de ovili ecclesise.
Et sic per prediotam apparet quod
Papa super onmes habet jurisdictionem,
et potestatem de jure, licet non de
? ? facto. Unde per potestatem quam
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? 324
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS. [PABT II.
that the Pope now held the authority of the Boman Empire,
but he admits that it might be argued that this applied only
to the West. 1
When we endeavour to sum up the principles which In-
nocent IV. thus set out with regard to the authority of the
papacy in temporal matters, it is, we think, evident that
he had developed the incidental phrases and suggestions of
Innocent III.
into something like a definite system.
As we have said, he did not in so many words say that the
emperor was the vassal of the Pope, but he maintained not
only that the Pope had the right to reject an unfit candidate
for the empire, and the right to decide in disputed elections,
but that, failing the action of the electors, he could himself
appoint; and he definitely says that the emperor held the
empire from him.
He claimed to be the ultimate " superior " of all States,
and this in virtue of the fact that he was the vicar of Christ,
for Christ was lord and king of all the world, and had com-
mitted his authority to Peter and his successors, the popes.
It does not seem too much to conclude that in Innocent IV. 's
view all temporal as well as spiritual power in principle
belonged to him. a
The canonical theory of the temporal authority of the
papacy had thus been profoundly modified by Innocent IV. ,
and it is to this that we must trace the principles represented
by Hostiensis and William Durandus.
It is natural that it is in discussing the relations of the
emperor to the papaoy that this is chiefly developed, though,
as we shall see, their theory is not limited to this.
1 Id. id. Item terra sancta justo
bello victa fuit ab imperatore Romano
post mortem Christi, undo licitum est
Papse ratione imperii Romani quod
obtinet, illud ad suam jurisdictionem
revocare, quia injuste oxpoliatus est,
et ab eo qui non habuit jus spoliandi
cum. Et hsec ratio sufficit in omnibus
aliis tenis, in quibus imperatores
Romani jurisdictionem habuerunt, licet
posse dici, quod hoc jure, scilicet ratione
imperii non possit, cum eeclesia non
ha boat imperium nisi in ocoidentem,
96 Dist. Constan. (Decretum, D. 96,
13, 14).
* Cf. his interpretation of the
Donation of Constantino cited on
p. 306.
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? CHAP, v. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY.
325
Hostiensis' treatment of the subject is set out in great
detail in a passage in his ' Summa Decretalium,' in which
he discusses and develops the implications of the well-known
Decretal letter of Innocent III. as to the propriety of his
legitimising the children of the Count of MontpelMer, ' Per
Venerabilem. '1 He sets out his own conclusions with con-
fidence, but it should be observed that he recognises that
other Canonists had taken a different view.
It is, he says, contended by some that the Pope should
not interfere in such a matter as legitimisation for secular
purposes, but should leave this to the emperor; on the
other hand, it may be argued that the Pope can and ought
to interfere in temporal matters. He first cites a Canonist
whom he designates H. (Huguccio) as saying that the
emperor holds his power over temporalities from God only,
as the Pope holds his power in spiritualities, and thus the
two jurisdictions are distinct. He then cites the two
Canonists, Alan and Tancred, as maintaining that while the
" imperium " comes from God only, the emperor receives
the use of the temporal sword from the Church, and that
therefore the Pope is greater, and can use both swords,
for the Lord and Moses used both swords.
Having thus set out the antithetical judgments, he gives
his own opinion in careful and measured terms. He begins
by maintaining that the two jurisdictions are not only distinct,
and that each comes from God, but the spiritual comes much
nearer to God, and is therefore the greater. The '' Sacerdotium''
and the " Imperium " do not differ much as to the source
from which they proceed, but they differ greatly in majesty.
It is this, he says, which is symbolised in the difference between
the unction of the bishop and the king. The difference is
like that between the sun and the moon. He admits that
this analogy had been differently interpreted by various
doctors, but he urges that it may be properly said that as
the moon receives its light from the sun, so the royal power
receives its authority from the priestly, and as the sun illumi-
1 Decretals, iv. 17, 13, Per venerabilem. Cf. vol. ii. p. 232.
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? 326 TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS. [PAST II.
nates the world by means of the moon at night, so the priestly
office illuminates the world by means of the royal, in those
matters which it cannot deal with itself, such as the judgment
of blood.
He concludes, therefore, that while the two jurisdictions
are distinct, as far as their exercise is concerned, the emperor
holds the empire from the Eoman Church, and may be called
its " Officialis " or vicar. It was the Eoman Church which
transferred the empire to the Germans. The Pope therefore
confirms and anoints and crowns the emperor, and can censure
and even depose him. The Pope is therefore the superior,
but he should not interfere with that which has been properly
done by the emperor in temporal matters, except perhaps
in special cases (in casibus); the Pope, therefore, takes
the place of the ruler in the vacancy of the kingdom
or empire.
There is thus " quoad majestatem " only one head--
namely, the Pope, for there is only one God, one Head, the
Lord of things spiritual and temporal, and he committed
all things to Peter, and Peter had both swords. The Lord
of Lords gave him two keys, not one only, the one for
spiritual, the other for temporal things. (Hostiensis is,
however, careful to add that the words of our Lord had
been interpreted in many other ways. ) We are one body
in Christ, and it would be monstrous that we should have
two heads. This is what is implied in the Donation of
Constantine, and if any one were to maintain that Con-
stantine had not the right to grant this, he might as well
say that the people had not the right to transfer their
authority to the prince. 1
1 Hostiensis, ' Summa super titulis
decretalium,' iv. 17, 13 (Qui fllii sunt
legitimi), 9: Qualiter et a quo filii
illegitimi legitimentur, vol sui fiant.
Et quidem, legitimantur per principem
temporalem, quo ad temporalia, per
spiritualem quo ad spiritualia: quia
juriadictiones sunt distincte : ut in
authent. quomodo oportet episcopo, in
principio collationis (Nov. Justinian.
VI. Pra>f. ) i. de consecr. dist. III. ,
celcbritatem, in fin. (Decrotum, de
cons. D. III. , 22, 2). Non ergo papa
debet intromittere se de legitimations
facienda, quo ad temporalem heredi-
tatem, sed debet hoc dimittere impera-
tori, ut dist. VIII. , quo jure (Decrotum,
D. 8, 1), >>. , c. lator et o. causam (Decre-
tals, iv. 17, 5, 4), alias poneret falcom
in messem alien am ; ut s. de electione,
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? CHAP, V. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 327
In his " Commentary " on the Decretals he adds two import-
ant contentions, that if the electors are negligent and do
not elect an emperor, the Pope elects. If several are elected
venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6, 34) quod
non est faciendum ut 6, q. 3, c. 1
(Decretum, C. 6, 3, 1).
Sed contra, quia Papa etiam de tem-
poralibus, se potest et debet intro-
mittere t. eo c. 1 (Decretals, iv. 17, 1),
XX. , q. III. prosens (Decretum, C.
20, 3, 3) XV. , q. VI. , Alius (De-
cretum, c. 15, 6, 3) XXIV. , q. 1.
loquitur (Decretum, c. 24, 1, 1S).
H. dixit quod imperator a solo Deo
habet poteetatem in temporalibus,
papa in spiritualibus, et sic juriadic-
tiones sunt distinctse, ut dicunt prims
s
concordantise : tamen coronam recipit
a Papa et gladium ab altari, 93. Dist.
legitimos (? ),et etiamantefuitlmperium
quam apostolatus. Ala. et T. dixerunt,
quod quam vis imperium a solo Deo
dicatur processisse, executionem tamen
gladii temporalis accepit ab ecclesia,
quare Papa major est: et utroque
gladio uti potest. Nam et Dominus
utroque gladio usus est, et Moves, ad
hoc a. de ju. novit (Decretals, ii. 1, 13),
et de majo. et ob. solitse (Decretals,
i. 33, 6). Ego jurisdictioncs distinctas
assero : et utramque a Deo processisse :
ut dicit auth. quo modo oportet epis-
copos (Nov. , VI. , Prof. ) tamen quanto
altera magis Deo appropinquatur tanto
major est: ergo sacerdotium majus.
Quod probatur ex ordine scripture
dictas auth. (Nov. , VI. , Prof. ); et sio
intellige, quod non multum discrepant
sacerdotium et imperium, ut in authent.
de alien, aut permut. re eccles. ? si
minus col. II. (Nov. , VII. , 21). Non
multum discrepant quo ad principium
unde proceduut, scd multum discre-
pant, quo ad majoritatem. Inde est
quod caput cpiscopi iuungitur. sed
armis regis: et episcopus chrismate,
et rex oleo, ut scias, quod episcopus est
vicarius capitis nostri id est Christi,
et ut ostendatur quanta sit differentia
inter authoritatem pontificis et prin-
cipis poteetatem, ut a. de sa. un. c
unico ? unde in veteri testamento, et
pracedenti (Decretals, i. 15, 1, 5).
Quia quanta est differentia inter solem
et lunam tanta est inter sacerdotem
et regalem dignitatem, ut a. de majo.
et. obe. solite ? prsetorea ad fin. (De-
cretals, i. 33, 6 ? 4). Quse verba licet
per doc to res divorsimodo exponantur,
tu tamen die quod sicut luna recipit
claritatem a sole, non sol a luna, sic
regalis potestas recipit authoritatem
a sacordotali, non e contra; sicut
etiam sol illuminat mundum per
lunam, quando per se non potest,
scilicet, de nocte, sic saoerdotalia dig.
nitas clarificat mundum per regalem,
? ? quando per se non potest, scilicet ubi
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? 328
[PAKT II.
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS.
it is for the Pope to hear and determine, and if one of those
elected is contumacious, he can proceed in his absence. If
the claims of the various persons are equal, he can decide as
prater naturam jurisdictions trahit
ad se principalem jurisdictionem tem-
poralem, ai id quod de jurisdictione
spirituali est in ea incidat.
10. Tum authoritatibus sanctorum
dicentium, quod quanta est differentia
inter motalli plumbum, et auri fulgorem,
etc. , ut 96 Dist. duo sunt, et c. cum
ad verum (Decretum, D. 96, 10 et 6).
Ideo quamvis jurisdictiones sunt dis-
tinctK quoad executionem, tamen
imperator ab ecclesia Romana imperium
tenet, et potest dici officialis ejus, seu
vicarius. Ecclesia Romana in perso-
nam magnifici Caroli a Grsecis trans-
tulit imperium in Germanos. Et Papa
ipsum confirmat, et inungit, et coronat,
vel reprobat, et etiam deponit, ut patet
<<. de ele. , venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6,
34). Nec enim lex imperatoris legare
potest nisi illos quos Romanorum lex
tenet, et ecclesia catholicse sanctio.
Quia extra non est imperium. ut in
autb.
curatores regibus, scilicet si nesciunt
suum regnum defendere, vel in eo
justitiam et pacem servare, et ma xime
religiosis personis, locis, et pauperibus,
et etiam, quod plus est, si nesciunt
perdita recuperare, et idem quod
diximus in re gibus, servandum est in
ducibus, comitibus, et aliis qui habent
jurisdictionem super alios. Aliis autem
non datur curator, nisi sint furiosi,
vel prodigi C. de cur. fur. (Cod. , v. 70)
(Assumptus) bene dicit, sit assumptus,
q. per alios est enim hoc ordinarium,
quod curatorem regibus et similibus
personis petant subditi, et superior
proximus debet ipsum concedere, et
si non habct alium superiorem. Papa
hoc facere debet arg. i. qui fil. sint
legi. Per venerabilem (Decretals, iv.
17, 13) ft. de tu. et cu. da. divi (Dig. ,
26, 5, 24).
>> Id. id. , ii. 2, 17. Sol. Hie non
consentit in alium judioem nisi suum,
quia papa judex ordinarius est om-
nium, 9, q. 3. Cuncta (Decretum,
C. 9, 3, 17).
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? CHAP, v. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 321
his interposition in the election of Philip of Swabia; he re-
pudiated the claim " to elect" the emperor himself, but
asserted his right to declare a candidate unfit for the office,
and, in the case of a disputed election, to recognise the candi-
date whom he preferred. Innocent IV. in his comment
develops this into the assertion that if the electors were
negligent in carrying out their function, the Pope had the
right to appoint the emperor. 1
The most comprehensive statement of Innocent IV. 's
conception of the authority of the Pope in temporal matters
is to be found in his observations on that Decretal letter in
which Innocent HI. , while instructing the bishop of Vercelli
to declare null and void any letters which might be produced
from the Holy See dealing with matters which belonged
to the secular courts of Vercelli, asserted that if the secular
court failed to do justice, an appeal could be made to the
bishop, or to the Pope himself, especially at a time when
the empire was vacant. 2 Innocent IV. admits that the
prohibition of the interference of the ecclesiastical authority
with the normal jurisdiction of the secular court is right,
but he draws out the significance of the right to intervene
in the case of defect of justice in great detail, and especially
lays stress upon the authority of the Pope during a vacancy
of the empire. There is a special relation between the Pope
and the emperor, he is " advocatus " of the Pope and takes
an oath to him, and holds the empire from him, and therefore
the Pope takes the emperor's place during a vacancy. (If
Innocent rv. does not actually say that the emperor is a
vassal of the Pope, he seems plainly to imply it. )
If other kings or princes who have no superior are neg-
ligent, the Pope succeeds to their jurisdiction, not because
they hold the kingdom from him, but in virtue of that fulness
of power (plenitudo potestatis) which he possesses as vicar
of Christ. Some say that the Pope must not interfere in
1 Id. id. , i. 6, 34. Sed eis negli-
gentibus eligere, imperatorem Papa
eliget, et si plures elegerunt, Papa de
jure oognosoet inter eos, et diffiniet et
VOL. V.
si aliqua partium erit contumax, nihi-
lominus parte altera absente potest
procedere.
* Decretals, ii. 2, 10.
X
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? 322
[past n.
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS.
the affairs of vacant kingdoms unless appeal is made to
him. 1
After enumerating the various cases in which the ecclesi-
astical judge can interfere in matters belonging to the secular
jurisdiction, he answers the objection which may be made
that these principles rest only upon the decisions of the
popes themselves, and warns men that in arguing thus they
are incurring the guilt of sacrilege. In order to make this
clear, he sets out his conception of the origin and nature of
the government of the world.
Prom the creation of the world to the time of Noah, God
governed the world, he says, directly. From Noah to the
coming of Christ God governed the world by various ministers,
patriarchs, judges, kings, priests, and others. This con-
tinued till the coming of Christ, who was Himself the natural
lord and king. Christ established Peter and his successors
as His vicars. Therefore, though there are many different
offices and forms of government in the world, men can always
1 Innocent IV. , ' Apparatus,' ii.
2, 9. (Irritas. ) Cum enim papa in eis
jurisdictionem non babeat, jurisdictio
vel litera datse contra eos non valent,
nec quod per eas fit, arg. C. ne de eta.
defun. 1. pen. (Cod. , vii. 21, 7) et
videtur mirum quod post subjungit
dummodo etc. , quia, si irritee sunt
quo. modo scilicet per negligentiam
convalescunt. . . . Clausula autem qua'
bic aducitur, s. , dummodo etc. , non
oontradicit, quia non est sensus eius
literse, ut literse prius impetratse
valeant, si contingit judiocm secularem
fieri negligentem. Sed hoc vult dice re
quia cum fuerit negligens, quod ab
eo possit appellari ad Papam ot super
appellationem licite alisc literse impe-
trari. (Ad tuam. ) Hoc jus habet
episcopus in terra, quod ad eum ap-
pellatur, sed ad Papam jure imperii
appellatur. (Vacante. ) Hoc est prop-
ter defectum imperii, in jure enim
tantum imperii papa sucoedit. . . .
Nam specialia conjunctio est inter
Papam et Imperatorem, quia Papa
eum consecrat et examinat et est
lmperator ejus advooatus, et jurat ei,
et ab eo imperium tenet, a. de elec-
tione, venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6, 34),
i. 63 diat, ego et c. tibi domino (Decre-
tum, D. 63, c. 30 and 33). Et inde est
quia in jure quod ab ecclesia Romana
tenet, succedit Papa, imperio vacante.
. . . Sed quid si alius rex est negligens
vel alius princeps, qui superiorem non
habet ? diximus idem, scilicet quod
succedit in jurisdictionem ejus, arg.
15, q. 6, item alius (Decretum, C.
xv. 6, 3) et *. , de electione, quum inter
universes, in fi. (Decretals, i. 6, 18. )
Sed hoc non facit quia ab eo teneat
regnum, sed de plenitudine potestatis
quam habet quia vicarius est Christi,
<<. , tit. prox. novit ver. non enim
(Decretals, ii. 1, 13) vel die, quia
vacantibus regnis, non poterit se in-
tromittere, nisi ante peterotur in modo
? ? denunciationia, ut predicto c. novit
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? CHAP. V. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 323
have recourse to the Pope when need arises, whether it is
a difficulty about law, and the judge is uncertain what judg-
ment he ought to give, or a practical difficulty when there
is no superior, or when the judges cannot secure the execution
of their judgments, or will not render justice. 1
To complete the account of the position of Innocent IV. ,
we may observe that he is clear that the authority of the
Pope extends not only over Christian people, but over the
infidels and the Jews. He refers to this at the end of the
passage which we have just been considering, and develops
it at length in a later passage. 2 In this place also he appeals
to the evidence of the " Donation of Constantine " as showing
1 Id. id. Sed dicet aliquis, hoc
summi pontifices statuere pro se : undo
quum non sine culpa sacrilegii loquatur,
non est sibi tanta fides adhibenda, ff.
de inter, ac 1. de rotate, f 1 (Dig. , xi.
1, 11). Sed hi si diligenter attend iint
quod dicunt, veri sacrilegii culpam
incurrunt. Quod at melius intelligas,
est prenotandum, quod Deus croavit
in principio ccelum et terras, et omnia
quse in eis sunt, angelicam et humanam
naturam, spiritualia et temporalia,
ipsaque per se ipsum rexit, sicut factor
rem suam gubernat, et homini quom
fecit pra-cepta dedit, et transgredienti
pcenam imposuit, ut Gen. II. , Ex
omni ligno, etc. . . . Et tempore Noe,
coepit Deus creaturas suas regere per
ministros, quorum primus fuit Noe.
. . . In hac autem vicaria successerunt
patriarchse, judices, reges, sacerdotes
et alii, qui pro tempore fuerunt in
regimine populi Judeorum, et sic duravit
usque ad Christum, qui fuit naturalis
Dominus et Rex noster, de qua dicitur
in Psal. : Deus judicium tuum regi
da, etc. . . . Et ipse Christus Jesus,
vicarium suum constituit Petrum et
successores suos, quando ei dedit claves
regni ccelorum, et quando dixit ei:
Pasce oves meas. Licet in multa dis-
tincta sunt ofHcia et regimina mundi,
tamen quandocunque nocesse est ad
Papam requirendum est, si vn sit neces-
sitas juris, quia judex dubius est,
quam sententiam de jure proferre
debeat, vel necessitas facti, quia alius
non sit judex superior, sive facti, puta
quia de facto minorcs judices non
possunt suas sententias exequi, vel
nolunt ut debent justitiam exercere,
t. , qui filii sint legi. , per venerabilem
(Decretals, iv. 17, 13). Cf. id. , v. 39, 49.
* Id. id. , iii. 34, 8. Bene tamen
credimus quod Papa qui est vicarius
Jesu Christi, potestatem habet, non
tantum super Christianos, sed et super
omnes infideles; quum enim Christus
habuerit super omnes potestatem, undo
in Psalmo, Deus judicium tuum regi
da . . . Omnes autem tam fideles quam
infideles oves sunt Christi, per crea-
tionem, licet non sint de ovili ecclesise.
Et sic per prediotam apparet quod
Papa super onmes habet jurisdictionem,
et potestatem de jure, licet non de
? ? facto. Unde per potestatem quam
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? 324
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS. [PABT II.
that the Pope now held the authority of the Boman Empire,
but he admits that it might be argued that this applied only
to the West. 1
When we endeavour to sum up the principles which In-
nocent IV. thus set out with regard to the authority of the
papacy in temporal matters, it is, we think, evident that
he had developed the incidental phrases and suggestions of
Innocent III.
into something like a definite system.
As we have said, he did not in so many words say that the
emperor was the vassal of the Pope, but he maintained not
only that the Pope had the right to reject an unfit candidate
for the empire, and the right to decide in disputed elections,
but that, failing the action of the electors, he could himself
appoint; and he definitely says that the emperor held the
empire from him.
He claimed to be the ultimate " superior " of all States,
and this in virtue of the fact that he was the vicar of Christ,
for Christ was lord and king of all the world, and had com-
mitted his authority to Peter and his successors, the popes.
It does not seem too much to conclude that in Innocent IV. 's
view all temporal as well as spiritual power in principle
belonged to him. a
The canonical theory of the temporal authority of the
papacy had thus been profoundly modified by Innocent IV. ,
and it is to this that we must trace the principles represented
by Hostiensis and William Durandus.
It is natural that it is in discussing the relations of the
emperor to the papaoy that this is chiefly developed, though,
as we shall see, their theory is not limited to this.
1 Id. id. Item terra sancta justo
bello victa fuit ab imperatore Romano
post mortem Christi, undo licitum est
Papse ratione imperii Romani quod
obtinet, illud ad suam jurisdictionem
revocare, quia injuste oxpoliatus est,
et ab eo qui non habuit jus spoliandi
cum. Et hsec ratio sufficit in omnibus
aliis tenis, in quibus imperatores
Romani jurisdictionem habuerunt, licet
posse dici, quod hoc jure, scilicet ratione
imperii non possit, cum eeclesia non
ha boat imperium nisi in ocoidentem,
96 Dist. Constan. (Decretum, D. 96,
13, 14).
* Cf. his interpretation of the
Donation of Constantino cited on
p. 306.
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? CHAP, v. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY.
325
Hostiensis' treatment of the subject is set out in great
detail in a passage in his ' Summa Decretalium,' in which
he discusses and develops the implications of the well-known
Decretal letter of Innocent III. as to the propriety of his
legitimising the children of the Count of MontpelMer, ' Per
Venerabilem. '1 He sets out his own conclusions with con-
fidence, but it should be observed that he recognises that
other Canonists had taken a different view.
It is, he says, contended by some that the Pope should
not interfere in such a matter as legitimisation for secular
purposes, but should leave this to the emperor; on the
other hand, it may be argued that the Pope can and ought
to interfere in temporal matters. He first cites a Canonist
whom he designates H. (Huguccio) as saying that the
emperor holds his power over temporalities from God only,
as the Pope holds his power in spiritualities, and thus the
two jurisdictions are distinct. He then cites the two
Canonists, Alan and Tancred, as maintaining that while the
" imperium " comes from God only, the emperor receives
the use of the temporal sword from the Church, and that
therefore the Pope is greater, and can use both swords,
for the Lord and Moses used both swords.
Having thus set out the antithetical judgments, he gives
his own opinion in careful and measured terms. He begins
by maintaining that the two jurisdictions are not only distinct,
and that each comes from God, but the spiritual comes much
nearer to God, and is therefore the greater. The '' Sacerdotium''
and the " Imperium " do not differ much as to the source
from which they proceed, but they differ greatly in majesty.
It is this, he says, which is symbolised in the difference between
the unction of the bishop and the king. The difference is
like that between the sun and the moon. He admits that
this analogy had been differently interpreted by various
doctors, but he urges that it may be properly said that as
the moon receives its light from the sun, so the royal power
receives its authority from the priestly, and as the sun illumi-
1 Decretals, iv. 17, 13, Per venerabilem. Cf. vol. ii. p. 232.
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? 326 TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS. [PAST II.
nates the world by means of the moon at night, so the priestly
office illuminates the world by means of the royal, in those
matters which it cannot deal with itself, such as the judgment
of blood.
He concludes, therefore, that while the two jurisdictions
are distinct, as far as their exercise is concerned, the emperor
holds the empire from the Eoman Church, and may be called
its " Officialis " or vicar. It was the Eoman Church which
transferred the empire to the Germans. The Pope therefore
confirms and anoints and crowns the emperor, and can censure
and even depose him. The Pope is therefore the superior,
but he should not interfere with that which has been properly
done by the emperor in temporal matters, except perhaps
in special cases (in casibus); the Pope, therefore, takes
the place of the ruler in the vacancy of the kingdom
or empire.
There is thus " quoad majestatem " only one head--
namely, the Pope, for there is only one God, one Head, the
Lord of things spiritual and temporal, and he committed
all things to Peter, and Peter had both swords. The Lord
of Lords gave him two keys, not one only, the one for
spiritual, the other for temporal things. (Hostiensis is,
however, careful to add that the words of our Lord had
been interpreted in many other ways. ) We are one body
in Christ, and it would be monstrous that we should have
two heads. This is what is implied in the Donation of
Constantine, and if any one were to maintain that Con-
stantine had not the right to grant this, he might as well
say that the people had not the right to transfer their
authority to the prince. 1
1 Hostiensis, ' Summa super titulis
decretalium,' iv. 17, 13 (Qui fllii sunt
legitimi), 9: Qualiter et a quo filii
illegitimi legitimentur, vol sui fiant.
Et quidem, legitimantur per principem
temporalem, quo ad temporalia, per
spiritualem quo ad spiritualia: quia
juriadictiones sunt distincte : ut in
authent. quomodo oportet episcopo, in
principio collationis (Nov. Justinian.
VI. Pra>f. ) i. de consecr. dist. III. ,
celcbritatem, in fin. (Decrotum, de
cons. D. III. , 22, 2). Non ergo papa
debet intromittere se de legitimations
facienda, quo ad temporalem heredi-
tatem, sed debet hoc dimittere impera-
tori, ut dist. VIII. , quo jure (Decrotum,
D. 8, 1), >>. , c. lator et o. causam (Decre-
tals, iv. 17, 5, 4), alias poneret falcom
in messem alien am ; ut s. de electione,
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? CHAP, V. ] TEMPORAL AUTHORITY OF THE PAPACY. 327
In his " Commentary " on the Decretals he adds two import-
ant contentions, that if the electors are negligent and do
not elect an emperor, the Pope elects. If several are elected
venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6, 34) quod
non est faciendum ut 6, q. 3, c. 1
(Decretum, C. 6, 3, 1).
Sed contra, quia Papa etiam de tem-
poralibus, se potest et debet intro-
mittere t. eo c. 1 (Decretals, iv. 17, 1),
XX. , q. III. prosens (Decretum, C.
20, 3, 3) XV. , q. VI. , Alius (De-
cretum, c. 15, 6, 3) XXIV. , q. 1.
loquitur (Decretum, c. 24, 1, 1S).
H. dixit quod imperator a solo Deo
habet poteetatem in temporalibus,
papa in spiritualibus, et sic juriadic-
tiones sunt distinctse, ut dicunt prims
s
concordantise : tamen coronam recipit
a Papa et gladium ab altari, 93. Dist.
legitimos (? ),et etiamantefuitlmperium
quam apostolatus. Ala. et T. dixerunt,
quod quam vis imperium a solo Deo
dicatur processisse, executionem tamen
gladii temporalis accepit ab ecclesia,
quare Papa major est: et utroque
gladio uti potest. Nam et Dominus
utroque gladio usus est, et Moves, ad
hoc a. de ju. novit (Decretals, ii. 1, 13),
et de majo. et ob. solitse (Decretals,
i. 33, 6). Ego jurisdictioncs distinctas
assero : et utramque a Deo processisse :
ut dicit auth. quo modo oportet epis-
copos (Nov. , VI. , Prof. ) tamen quanto
altera magis Deo appropinquatur tanto
major est: ergo sacerdotium majus.
Quod probatur ex ordine scripture
dictas auth. (Nov. , VI. , Prof. ); et sio
intellige, quod non multum discrepant
sacerdotium et imperium, ut in authent.
de alien, aut permut. re eccles. ? si
minus col. II. (Nov. , VII. , 21). Non
multum discrepant quo ad principium
unde proceduut, scd multum discre-
pant, quo ad majoritatem. Inde est
quod caput cpiscopi iuungitur. sed
armis regis: et episcopus chrismate,
et rex oleo, ut scias, quod episcopus est
vicarius capitis nostri id est Christi,
et ut ostendatur quanta sit differentia
inter authoritatem pontificis et prin-
cipis poteetatem, ut a. de sa. un. c
unico ? unde in veteri testamento, et
pracedenti (Decretals, i. 15, 1, 5).
Quia quanta est differentia inter solem
et lunam tanta est inter sacerdotem
et regalem dignitatem, ut a. de majo.
et. obe. solite ? prsetorea ad fin. (De-
cretals, i. 33, 6 ? 4). Quse verba licet
per doc to res divorsimodo exponantur,
tu tamen die quod sicut luna recipit
claritatem a sole, non sol a luna, sic
regalis potestas recipit authoritatem
a sacordotali, non e contra; sicut
etiam sol illuminat mundum per
lunam, quando per se non potest,
scilicet, de nocte, sic saoerdotalia dig.
nitas clarificat mundum per regalem,
? ? quando per se non potest, scilicet ubi
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? 328
[PAKT II.
TEMPORAL AND SPIRITUAL POWERS.
it is for the Pope to hear and determine, and if one of those
elected is contumacious, he can proceed in his absence. If
the claims of the various persons are equal, he can decide as
prater naturam jurisdictions trahit
ad se principalem jurisdictionem tem-
poralem, ai id quod de jurisdictione
spirituali est in ea incidat.
10. Tum authoritatibus sanctorum
dicentium, quod quanta est differentia
inter motalli plumbum, et auri fulgorem,
etc. , ut 96 Dist. duo sunt, et c. cum
ad verum (Decretum, D. 96, 10 et 6).
Ideo quamvis jurisdictiones sunt dis-
tinctK quoad executionem, tamen
imperator ab ecclesia Romana imperium
tenet, et potest dici officialis ejus, seu
vicarius. Ecclesia Romana in perso-
nam magnifici Caroli a Grsecis trans-
tulit imperium in Germanos. Et Papa
ipsum confirmat, et inungit, et coronat,
vel reprobat, et etiam deponit, ut patet
<<. de ele. , venerabilem (Decretals, i. 6,
34). Nec enim lex imperatoris legare
potest nisi illos quos Romanorum lex
tenet, et ecclesia catholicse sanctio.
Quia extra non est imperium. ut in
autb.
