No More Learning

In the latter part of the sixteenth century, there was increasing
difficulty in seeing what classes or persons were to be trusted to
act for the public good in the present and in the future, and as
willing to leave in the background private tastes and personal
interests which conflicted with public duty. There are frequent
complaints as to the neglect of country gentlemen to play their
part in the work of local government; the new type of non-
resident proprietors was regarded with special suspicion, and
depopulating and enclosing, which continued to be denounced
from time to time, seemed to be a survival of the ruthless
evictions which had moved the indignation of bishop Latimer,
and of John Hales in his Discourse of the Commonweal. While
the gentry were thus negligent, the mercantile classes and the
burghers in the towns appeared to need direction and guidance,
if the reputation of our manufactures was to be maintained
and the commerce of the country to develop. So far as old
traditions survived among the industrial classes, they favoured
a narrow civic patriotism rather than the good of the realm;
while the merchants concentrated in London were affected by
the new commercial morality, and inclined to commercial enter-
prises, from which political trouble might easily ensue. Every
class needed to be kept up to the sense of public duty; the
clergy and ecclesiastical corporations were not above diminishing
the future value of their livings with a view to immediate
gain. The council, inspired by the ceaseless activity of Burghley,
was continually engaged in putting down abuses at which men,
who ought to have been public-spirited citizens, were accustomed


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Public Welfare
301
to connive. Under these circumstances, it was plausible to
look to the crown as the one hope of public-spirited conduct
throughout the realm, and to regard the king as being not only
the source of honour, the fount of justice and the arm of military
power, but as supreme trustee for the public good in all the affairs
of life. This, in substance, is the claim which was put forward by
king James in The True Lawe of Free Monarchies, and it would
probably have been admitted as sound by men who were repelled
by the arguments with which his adherents endeavoured to sup-
port it. The real refutation was a practical one; and it was the
misfortune of James and Charles that many of the undertakings
in which they endeavoured to execute this trusteeship miscarried
disastrously, and not only interfered with private interests, but
proved detrimental to the realm as a whole.
As a consequence, under the early Stewarts, the legitimacy of
giving free play to private interests was advocated in a way in
which it had never been done before; and an attempt was made to
treat as merely private many matters which had hitherto been
regarded as of public concern. It is, of course, true that, in a body
politic, no action can be exclusively private; the interconnection
between individuals in the body politic is so close that wrong
done by an individual may be at least a bad example and injurious
to the community. Religion, which many today regard as a
merely personal affair, was generally thought of in the Elizabethan
and Jacobean periods as of supreme importance to the state.
Christianity, as understood and practised by Englishmen, was
held to be the foundation of Christian morality; and, hence,
was a matter of public concern in which the king might be bound
to interfere. The extreme Erastianism of men like Cranmer, or,
for that matter, of Luther, is a surprise to many in the present
day; but, among Englishmen generally in Elizabeth's time, there
was little sympathy with the scruples of a private conscience which
set itself up against the established order, though sympathy was
growing. While freedom, within limits, for conscientious con-
viction was coming to be regarded as not unreasonable, the freedom
of the individual to carry on his business as he liked, and where he
liked, apart from old moral restrictions or considerations of what
was expedient for the public good, asserted itself more and more.
Under Elizabeth and Burghley, it had been taken as an axiom
that the direction of commercial intercourse between this country
and foreign nations was a matter of public concern, and that even
the internal trade of the country, so far as regards the necessaries


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302 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
of life, ought to be a matter of public regulation. It may be
doubted whether the Elizabethan monarchy, as organised by
Burghley, could have maintained itself in all its activities against
the invading agitations for freedom of conscience and freedom of
enterprise ; but king James and king Charles completely failed to
justify their position as trustees for the public welfare. Under
the Council of State, the machinery for control fell into desuetude;
and individual freedom, both as regards conviction and enterprise,
asserted itself as it had never done before. In this era, there was
a new type of patriotic sentiment, which contained no element of
loyalty to the crown.
Whether they proceeded from a religious or an economic motive,
the attempts to evade interference on the part of the crown with
the consciences or enterprise of individuals demanded some justi-
fication. The writers of the day did not attack the fundamental
question in regard to the meaning and ground of sovereignty as a
mere philosophical problem: the issue was raised by practical
experience and took different forms in England and in Scotland;
and the efforts to organise popular self-government were very
distinct in the two countries.
In England, throughout the reign of Elizabeth, popular opinion,
on the whole, sympathised with the royal claims to very extensive
authority in matters ecclesiastical and in foreign and commercial
policy. The bull of Pius V, which was issued in 1570, had ex-
communicated Elizabeth and released her Roman Catholic subjects
from the obligations of allegiance; it roused fierce indignation
among her subjects, who felt that the maintenance of all they held
dear in church and state depended on the preservation of the
queen's person; and it opened the way for a rigorous persecution,
as the Roman priests, and those who harboured them, were under
suspicion of being traitors. Just, however, because feeling ran
high, there does not seem to have been much printed discussion
of the validity of the pope's claim to release subjects from their
allegiance to the crown. Parsons, the Jesuit, was content to argue
against the claims of the English crown to inherent authority;
and Sir John Hayward, in his answer, insisted on the right of
hereditary succession to the regal power of England. The under-
lying difficulty was scarcely dealt with by English writers of the
period ; if the authority of the crown was not derived from the
papal authority, it would seem that it must either be directly con-
ferred by God, inherent in the princely stock or derived from the


## p. 303 (#325) ############################################

Scottish Ecclesiasticism 303
subjects. Hooker and other writers who defended the existing
order failed to make their position clear as regards these various
alternatives ; expressions might easily be quoted which would go
to show that they did not always maintain the same standpoint.
In Scotland, during the last half of the sixteenth century,
issues of fundamental principle were raised more definitely. The
reformation, in that country, had been thoroughly Calvinistic;
and the doctrine of Calvin was inconsistent with any claims to
inherent authority on the part of a hereditary monarchy. Calvin
and his followers were keenly alive to the supremacy of the
Divine Will, and they believed that this will was fully set forth
in the pages of the Bible. The ministers and stewards of God's
Holy Word professed to be in a position to interpret that Will
from day to day and hour to hour. The conception of a mundane
authority which claimed to exercise any control in matters of
religion seemed to be blasphemous; and the part which was
left for civil officials to play in the management of public
affairs was very restricted. In the free cities, like Geneva, in
which Calvinism had established its hold at first, magistrates
were not in a position, even if they had desired it, to contest
these claims; but, when Calvinism crossed the channel from
Switzerland and France to Great Britain, its pretensions came
into conflict with those of the monarchy. The first notes of
defiance had been sounded by Goodman, and by John Knox in
his Monstruous Regiment of Women ; and the line of argument by
which he attacked the claims of queen Mary to the throne of
England showed that he was out of sympathy with those who
exalted the power of the prince. But the full consequences of
the Calvinistic doctrines only came into light north of the
Tweed. George Buchanan put forward a Calvinistic theory of
national government in 1579 ; his De Jure Regni insists that the
monarch is elected by the people, that he is responsible to the
people and that he may be judged by the people. Though
Buchanan's doctrine was not accepted by constitutional authority,
it found congenial soil in Scotland. In that kingdom, the monarchy
had hardly ever enjoyed a position of independence from the
attacks of a turbulent nobility, and there was little difficulty in
supporting the principle of the responsibility of the crown by
illustrations drawn from Scottish history. The reception of civil
law in the northern kingdom rendered it less possible to regard
the crown as the supreme source of right. While the prerogatives
of the crown were thus minimised, the claim to self-government


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304 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
was being effectively pushed forward. The Scottish parliament
had not, indeed, been an important popular power, and, therefore,
there was a field left in which the self-government of the Scottish
people could be organised afresh on new lines. Despite the oppo-
sition of the regent and the antagonism of the nobility, Andrew
Melville succeeded in completely recasting the ecclesiastical system
in 1580, and in creating a series of representative assemblies, local,
provincial and national, throughout the country. Popular opinion
was able to take complete possession of the national ecclesiastical
system; the new scheme of government professed to be strictly
scriptural, and it treated the king as an official who was bound
to be subservient to this ecclesiastical democracy.
The form which national self government attempted to assume
north of the Tweed was a direct challenge to the constitutional
authorities : it raised the whole question as to the duty of civil
obedience. An attempt to counteract Buchanan's influence was
made in The True Lawe of Free Monarchies, which was attributed
to king James. The defenders of Scottish monarchy were forced
to take very high ground in order to meet their assailants; and
it was under these circumstances that the Stewart doctrine of the
divine right of kings was formulated. Similar principles had, in-
deed, been widely disseminated in England by the Homily published
in 1547, as well as by that in 1570; but the English puritans
did not, by their refusal to submit to the ecclesiastical authorities,
directly raise the issue as to the duty of obedience to the king.
Their struggle was with ecclesiastical administrators and the ques-
tion as to the nature of civil authority was hardly raised. The
high doctrine of monarchy does not seem to have received much
attention or roused much antagonism until it re-entered England
from the north along with the Stewarts. The doctrine of divine
right, as fully formulated, had two aspects: on the one hand,
it maintained that the monarchy was not elective, but that the
occupant of the throne had an inherent hereditary right; on
the other hand, it asserted that the king was a trustee who
was not responsible in any way to his subjects, but to God
Himself. Hence, it appeared that, if there had been any con-
tract between the king and his people, the people could never be
justified in claiming to judge of a breach of contract or to take
the law into their own hands. It was their duty to obey God's
minister, the king; or, if he commanded them to do anything
directly contrary to God's word, they might, indeed, refuse to carry
out his wishes actively, but were yet bound to show their respect by


## p. 305 (#327) ############################################

English Constitutionalism 305
submission to the punishment he might impose for their refusal.
Archbishop Ussher and others, who viewed civil authority in this
religious aspect, would not admit for a moment that they were
giving any apology for arbitrary or tyrannical government, while
they insisted on a duty of passive obedience. At all events, the
doctrine is self consistent; and those who reject it, and try to
formulate principles which shall justify resistance in emergencies,
have always found difficulty in explaining any rational grounds
for obedience at all, except in so far as the dictates of self interest
render it expedient at the moment.
The question between popular self-government and the inter-
ference of the crown was raised in another form and debated on
other grounds in England, where the parliamentary system had
long been in vogue. In Elizabeth's time, the puritans had en-
deavoured to bring ecclesiastical grievances before the House of
Commons; this, the queen resented, as it seemed that the commons
were endeavouring to go outside their province and legislate on
matters which could only be constitutionally dealt with by the
clergy in convocation and by the crown. In this way, the religious
question assumed a constitutional form. There were, indeed, many
abuses in the church, both as regards ceremonial and the enforce-
ment of discipline; and, among many Englishmen, there was little
confidence in either the desire or the power of the bishops to
carry out what they regarded as necessary reforms. There was,
besides, widespread dissatisfaction, among the public and among
lawyers, in regard to both the pretensions and the practice of the
ecclesiastical courts. When the House of Commons insisted on
dealing with these matters, the question came to be one of consti-
tutional right. Hence, the party who desired an extension of
popular self-government over ecclesiastical as well as civil affairs
devoted their attention to the search for precedents rather than to
the laying down of principles. The struggle for ecclesiastical
democracy had led to the creation of a new system of popular
assemblies in Scotland; in England, it took the shape of the
demand for increased power on the part of one estate of the
realm as against the other elements in the constitution.
At the accession of James I, the struggle was both confused
and embittered by the misunderstandings which arose through
identifying the corresponding movements in England and Scotland.
The puritans in England doubtless expected that a Scottish king
might be willing to have the church of England reformed on the
lines of the Scottish church, which they regarded as scriptural.
20
E. L. IV.
CH. XV.


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306 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
They could hardly have been aware of the horror with which he
regarded this presbyterian organisation, as inconsistent with effec-
tive control of public affairs by the civil power, and incompatible
with the good government of the realm. On the other hand,
James was probably unaware of the importance of the House of
Commons as an organ through which popular self-government
might be exercised. He assumed that it might be induced to play
the rôle with which the Scottish parliament had been content.
He regarded the popular assembly as an excellent place in which
to bring private grievances to the knowledge of the sovereign, but
he held that it was for the sovereign, as trustee of the common
weal and directly responsible to God, to shape the policy of the
country for the public good.
Whether the new claims of the House of Commons called forth
the assertion of higher privileges by the crown, or the manner in
which the prerogative of the crown was put forward roused the
antagonism of the commons, the old balance between the different
elements in the life of the state was upset. The well-ordered
community, as vaguely conceived in Elizabethan times, had been a
body in which the nobles and gentry, and the burgesses and
yeomen, co-operated for the common weal. But, in view of the
need of finding a basis for insisting on the duty of civil obedience,
this whole conception of the realm was modified. The supporters
of the crown regarded England as a monarchy in which the king
was personally responsible to God, and to God only, for all public
affairs, while it was desirable that he should get such assistance
from his subjects, by counsel and advice, as seemed to him to be
required. This new view of the English realm failed to commend
itself to moderate churchmen ; while much of the secular learning
and sentiment of England, which, under other circumstances, might
have been conservative, was thrown into opposition to the crown.
Those who were aggrieved by the advancement of Williams and
Juxon, or irritated by the reforms of Laud, threw the weight of
their influence into opposition to the crown. The controversialists
were somewhat at cross-purposes ; on the royalist side, there was
an assertion of principles, while Prynne and his associates were
engaged in accumulating precedents and attacking persons.
Both in England and in Scotland, the determination not to
brook royal interference in matters of religion was momentous;
but, while the presbyterians in England were willing to accede ta,
the claims of the House of Commons, the presbyterians in Scotland
were more thorough-going in their insistence on spiritual inde-


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Private Economy
307
pendence, and had far greater difficulty in coming into line with
any form of civil government. For our immediate purpose, it may
suffice to note that each movement made its own contribution to
the criticism of the Stewart régime and proved to be a step in the
progress of democratic ideas,
a
The century is remarkable in the history of economic thought,
since the close connection between political wellbeing and economic
activities was more generally recognised than had ever been the
case before. So soon as the king came to be dependent for a sub-
stantial part of his income not on his own estates, but on the
money regularly raised by taxation, it was obviously important to
him that the sources from which taxation was drawn-whether
landed property or commercial profit-should be well supplied.
Hence, in the writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
there was a new concern for the material resources of the realm as
contributing not merely to the wealth of private persons, but,
indirectly, to the power and dignity of the realm as a whole. The
few medieval treatises which have survived may be regarded as
prudent maxims about private affairs—such are Robert Grosse-
teste's rules for the management of a household, Walter of Henley's
paternal advice on the management of an estate and the ancient
treatises on the duties of a seneschal. Even Fitzherbert and Tusser,
in the sixteenth century, hardly pass beyond this point of view.
A new note is set in John Hales's Discourse of the commonweal of
this realm in England, which was written in 1549 and published
in 1581. In no previous work had the interconnection of private
business concerns and the public weal been so clearly recognised,
and no writer has put more forcibly the fact that the pursuit of
private interest is not necessarily inimical to, but may often be for
the good of, the state. In modern times, when the government
has been largely dependent for its revenue upon taxation, the
promotion of the harmony between public and private interests
became more apparent. Unless subjects were prosperous, there
was no fund from which revenue could be drawn, and, hence,
it came to be a matter of definite importance to develop the
resources of the realm and to give private enterprise free play, or
to guide it into those directions in which it could contribute most
effectively to the maintenance of the power of the realm. This
doctrine was clearly grasped by Burghley, who set himself to build
up the industrial and maritime greatness of England as the founda-
tion of her power. As the Elizabethan monarchy presented the
20-2


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308 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
type of polity which was accepted as normal in English literature,
so the Elizabethan organisation gave a concrete economic system,
which the economic writers of the period accepted as typical, and
in regard to which they endeavoured to suggest improvements.
A great deal of the literature of the period is concerned with
the description of the realm and its actual resources. Very
interesting, in this connection, is the Itinerary of John Leland; a
more complete account of England as a whole was issued in 1578
by Harrison in his Description of England'. Additional informa-
tion, from a later date, occurs in the admirable descriptions of
each county in turn which are to be found in Fuller's Worthies;
there are also accounts of particular counties such as Westcote's
Devonshire and John Aubrey's Surrey and Wilts, which give
vivid descriptions of the conditions of large areas of the country.
Very special attention, also, was turned to the condition of the
Fens. The rivers which ran through these districts served as
convenient channels for navigation; but, at time of high tide or of
heavy rain in the midlands, they were apt to flood the adjoining
country. During the latter part of the sixteenth and the seven-
teenth century, great efforts were made to recover the land thus
inundated for purposes of pasturage during the summer, if not for
tillage. Dugdale's History of Imbanking gives a clear account
of the steps which were being taken for reclaiming fen-land in
this and other parts of England, while The Anti-projector puts in
an interesting plea for the maintenance of the old conditions and
the value of the products which could be obtained in the Fens by
those who were acclimatised to life there. It was in these regions
that the work of agricultural improvement was most obviously a
matter of public concern, to which the private interests both of
the fen men and of all those who were busied with internal
navigation were opposed. The story of the successive attempts to
deal with this problem, through different bodies of undertakers,
and under the personal direction of the crown, illustrates not only
the physical obstacles which had to be encountered, but the
difficulty of reconciling conflicting interests and the public good.
Improvement in the practice of tillage was also urged, not merely
as a means of successful estate management, but because of its
bearing on the prosperity of the realm. It was in this spirit that
Gervase Markham and others directed attention to the agriculture
of the Dutch, and indicated that, in regard to the conditions of
tenure, the treating of the soil and the crops which it was well
i See vol. ui of the present work, chap. xv.


## p. 309 (#331) ############################################

Administrative Officials
309
to cultivate, England would profit by studying Dutch experience.
Much was to be learned from the Low Countries in regard to the
development of English resources, both by sea and by land. The
success of the Dutch in fishing off the English coasts roused a
patriotic sense of the expediency of ousting them from this en-
croachment by copying their methods. Lord Burghley had been
particularly keen in regard to the importance of encouraging the
fishing trades as a school for seamanship. With his enormous
grasp of detail, he set himself, both by precept and by example,
to increase the consumption of fish; and numerous writers-
Jeninges, Keymor, Hitchcock and others-insisted on the advan-
tages which would accrue to the wealth of the realm from
attention to the harvest of the sea.
Another large section of the economic writing of the period
was undertaken by men who were concerned in the official ad-
ministration of national or local affairs. Such handbooks had
existed from time immemorial ; a great example of this kind of
writing was set by bishop Richard of London, in the Dialogus de
Scaccario, and a similar treatise on the business of the mint was
probably compiled by Walter de Bardes; but, in subsequent times,
there had been an enormous expansion of the administrative
duties undertaken by local officials on behalf of the crown.
Fitzherbert's book on the justice of the peace was the recognised
manual for those who were increasingly employed in economic
duties connected with apprenticeship, the conditions and remune-
ration of labour and the employment of the poor. The book of
John Fisher, of Warwick, gives a vivid picture of the duties which
fell to the clerk of the market at the time. The regulation of the
prices of the necessaries of life was a constant subject of public
care. No part of the economic activities of the crown was more
necessary, and none presented greater difficulties in practice, than
that of authoritatively maintaining the qualities of wares presented
for sale in the markets. Much may be gathered on this topic, so
far as the reputation of our chief English export was concerned,
from the writings of Thomas Milles, a collector of customs, and of
John May, who held the office of `aulnager' and was responsible
that the pieces of cloth exported should be of full length. A con-
siderable portion of the writing of the period takes the form of
complaint as to the want of regulation, and the desirability of
bringing some new department under the direct control of govern-
ment, or of reviving the care which had been formerly bestowed.
It is in this way that Malynes, in a work which has considerable
6


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310 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
a
pretensions to literary grace, argues against the malpractices of
dealers in coin and in favour of more stringent regulation in
regard to currency and exchange.
The needs of the time called forth a form of business manage-
ment which was generally regarded as almost peculiar to England.
In no other country did company trading proceed on quite the
same lines. The great commercial companies of the seventeenth
.
century were, historically, an offshoot of older civic institutions ; for
the most part, they had the character of associations where each
member traded independently, but with the use of common facilities
and under the acceptance of common rules. The Merchant Adven-
turers' was by far the most celebrated of these companies; its affairs
were managed in a residency beyond the sea, and it had a large
membership not only in London but in Newcastle, York and Hull.
Along with the Eastland company, which traded to the Baltic, it
had been the chief organ through which the successful rivalry
of Englishmen with the Hanse league had been carried on. There
were many complaints, however, that this company did not show
an enterprising spirit and had failed to develop the market for
English cloth abroad as it might have done. Its privileges were
suspended, for a time, by James I, and were the subject of constant
debate. Two of the secretaries of the company, John Wheeler and
Henry Parker, wrote effectively in its defence, and the policy for
which they argued may be said to have triumphed. The Adven-
turers entered on a new lease of life before the restoration, and
maintained an important position in the commercial world till
the Hamburg residency was suppressed by Napoleon in 1806.
The great company which was formed to compete with the
Dutch and Spaniards, and to obtain direct access to the markets
of the east, was organised on somewhat different lines, as it was
soon found convenient that such distant adventures should be
carried out on the basis of a joint stock. The advantages and
disadvantages of this new trade gave rise to much criticism and
discussion. The critics argued that it diverted capital from home,
and denied the expediency of allowing bullion to be exported
from the country. The answers were given by Sir Dudley
Digges, by Robinson and, especially, by Thomas Mun, whose
Discourse of Trade to the East Indies and England's Treasure
by Foreign Trade put the case extremely forcibly; and this
company also was reinstated under Cromwell and entered on a
career of commercial greatness and political power, such as its
first advocates could never have foreseen.


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Commercial and Colonising Companies 311
The company form was also employed successfully for purposes
of colonisation. The Virginia company has the credit of over-
coming the difficulties which had rendered the first experiments of
English plantation on the American continent disastrous failures.
It was under the wing of a Plymouth company that the Pilgrim
Fathers settled in the New world, and the settlers who were sent
out by the company of Massachusetts bay developed powers not
only of self-government but of federation which have done much
to determine the character of the polity of the United States. The
possibilities and methods of plantation called forth a large amount
of pamphlet literature, and the writings of captain John Smith,
Sir William Alexander and many others, show, not only the extra-
ordinary risks which had to be run by the pioneers, but the fore-
thought and enthusiasm by which they were inspired to surmount
them.
The risk of distant colonisation threw the adventurers back upon
considering more closely the possibilities of plantation in Ireland.
Indeed, it was generally recognised that, while it might be deşirable
for England to obtain a footing in the New world, it was essential
that Ireland should be so developed as to become a source of
strength rather than of weakness to the crown. The problem why
Ireland had not been brought into line with the English model of
well-ordered society was discussed by Edmund Spenser and by
Sir John Davies. Efforts continued to be made to introduce such
elements from England and from Scotland that portions of the
country might be successfully Anglicised; and, in some cases, this
work was facilitated by the deportation of the older inhabitants,
for which political unrest had given an excuse. The most com-
pletely organised and interesting of the settlements was that which
was carried out in the county of Derry with the help of the great
London companies ; in it we see most clearly what was the Stewart
ideal of a well-organised territory, with a city and market towns
and townships and estates. The whole policy of these under-
takings was bitterly criticised on the fall of Strafford, and James I
cannot be said to have been very successful in inducing the
citizens of London to enter heartily into this scheme of public
welfare.
Another direction in which the development of public resources
occupied the attention of the government was in regard to the
introduction of new industries. England, which has since become
the workshop of the world, was then almost entirely destitute of
skilled work in iron or steel, and was particularly badly equipped


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312 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
with guns and munition of war. From the beginning of the reign,
lord Burghley set himself steadily and persistently to introduce
new industries from abroad; but he was careful that they should
not be injurious to existing trades, and that they should be really
planted in the country, and not merely carried on by foreigners
settled in England, who had no abiding interest in the realm. The
same policy was pursued, though with less wisdom and caution, by
both James I and Charles I. On paper, their schemes for intro-
ducing the art of dyeing, the manufacture of alum, the development
of a silk industry and the use of native materials in the manufac-
ture of soap, appeared admirable; but the projects were not
practically successful, and private interests were roused in oppo-
sition without the attainment of any real public good. Sometimes,
these attempts were made by concessions granted for a period of
years; sometimes, they were undertaken by the crown under official
management. James and Charles could not but be inspired by
the successes of Henri IV in dealing with similar problems in
France; but they were unfortunate in not having advisers of the
capacity of Sully and Olivier de Serres.
The attempts made under Elizabeth and the early Stewarts to
control all the relations of economic life in the public interest gave a
new character to the morality of industrial and commercial life. It
ceased to be entirely concerned with a man's personal relations, and
his personal connections, and came to be more a matter of loyal ac-
ceptance of the course projected in the public good. In its ultimate
effect this change was wholly bad. The Stewarts failed to secure
respect for their efforts to promote the public good; and, in the time
of Adam Smith, the merchant who professed to trade in the public
interest was, apparently, an object of some suspicion. When this
new criterion of honourable dealing was entirely abandoned, there
was neither tradition nor principle available for the maintenance
of disinterested business morality, and the course of deliberately
pursuing individual interest came to have defenders and, indeed,
to be idealised. At least, we may see that the defenders of the old
morality, who appeared to be mere pedants, were right in thinking
that the new morality, which was coming in, was built on insecure
foundations. The chief question of dispute was as to the terms on
which capital might rightly be lent. According to the old ecclesi-
astical tradition, which is embodied in the 109th canon of 1604, it
was wrong to bargain for any payment for certain for the use of a
principal sum. The man who had borrowed it might fail to make
money with it; and, therefore, though the lender was justified in


## p. 313 (#335) ############################################

a
Business Morality
313
requiring the return of the principal, and even in bargaining for a
share of the profit if any accrued, he had no right to ask for a cer-
tain gain, or to put himself in the position of gaining at the expense
of another. But in the conditions of extending business which
were current in the latter part of the sixteenth, and the first half of
the seventeenth, century, it was desirable, in the public interest,
that hoards of money should be brought into play and used as capital
in agriculture, industry or trade. In order that this might be done
as easily as possible, the practice of lending money on moderate
interest came into vogue, and it could be certainly argued that,
in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, or in nine hundred and
ninety-nine cases out of a thousand, the merchant who borrowed at
what was regarded as low interest, say, six per cent. , was able to
pay this interest easily and make a considerable gain for himself,
while the lender got interest on money that would have been other-
wise unremunerative. Henceforward, the term usury came to be
applied to excessive interest, where an element of extortion might
be supposed to come in; but city men generally had no scruple
about the giving or taking of moderate interest as likely to land
them in harsh or unneighbourly conduct. The purists, the most
remarkable of whom was Thomas Wilson, whose treatise was pub-
lished in 1576, and who was followed by Fenton and many of the
clergy, condemned what we now call lending money on interest as
a wrong bargain for a man to make, since it might render him
subject to the temptation of extortion. Malynes, and the English
public generally, insisted that moderate interest, which gave free
play to capital, was for the public good, and that harm only arose
when excessive rates were charged. This was the view which was
adopted by parliament in 1624; the new commercial morality was
accepted by the state, and the efforts of churchmen to maintain
the old standard soon fell into abeyance.
In a somewhat similar fashion, the duty of paying a fair day's
wage for a fair day's work had been, to a large extent, a personal
thing, though the obligation, doubtless, was limited by gild rules and
manorial customs; but, after the statute of 1562, when an elaborate
machinery was set up for regulating the proper rates of wages
and providing for their necessary variation, the duty of considering
what was fair and right almost ceased to be personal and became
official, and the conscientious employer might be satisfied if he
paid the rates as authoritatively fixed by statute. In that age,
the personal kindness of an employer towards his hands took the
form of continuing to give them employment at times when the
a


## p. 314 (#336) ############################################

314 Early Writings on Politics and Economics
markets were bad and work was unremunerative. It was to this
course that clothiers, in times of interrupted trade, were urged by
Wolsey, and by other statesmen who held that capitalists, since
they carried on their business under the protection of the state and
obtained a market through royal alliances, were not at liberty, in
their own private interest, to dismiss their hands and thus to
render their unemployed workmen desperate and liable to break
out into riot.
In the Elizabethan period, attempts were also made to sub-
stitute public organisation for private benevolence in the relief
of the poor. By seeking to take over the care of the poor, the
state may be said to have condemned the spasmodic efforts of
personal charity as insufficient, and to have attempted organised
relief which rendered them unnecessary. The problem of pauperism
had assumed enormous proportions, both in town and country, in
the early part of the sixteenth century; and the dissolution of the
monasteries and the breaking up of religious houses had, at all
events, helped to render the evil more patent. The Supplication
for the beggars is an instructive picture of the variety of mendicants
who were to be met with before affairs reached their worst. The
drastic measures of Edward VI were insufficient; but it appears
that the administration of Elizabethan laws, coupled with the
efforts that were made to introduce new industries, and especially
with the wide diffusion of spinning as a domestic art, caused an
enormous improvement in many parts of the country before the
civil war broke out. There is much interesting writing in this period
on the causes of poverty and on the best means of meeting it.
We hear both from Devonshire and Wiltshire of fluctuations in the
clothing trade as the main causes of distress, while there was also a
tendency to attribute it to the introduction of pasture farming and
the enclosure of commons; others urged that the squatters on
the commons were the most usual source of mischief, and that
greater stringency in dealing with them was essential if the
problem was to be tackled. The charitable spirit, indeed, was not
dead, and, during the early part of the seventeenth century, a very
large number of parochial benefactions were founded for the
teaching of children, for apprenticing boys or enabling them to
start in business and for the care of the aged. But, on the whole,
the relief of the poor was coming to be thought of more and more
as a duty that was to be exercised through public channels and not
by personal gifts. How far this machinery could have continued
i Cf. also vol. III of the present work, chap. v.


## p. 315 (#337) ############################################

The Mercantile System
315
to serve its purpose may be doubtful; but, at all events, the dis-
order which was caused by the outbreak of the civil war put an
end to the centralisation on which its efficiency depended; many
years were to elapse, and many local abuses to arise, before the
various factors could be once more co-ordinated in the pursuit of a
common policy throughout the realm.
The early seventeenth century was a period of transition, when
the power of capital was beginning to make itself felt in many
directions. There was great difficulty in finding any practical
reconciliation of the aims of maintaining the social stability on
which comfort depends, and yet of giving sufficient scope for
progress and change.
The storm which broke out in the civil
war was the most obvious result of the efforts of the Stewarts to
exercise a mediating influence, and to organise a well-ordered
system of industry and trade. Eventually, the interplay and
conscious interdependence of interests in all parts of the country
in carrying out the common object of building up a national mer-
cantile marine gave cohesion to the economic activities of the
realm, but this was effected by the parliaments of the Restoration
period and of the Whig ascendancy, not through the personal
government of the crown. Patriotic sentiment found satisfaction
in the success of the efforts to develop material resources of every
kind, and to render them conducive to national power.


## p. 316 (#338) ############################################

CHAPTER XVI
LONDON AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF POPULAR
LITERATURE
CHARACTER WRITING. SATIRE. THE ESSAY
SINCE the collapse of feudalism, London had become the centre
of political power in England, and the nobility tended more and
more to abandon their estates and frequent the court, where
preferment was to be won. But, since the fall of Antwerp (1576),
London had also established itself as the capital of European
commerce, to which all nationalities crowded in search of wealth.
Thus, the rich men of the upper, as well as the middle class were
gradually being gathered into one city where, for want of other
investments, their wealth was converted into gold plate, jewellery
and rich apparel, till London became the city of fastastic costumes
and extravagant ostentation. With its cosmopolitan population
and foreign imports, London son inspired the desire for travel ;
and Italy, the cradle of the renascence and the school of courtesy,
became the goal of all voyagers. But Italy was also the home of
immorality and intrigue, and northerners brought back to their own
country the cynical curiosity and the ribald insincerity of the
south. The centre of wealth and commerce is, also, the centre of
civilisation, and the sons of rich men, whether nobles or farmers,
came to London to avail themselves of its opportunities. These
young men, though nominally students of law, attendants at
court, or professional soldiers, formed a new and disturbing
element in society. They affected a cult of modernity in which
literary dilettantism and a false sense of honour combined with
contempt for English traditions and indulgence in all forms of
dissipation. These gilded vagabonds crowded places of public
resort, introduced new fashions, cultivated foreign vices and even
made their influence felt in current literature. But they achieved
more lasting harm by calling into existence a class of unscrupulous


## p. 317 (#339) ############################################

>
The New Spirit
317
tradesmen and insidious usurers, who grew rich by ministering to
their capricious extravagance.
Such degeneracy, however, was not universal. Ever since Tudor
times, the evils of progress had met with strong opposition from the
steadier and sounder portion of the nation. Brinkelow, Bansley,
Awdeley, Copland, Harman, Bullein, Gosson and a host of anony-
mous writers had lamented specific abuses of society? , and reflected
the feeling of discontent which oppressed the people. But their
work was not adjusted to the new conditions. In the last half of
the century, London had grown to twice the size it had reached
at the reformation, and this vast concentration of human beings,
together with new activities, luxuries and temptations, occasioned
problems of existence which the Tudor pamphlets were powerless
to solve. Besides, the number of educated men had increased
enormously. Grammar schools had been multiplied%; the univer-
sities were in closer touch with the capital; a literary atmosphere
was being created; intellectual interests were bringing men to-
gether. It became fashionable to read books, to criticise them and
to introduce their phraseology into conversation. But the social
writers of Tudor times had not that subtle persuasiveness which
comes from style, and without which the man of taste can never
be won.
And it was this type, whether courtier, graduate, divine,
soldier, lawyer, merchant, or 'prentice, who now formed the reading
public. Among them arose a generation of brilliant, but mostly
penurious, youths who, urged by the pinch of hunger or the spur
of ambition, now came forward as authors. Their task was to
interpret the features of London social life and, at the same time,
to gratify the existing tendency towards literary style and conver-
sational witticisms. In their efforts to meet this double demand,
they created a literature of comment and observation which was,
eventually, to evolve some of the best work in the language.
But the secret of realism was not discovered at once. Thomas
Lodge made one of the first attempts in An Alarum against
Usurers containing tryed experiences against worldly abuse85
(1584). Money-lenders, with their devices for discovering the
· Ante, vol. II, chap. v, bibl. , pp. 491–2.
2 C. Creighton, in Traill's Social England, vol. I, p. 375.
3 Ante, vol. III, chap. XIX.
4 Barnabe Rich catches the spirit of the times when he talks of this quicke sprited
age, when so many excellent wittes are endeavouring by their pennes to set upp lightes,
and to give the world new eyes to see into deformitie. ' The Honestie of this Age, 1614.
5 For the prose fiction of Lodge, Greene and Nashe, see vol. II of the present
work, chap. xvi; for their plays, see vol. v.


## p. 318 (#340) ############################################

318
London and Popular Literature
pecuniary embarrassments of young men, for gradually involving
the spendthrift in debt and then using him as a decoy to enmesh
others, were a theme of deadly interest to a large number of
Londoners and offered endless opportunity for wit and narrative
power. Although usurers had been an object of satire for more
than a century, Lodge was the first systematically to expose
their practices. But he still, in a style designed to appeal to the
educated, relies for literary effect on the insincerities of the
euphuistic novel, and presents a narrative full of apostrophes,
harangues and reflections.
One of the next efforts was an examination of the age by
Thomas Nashe, in The Anatomie of Absurditie (1588). The work
is a prolix and erratic satire, coloured by touches of euphuism
and confused by innumerable digressions. But, amongst an arraign-
ment of feminine character, in the manner of The Schole-howse of
Women, a defence of fabulists, an interpretation of Ovid's Meta-
morphoses, a discussion on diet, an invective against ballad-mongers
and the customary defence of poetry, the writer vigorously criticises
classical pedantry as one of the great errors of the age; while his
thoughts on study and conduct, with the assertion that the fruits
of our private studie ought to appeare in our publique behaviour,'
and the warning to think not common things unworthy of thy
knowledge,' foreshadow a literature of counsel and reflection which
Bacon was to realise. But, for the moment, London was agitated
by controversy, and the public looked for satire and invective only.
So Nashe turned to the ruder and more profitable trade of
lampoonist.
Four years later, Robert Greene changed the current of prose
literature, discarding all the canons of euphuism by which he
himself had made his reputation. But even Greene did not at
once discover the want of his age. He began by appealing to the
old English love of felonious ingenuity and humorous knavery in
the coney-catching pamphlets already described? . He gives but
few facts of thief life, and these are mostly drawn from the second
part of Awdeley's Fraternitye and Parker's Manifest Detection
of Dice-Play? The bulk of his work is taken up with 'pithy and
pleasant’tales, which lack the picturesque touches and sociological
interest of Harman's great work. But, at the same time, his
pamphlets are most significant. To begin with, he is no longer
writing of the organised vagrants who infested the country, but of
the versatile London thief, a modern type, whose existence was
1 Ante, vol. II, chap. XVI, pp. 360-2.
* Ibid. chap. v, pp. 98 and 102.


## p. 319 (#341) ############################################

Greene's Social Pamphlets 319
bound up with the development of the capital. And, again, though
this realistic interest in city life has compelled even a successful
euphuist to denude his diction of all ornamentation, yet the frame-
work of his pamphlets shows the skill of the professional author.
His methods of presentation are well illustrated by The Defence
of Conny-catching. The pamphlet claims to be a plea for the dis-
reputable thief, and contends that worse cozenage was to be
found among the respectable classes! Yet this argument merely
served as a pretext for exposing the dishonesty of usurers, millers,
butchers, lawyers and tailors, and, still more, as an excuse for
presenting the public with some admirable tales. Apparently,
the success of these rather superficial pamphlets led him to widen
his scope, and to include the practices of female criminals. This
new material afforded an opening for novelty of form. Greene,
always in search of variety, revived the medieval dialogue, presented
the public with A Disputation betweene a Hee Conny-catcher and a
Shee Conny-catcher, in which the interlocutors discuss the compara-
tive merits of male and female with a view to theft and blackmail.
Though a burlesque debate, this tract really penetrates deeply into
the sociology of crime, by considering the questions of sex and
character which underlie the superficial dexterity of coney-catching.
This series of pamphlets marks Greene's apprenticeship in
social literature. Having exhausted his material, he produced,
in July 1592, A Quip for an Upstart Courtier, in which he
reaches his consummation. It has already been shown? how the
greater part of the tract is taken up with a dispute between the
courtier and the tradesman; and how the jury of tradesmen
brought in to decide the case enables Greene to pass in review
representatives of differing trades and pursuits.
The value of the pamphlet consists in the new life and meaning
that Greene puts into old forms of thought. Tradesmen had been
victims of caricature since the early Middle Ages:. The attack
on the fashionable spendthrift, the central figure of A Quip, is
part of the immemorial feud between men of wealth and men of
1 The idea was quite in keeping with the spirit of the sixteenth century: see below,
Nashe's Lenten Stufe, and bibl. under Burlesque Encomia. Parson Hyberdine had
delivered a sermon in praise of thievery. Many broadside ballads sang the joys of
vagabondage. The Defence of Conny-catching claims to be a counterblast to Greene's
preceding pamphlets, Notable Discovery and the later parts of Conny-catching.
But those booklets are gratuitously commended by their self-constituted antagonist,
and our author is addressed with a respectful suavity, quite out of keeping with the
sixteenth century spirit of controversy, but quite in keeping with Greene's methods of
self-advertisement.
? Ante, vol. 111, chap. xvi, p. 361.
3 Ibid. chap. v, p. 84.


## p. 320 (#342) ############################################

320 London and Popular Literature
learning, and had already found expression with Sir Thomas More
and Roger Ascham. The idea of reviewing the representatives
of each trade and profession had been used again and again by
pamphleteers since The Ship of Fools, to go no further back!
Yet the pamphlet marks a fresh stage in the development of
popular literature. The types of society are brought into im-
mediate contact with the social controversy which culminated in
the civil war. Moreover, their portraiture is new. Character
sketches arise as soon as a writer has a point of view from which
to contemplate a class or a type. In Bartholomaeus Anglicus, the
aim of the descriptions is sociological ; in Higden and, later, with
Andrew Boorde', the trend is ethnological and political. Awdeley
and Harman use the character sketch to distinguish the different
departments in the art of roguery, which at first sight appears
homogeneous. But very few writers before Greene had embodied
the moral or humorous aspect of a class in the individuality or
mannerisms of its representatives. If we take the knight, the tailor,
or the usurer, we recognise them at once as living personalities.
And what draws or repels us is the man's occupation, or, rather,
Greene's conception of his occupation. Henceforth, Londoners
were to look for the glory or shame of their society in the descrip-
tion of familiar figures which thronged the street or St Paul's.
But Greene's most profound commentary on his age is the
Groatsworth of Wit. The outline of the story is probably
reminiscent of readings in Terence, and the main idea may well
have been suggested by the Dutch Latin comedies of the Prodigal
Son. But autobiographical touches are unmistakable. We see
there the evil effects of a boyhood spent in an unsympathetic home,
hopelessly out of touch with the new movements of the time. Such
an environment was not likely to prepare a sensitive, impulsive youth
for the dissipations of the university or the storm and stress of
Elizabethan London. Greene represented a fairly numerous class
of men whom an undiscriminating study of Latin and Italian poetry
led to the hiding of debauchery under an appearance of art and
culture. The spectacle of the perfidious Lamilia, composing love
ditties and accepting courtship couched in Ovidian and Terentian
pp. 482–4.
? Ante, vol. III, chap. v, bibl. ,
? De Proprietatibus Rerum (first printed c. 1470).
3 Polychronicon, ptd by Caxton, 1482.
The fyrst boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, pub. 1547.
5 For this influence on Greene's repentance-novels, see J. D. Wilson's article in
The Library, Oct. 1909.
6 De Arte Amandi.


## p. 321 (#343) ############################################

The Seven Deadly Sins
321
preciousness, is an unconscious allegory on the fundamental im-
perfection of the renascence.
Greene had discovered the way to satisfy London's interest in
itself. His mantle fell on Nashe, who, at the termination of the
Marprelate controversy, was driven to look for other means of
subsistence. He returned to the review of society with a keener
and wider perception of life, a satirical vein not uncoloured by
Juvenal and Rabelais and the mastery of an exuberant and
torrential style, in which argot blends with Latinisms. Like
Greene, he cast about for an attractive setting. The devil was
still an object of ribald curiosity, so Nashe associated his satire
with that suggestive personality, and, in Pierce Penilesse, his
Supplication to the Divell, he represents the literary man as a
proverbial lackpenny addressing a complaint to the devil, since
appeals to the church are useless. But, though the supplication
contains contemporary portraiture of life and character', yet
old forms of thought were too deeply ingrained in popular senti-
ment to be eluded. Nashe reverted to the conception of the
seven deadly sins. During the storm of the reformation, the ‘sins'
were banished from literature, but they reappear, towards the end
of the century, as a comic interlude in Marlowe's Faustus, and as
a vehicle for political invective and elaborate imagery in Spenser's
Faerie Queene? Nashe presents all the humours of the age and
his own disillusionments and aspirations under these ‘sins. ' In
this expansive age, when love of travel blended with national
self-consciousness, Londoners took a critical interest in foreign
types. So Nashe vividly portrays the pride peculiar to the
Spaniard, the Italian and the Frenchman. Dutchmen, unwelcome
in England because of their commercial competition, are over-
whelmed with invectives. In due course, the writer passes on
to Gluttony, and then to Drunkenness, in which the Dutch are
again satirised. "The nurse of all this enormitie (as of all evills)
is Idleness,' the type of which is the stationer who referred all
would-be customers to his shop-boy with a jerk of his thumb,
but was full of activity at meal-time. Covetousness is not treated;
but the supplication is followed by a disquisition on devilry and
spiritualism, at that moment one of the burning questions of
the day.
But this brilliant and felicitous commentary on contemporary
London was by no means uninfected by the contentious spirit of
· Ante, vol. II, p. 362. ? F. Rogers, The Seven Deadly Sins, 1907, chap. VI.
3 See bibl. under Witch-controversy.
E. L. IV. CH. XVI.
21


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322 London and Popular Literature
the age. The city was still echoing with the Marprelate contro-
versy, which had been suppressed at the height of the conflict.
But the public had not lost their taste for vituperative literature,
and Nashe, foreseeing opportunities for 'copy' had advertised
himself in Pierce Penilesse as a professional controversialist. In
this capacity, he undoubtedly aspired to imitate Pietro Aretino,
who held all Italy at bay from his one refuge in Venice (1527—57).
Nashe, in order to be sure of rousing an antagonist, followed his
challenge by a personal attack on the two Harveys', who had already
crossed swords with him, and a 'flyting' at once began. In studying
this controversy, it must be remembered that literary duels,
quite apart from personal animosity, had been a quasi-academic
tradition since the days of the medieval Serventois and Jeu-partis.
Dunbar, Kennedy, Montgomerie, Churchyard, Skelton, Alexander
Barclay, Lily the grammarian, James V, David Lyndsay and
Stewart had taken part in ‘flytings? ' But both Nashe and Harvey
were probably more influenced by the classical scholars of the
renascence. Beside Aretino, Poggio had given models of vitu-
perative skill against Felix Anti-papa, Filelfo Vallas and Petrarch.
Julius Caesar Scaliger and Étienne Dolet* had both attacked
Erasmus with the vilest scurrility; and, lastly, Cicero, Harvey's
supreme authority, had proved a past master in the art of invective
against the living and had not spared the dead. Personal resent-
ment was certainly a motive in the Harvey-Nashe controversy;
but private animosity was merged in the class hatred which
the university nourished against the literary adventurers of
London.
Nashe's Apologie of Pierce Pennylesse marks a new stage in
the art of personal abuse. Martin Marprelate had written in the
style of a boisterous monologue, in which his arguments were
enlivened by parentheses, ejaculations and puns. Nashe, un-
doubtedly his imitator, cultivates the same torrential and eccentric
eloquence, but hardly attempts to refute his adversary. He merely
uses him as a canvas on which to display his brilliant ingenuity.
He invents amazing terms of vituperation, whose force is to be
found in their imagery rather than imputation. Harvey is a
a
1 See ante, vol, in, pp. 395, 545.
2 T. Schipper : W. Dunbar, Berlin, 1884. R. Brotanek : Alex. Montgomerie, Vienna
and Leipzig, 1896.
3 Voigt: Die Wiederlebung des classischen Alterthums. Körting: Gesch. der
Literatur Italiens im Zeitalter der Renaissance, 1, p.