The vast tasks of reconversion were apparent in the
fact that toward the conclusion of the war the Soviets
were manufacturing annually 40,000 airplanes, 30,000
tanks, 120,000 pieces of artillery, 450,000 machine-guns
and 5,000,000 rifles and tommy-guns.
fact that toward the conclusion of the war the Soviets
were manufacturing annually 40,000 airplanes, 30,000
tanks, 120,000 pieces of artillery, 450,000 machine-guns
and 5,000,000 rifles and tommy-guns.
Soviet Union - 1952 - Soviet Civilization
They fought the new pro-
gram in agriculture with all possible weapons, includ-
ing those of murder and arson. The Communist Govern-
ment, on its part, retaliated with severity and harshness,
deporting hundreds of thousands of the kulaks to work-
camps in the Urals and Siberia. Other groups among
the peasants, especially in the Ukraine where a separatist
movement was stirring, became disgruntled over the
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? ECOHOMIC AN? D CULTURAL PROGRESS
collectivization program. And in 1931 and 1932 the
grain crops fell to a critical level, while an enormous
number of livestock were slaughtered. During the winter
of 1933 the entire U. S. S. R. felt the effects of a serious
food shortage, which in some areas was undoubtedly
responsible for a heavy toll in malnutrition and death.
But the bad situation quickly changed for the better.
The Communists and the Government became more
moderate in their attitude and made certain compromises
to the still strongly individualistic psychology of the
peasants. The collectives themselves began to operate
more efficiently and to attract farmers by their marked
superiority to the old system. In the fall of 1933 the
country had the biggest harvest in its entire annals. By
the end of the same year two-thirds of all the peasants
in the U. S. S. R. had joined collectives numbering almost
225,000. Collectivization had won through to a great
and lasting victory. It was one of the most significant
agrarian revolutions in history; and was of invaluable
aid to the industrial program in that it ensured plenty
of food for the cities and, by effecting much labor-saving
on the farms, released millions of peasants for work in
industry.
The accomplishment of the third main goal of the
First Five-Year Plan, the mastering of twentieth-cen-
tury technique, was likewise a costly process. A large
proportion of the skilled professional class had left Russia
at the time of the 1917 Revolution; and many of those
who remained continued to be hostile to the new regime
and to sabotage its economic program whenever possible.
Hence the Soviet Government had to train a whole new
generation of socialist technicians whose efficiency and
loyalty could be counted on. This took time. It was also
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
expensive in terms of production costs. Tens of thou-
sands of unskilled workers and raw peasants, starting from
scratch to learn how to operate complicated machinery,
showed much awkwardness at first and ruined much
machinery in the course of their education. Yet in the
end the objective was largely achieved. The workers
demonstrated proficiency in the arts of modern industry.
The institutes of technical education turned out in-
creasing numbers of engineers and other specialists fully
capable of coping with the complex problems of the
machine age. And the quality of all sorts of manufac-
tured goods steadily improved.
The Second Five-Year Plan, extending from January
1, 1933, to December 31, 1937, continued in practically
every respect the advances made under the First. The
chief differences were a greater stress on consumption
goods -- clothes, kitchen utensils, furniture, phonographs,
radios, cameras, bicycles and so on -- and a somewhat
less arduous rate of expansion. As the Second Plan pro-
gressed, the people proceeded more and more to reap
the benefits of the hard work and self-sacrifice necessi-
tated by the First. As Stalin put it in 1935, "Life has
improved, comrades. Life is more joyous. "8 Consumers'
goods, the output of which more than doubled between
1933 and the end of 1937, poured out of the factories in
vast quantities, visibly raising the standard of living in
urban and rural districts alike. Meanwhile the average
real wage went up 103 percent and labor productivity in
industry 82 percent.
The last year of the Second Five-Year Plan witnessed
the gross volume of industrial output with socialized
property accounting for 99. 8 percent of it, rise no less
than 800 percent above 1913 and attain a place among
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
the countries of the world second only to that of the
United States. We have already seen that in 1933, the
first year of the Second Five-Year Plan, collective agri-
culture became firmly established. By 1937, Soviet in-
dustry was manufacturing approximately 90 percent of
the tractors and harvester-combines used in farming;
while the proportion of collectivized peasant households
had risen to 92 percent of the total number and, together
with 4,000 State farms, covered 99 percent of the culti-
vated land. With the exception of two years when
drought conditions were widespread, the harvests con-
tinued to be bigger and bigger. Famine, which for gene-
ration after generation in the old Russia constituted the
major economic evil, had become a thing of the past.
It was also during the Second Five-Year Plan that the
new Constitution of 1936, reflecting the immense eco-
nomic and cultural progress of the preceding years, went
into effect. V. M. Molotov, at that time Premier of the
U. S. S. R. , summed up the achievements of the Plan in
typically Marxist fashion: "The chief historical task
assigned by the Second Five-Year Plan has been accom-
plished: all exploiting classes have been completely abol-
ished, and the causes giving rise to the exploitation of
man by man and to the division of society into exploiters
and exploited have been done away with for all time.
All this is primarily the result of the abolition of the
private ownership of the means of production. It is the
result of the triumph in our country of state and of co-
operative and collective-farm property, that is, socialist
property. "9
As the Third Five-Year Plan, scheduled for 1938-43,
swung into high gear, it was evident that the planned
economy was by and large succeeding and was beginning
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
to fulfil its promise of an abundant existence for the
entire population. These were indeed the "Fat Years"
for the Soviet people. When my wife and I made our
second trip to the U. S. S. R. in the spring of 1938, we
immediately noticed the great improvement over 1932
in foodstuffs, manufactured articles and the clothes which
people were wearing. Consumers' goods filled to over-
flowing the shops of Moscow and other cities, as well as
of the villages through which we wandered in the Uk-
raine. An immense amount of new construction was
going on everywhere. All the chief cities were putting
across five- or ten-year plans of reconstruction and were
erecting factories, workers' apartments, offices, hotels,
schools, theatres, stadiums and bridges.
We were struck, too, by the widespread mechanical
development. Soviet-manufactured automobiles, buses
and trucks now filled the newly macadamized streets of
the cities with quite heavy traffic. And the new Moscow
subway, with its smooth-working escalators and beautiful,
airy stations, seemed to be running with admirable
efficiency. The people themselves constantly impressed
us with their spirit of gaiety and confidence. We saw
them dancing and merry-making in the public squares;
we mingled with them in the streets and parks, at work-
ers' clubs and children's schools; we participated with
them in festivities during holidays and other occasions;
we enjoyed with them theatre and movie; opera and
ballet; we met them personally at their offices and homes,
at lunch and dinner and during special outings.
The widely circulated idea that tourists in Soviet
Russia are shown only what is sure to make a good im-
pression and are strictly kept away from everything else
is simply fantastic. My wife and I walked around alone
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
a large part of the time and observed plenty of things
that were on the seamy side, such as wretched housing
here and there, bad sanitary facilities, run-down public
buildings and spoiled food. As for our favorable impres-
sions, it is rather difficult to believe that Stalin issued a
secret decree ordering the Soviet people everywhere to
smile and look happy on our behalf, or that the bustling
economic activity and large supplies of consumers' goods
were in any sense faked for the benefit of foreign visitors.
The Third Five-Year Plan was designed to achieve
more social-economic progress than both of its predeces-
sors put together. The colossal expansion of industry was
to be continued. In the first three years of the Plan,
through 1940, the capital investment was 192 billion
rubles as compared with a total of 165 billion from 1928
to 1938 -- 51 billion for the First Five-Year Plan and
114 billion for the Second. At the same time the schedules
of the Third Five-Year Plan called for a large increase
in consumption goods and in wages, both of which by
1941 rose by a third over 1937. Labor productivity,
providing much of the growth in national income from
which higher wages were to come, went up even faster.
Yet no sooner was the Third Five-Year Plan well
under way than the shadows of war began to gather most
menacingly. The Anglo-French surrender to Hitler at
Munich took place in the fall of 1938. The Second World
War broke out a year later. And in June, 1940, France
yielded to the Nazi blitzkrieg. These tragic happenings
naturally had a heavy impact on the Soviet Union. From
the time of Munich on, the Soviet Government felt
impelled to put more and more into the defense budget
and the manufacture of armaments. When fascist ag-
gression finally engulfed the Soviet Republic in June of
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
1941, much of the Third Five-Year Plan, especially that
part of it concerned with higher living standards, was
discarded so that the energies of the nation could be con-
centrated on war production and defense.
Once more the people had to forego the rewards of
their titanic labors, postponing their richly deserved
leisure and enjoyments to a future when peace would
reign again. The hurricane that had swept Europe de-
scended upon the Russians with unparalleled fury. And
the additional tragedy for the Soviet Union was that it
was truly in sight of the promised land when Hitler's
murderous legions marched into the depths of the coun-
try carrying death, arson and destruction.
Ralph Parker, New York Times correspondent in
Moscow during the war years, wrote: "Try hard as they
can, it is well-nigh impossible for people in lands that
have not been fought over and occupied to grasp the scale
of the hardships borne by the individual Russian during
the war. Conditions had been such in the pre-war years
that very few had been able to accumulate more than the
most modest possessions, and when victory came, every-
thing had been consumed. The furniture had been used
to feed the little stoves. Schoolchildren wrote their exer-
cises in copy-books made of old newspapers. In winter,
the office-workers sat in their overcoats. Large cities like
Smolensk and Kiev were without electric light or tap
water. Over areas the size of France the factories stood
idle or in ruins. There were large farms where only
women worked. Peasants stood in markets from dawn
to dusk with three or four eggs to sell. The trains ran
ten miles an hour. With eyes smudged with fatigue,
shabby, speechless, people dragged themselves slowly to
work. "10 Mr. Parker was echoing what Winston Chur-
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
chill had said earlier: "The Russians, under their warrior
chief, Stalin, sustained losses which no other country or
government has ever borne in so short a time and lived. "11
From the moment of the Nazi invasion total planning
for total war became the order of the day. The special-
ists of the State Planning Committee one and all had
to become experts on how to mobilize the full economic
resources of the U. S. S. R. Throughout the conflict this
Committee worked closely with the special State Defense
Committee, a war cabinet of eight high-ranking Soviet
leaders, with Premier Stalin as Chairman, which took over
the full powers of government from June, 1941, to Sep-
tember, 1945. The people themselves, in locality after
locality, having learned over the years the meaning and
methods of planning, adapted their cooperative technique
to the war emergency and coordinated all efforts for
victory over the invader.
Social-economic planning went right on operating
throughout the four years of terrible warfare and, as I
have already recounted, played an indispensable part in
the ultimate defeat of Hitler. Prior to the war, that
planning had built up the economic and armed strength
of the U. S. S. R. to the point where the country could
withstand the greatest military assault ever unleashed
upon this planet. The Five-Year Plans had not only
created immense industrial facilities behind the barrier
of the Ural Mountains, but also a huge and reliable agri-
cultural reserve for the production of foodstuffs in this
same Siberian hinterland. Had it not been for this re-
serve, the nation might well have collapsed from lack
of food after the Germans had occupied the Ukraine,
traditional granary for all Russia.
As soon as, in 1943, the Red Army started to recapture
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
large sections of the Ukraine and western Russia, the
Soviet planners were on the spot to help reconstruct the
devastated regions. Declared the head of the Technical
Department of the Coal Ministry in 1943: "The earth
has not yet cooled off after the hot fighting, when the
coal experts who follow in the wake of the Red Army are
already on the job, organizing restoration of the mines. "12
The miners were back working in the pits one week after
the liberation of the vital Donbas area in the Ukraine;
and within another week newly dug coal from these
mines was reaching Moscow. During the same year the
Government launched in the liberated regions a general
program of rebuilding and restoration.
By the end of December, 1944, when it seemed that
Hitler's downfall was not far off, some industries began
to make initial preparations for peacetime production.
Almost immediately after the Nazi surrender extensive
demobilization started in the Soviet Union. Less than
a week after Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allies
on August 14, 1945, the Soviet Government and the
Communist Party called upon the State Planning Com-
mittee to make ready tentative schedules for a Fourth
Five-Year Plan. The Committee proceeded to draw up
the Plan, which was later ratified, with some revisions,
by the Supreme Soviet. It went into effect on January 1,
1946, to run through 1950.
4. Post-War Economic Gains
It was clear that the main goals of the Fourth Five-
Year Plan would have to be economic reconstruction and
reconversion. The war against Germany and Japan had
cost the Soviet Union approximately 485 billion dollars,
including total property damages of about 128 billion
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? ECOHOMIC AND CULTURAL PROGRESS
from the Nazi invasion and occupation. The Nazis de-
molished or put out of commission more than one-third
of the industrial plant existing in 1941; they destroyed
1,710 towns, 70,000 villages and hamlets, 35,000 factories
and 40,000 hospitals; and they made 25,000,000 persons
homeless.
The vast tasks of reconversion were apparent in the
fact that toward the conclusion of the war the Soviets
were manufacturing annually 40,000 airplanes, 30,000
tanks, 120,000 pieces of artillery, 450,000 machine-guns
and 5,000,000 rifles and tommy-guns. The Plan aimed
to bring back over-all production to the pre-war level of
1940 by the end of 1948; and by the end of 1950 to
achieve complete restoration in the devastated areas and
increase total production 48 percent beyond 1940. It
stressed the development of transportation by railway
and water, further electrification and the expansion of
light industries producing consumer goods such as tex-
tiles, leather and canned foodstuffs.
In December, 1947, rationing, which had been a
necessary hold-over from the war years, was totally abol-
ished; and the ruble, which had depreciated in worth
because of the war inflation, was drastically revalued.
During 1948 production in general fulfilled the Fourth
Five-Year Plan's program of reaching the pre-war level.
In 1949 most industries, as well as agriculture, surged
considerably ahead of the 1940 figures. The 1949 report
of the Central Statistical Administration included the
significant statement: "In 1949, as in preceding years,
there was no unemployment in the country. " Unfortu-
nately, due to fear of aggression and the Government's
insistence on secrecy, the Soviet authorities have con-
tinued the policy instituted in 1940 of releasing no totals
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
for actual output and giving out only percentages of
achievement and increase.
On March 1, 1950, as a result of the economic ad-
vances made in 1949, the Government effected a sweep-
ing reduction in prices on 234 different kinds of food
and consumption goods. This amounted to an average
lowering in price levels of at least 20 percent and of
course a corresponding rise in the purchasing power of
the ruble. It was the fourth general price reduction
which had taken place under the Fourth Five-Year Plan.
At the same time the Soviet Cabinet put the ruble on the
gold standard and increased its official value, in terms
of the dollar, from nineteen to twenty-five cents. This
movement strengthened the ruble both internally and as
a medium of international monetary exchange.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan as a whole was fulfilled in
four years and three months; and in its last year -- 1950
-- the total volume of Soviet industry rose 73 percent
above the level of 1940, as compared with the 48 percent
increase envisaged by the Plan. The production sched-
ules of the Plan were all exceeded in iron, steel, coal,
peat, oil, electric power, machine-building and tractors.
All the hydroelectric power stations destroyed during the
Nazi invasion were restored and many new ones built.
However, the Five-Year Plan goals were not reached for
certain types of machine equipment, for the production
of bricks and tiles, for the hauling of timber and for the
general reduction of construction costs. But in all these
categories the figures were far above those of 1940.
Soviet economists considered the repair of destroyed
railways as the most decisive task of the Fourth Five-Year
Plan. By the end of 1950 the full Plan for the restoration
and building of railroads, bridges and stations had been
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
met. Average daily loadings on the railways for 1950
amounted to 121 percent of 1940 and 103 percent of the
Plan figure. Production of locomotives rose to 4,000 per
year. The carriage of cargoes by inland water transport
increased to 26 percent above 1940, but did not fulfil
the level set by the Plan.
One of the most significant features of the Fourth
Five-Year Plan was the rapid advance in technology
throughout industry. In steel manufacturing, the use of
oxygen was generally introduced, resulting in much faster
smelting and therefore in greater productive capacities
for furnaces. In the coal industry, cutting, breaking and
hauling the coal underground, and loading it into freight
cars at the surface were largely mechanized, thus saving
much labor and easing the lot of the miner. Much atten-
tion is now being given to developing remote control
and automatic operation of mining equipment so as to
reduce to a minimum the need of underground work by
human beings. Horrifying mine explosions such as still
take place in Britain and America -- witness the one
which killed 119 miners in Illinois in December, 1951 --
have become unknown in the Soviet Union, due to
modern ventilation systems and other technical devices.
During the Fourth Five-Year Plan, in the oil industry,
the production of high-octane aviation fuel and lubricants
was expanded, and quality improved. This period also
continued a major trend, very important for Soviet de-
fense, in the geographical distribution of oil extraction.
Whereas in 1940 only 12 percent of Soviet oil came from
areas outside the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, now 44
percent is taken from territories far away from the fron-
tier, such as the Ural Mountains region and Soviet Cen-
tral Asia.
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
In the manufacture of machine tools, so vital to mod-
ern industry, the Soviet Union has come closest of all to
the United States in quantity and quality. By 1950 there
were more than 1,300,000 machine tools in the U. S. S. R. ,
and production, at over 100,000 per year, was 2. 3 times
as much as 1940. The rapid expansion of the machine-
building industry ensures regular re-equipment of the
entire economy, a steady increase in labor productivity
and continuous technical progress. A striking new devel-
opment was the establishment of automatically operated
lines of machinery in twenty-six factories. The only per-
sons on duty in these installations are supervisory engi-
neers and maintenance mechanics.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan brought about sensational
strides in heavy construction machinery. Today a single
plant in the Urals turns out six complete blast furnaces
a year, each one being, in height and bulk, the equivalent
of a high office building. The bulldozer, the earth-mover
and the walking-excavator -- a power shovel too heavy
for caterpillar tracks -- have now become standard equip-
ment on construction projects. In the building of the
Volga-Don Canal engineers used a dragline excavator
doing the labor of 7,000 pick-and-shovel men and requir-
ing two freight trains each a mile long to move its dis-
assembled parts. According to Soviet engineers, the new
giant dredge-digger, an electric-powered model called
"Stalingrad II," performs the work of more than 300,000
laborers. It can move and transport close to 340,000
cubic yards of earth in a twenty-hour day.
The unceasing development of machine processes has
wrought a revolution On field and farm by leading to the
almost complete industrialization of agriculture. In 1950
more than 95 percent of the ploughing, sowing and har-
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
vesting of grain was done by mechanical traction. The
output of combines had increased 3. 6 times as compared
with 1940 and that of tractors 3. 8 times. And agriculture
in general had received 536,000 new tractors, in terms
of fifteen-horsepower units, as contrasted with 523,000
in use in 1940. Experiments with electrically operated
tractors were proving successful. It is to be stressed that
there is a whole federal Ministry concerned with agri-
cultural machine-building.
The expansion in agricultural machinery from 1946
through 1950 was so great that it became desirable to
merge a large proportion of the smaller collective farms
in order to permit the most effective use of the new equip-
ment. Three-quarters of the collectives amalgamated on
an average basis of three into one. One-quarter of the
previously existing farms were considered big enough
for maximum efficiency and underwent no change. The
result has been a reduction in the number of collective
farms from approximately 252,000 to approximately
123,000. The average collective now probably has about
2,500 acres of arable land worked by close to 200 families.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan also saw the rapid col-
lectivization of agriculture in the three Baltic Republics,
in Moldavia, in western Ukraine and in western Belo-
russia -- the areas reunited with the U. S. S. R. just before
the Nazi invasion. According to Mr. C. L. Sulzberger,
writing in The New York Times of July 26, 1949, special
inducements offered to Baltic farmers to join collectives
that year included: "A 50 percent reduction in income
taxes; loans to collective farmers; and a 10 percent re-
duction in charges for hiring of state tractors. " The
guarantee of these and other immediate benefits, as well
as intensive education as to the general superiority of
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
collective effort, resulted in some 95 percent of the
farmers in the Baltic States joining collective farms by
the end of 1950.
The post-war progress of agriculture quickly put an
end to the meagre food rations of the war period. By the
conclusion of the Fourth Five-Year Plan the total grain
yield was 13 percent above 1940. Butter production had
risen 57 percent, vegetable oil and other fats 10 percent,
meat 7 percent, sausage products 20 percent, tinned goods
48 percent, sugar 17 percent and confectionery products
23 percent. The fish catch increased 27 percent. Baby
foods went up 5. 7 times above the pre-war level and vita-
mins 10. 4 times.
Consumers' goods other than edibles kept pace with
the other advances in the economy. Output in textiles,
clothing, knitted goods and other branches of light
industry increased 17 percent over 1940. To quote the
official report issued jointly by the State Planning Com-
mittee and Central Statistical Administration: "Produc-
tion of the chief articles of light industry increased dur-
ing the five-year period as follows: cotton goods 2. 4 times,
woolen fabrics 2. 9 times, hosiery 5. 2 times, leather foot-
wear 3. 2 times, rubber footwear 7 times. However, the
Five-Year Plan assignment for production of cotton
goods and footwear was not fully met. The assortment
of fabrics, clothing, knitted goods and footwear was sub-
stantially improved and expanded. . . . In 1950 sales of
clocks and watches were 3. 3 times the pre-war year of
1940, radio sets 6 times, electric household appliances
1. 5 times, bicycles 2. 9 times, sewing machines almost
3 times and motorcycles 16 times. "18
I could go on citing innumerable statistics of this sort.
But I have mentioned enough to show that the Fourth
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
Five-Year Plan fulfilled all its main objectives and
demonstrated the ability of socialist planning to sur-
mount the post-war probems of reconstruction and go
far beyond. Nineteen fifty-one, the first year of the Fifth
Five-Year Plan*, 1951-1955, extended the advances and
pushed up total industrial production to twice the pre-
war figure. This puts the people within sight of the tran-
sition to a communist system, since Soviet economists
claim that a threefold industrial increase over 1940 will
lay the basis for communism. Under communism distri-
bution will be according to need and the country will,
it is predicted, be "literally saturated" with consumer
goods in unheard-of abundance. Soviet theoreticians are
now saying that if the present rate of economic growth
continues, the U. S. S. R. will be ready for communism
around 1960.
Of vital import to evolution towards communism is
likely to be the application of atomic energy to peaceful
purposes in the Soviet Union. On September 23, 1949,
President Truman announced that within recent weeks
an atomic explosion had occurred in the U. S. S. R. The
Russians then asserted that they had possessed the secret
of the atom bomb as early as 1947. In 1950 a leading
Soviet atomic specialist, Professor V. Golubtsov, wrote
in an article that Soviet science had discovered how to
directly transform atomic energy into both electrical
power and heat. In 1951 a top Soviet chemist, A. N.
Nesmeyanov, said that "Russian scientists now are using
atomic energy for developing the nation's industry and
agriculture. "14
While these claims have not yet been verified, I be-
* For the detailed directives and goals of the Fifth Five-Year Plan, which
aims at a 70 percent increase in industrial production and the turnover of
retail goods by the end of 1955, see The New York Times of August 23, 1952.
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
lieve it highly probable that atomic power is being har-
nessed in some measure to economic ends. As Mr. Har-
rison E. Salisbury, Moscow correspondent of The New
York Times, has pointed out, Soviet Russia "is free to
apply this new energy when and as needed without en-
countering the problem of competition with existing
forms of energy or of establishing new machinery for
governmental operation of the plants, which in time,
may become the industrial backbone of the nation. "15 In
other words, the Soviet socialist order, based as it is on
public ownership, can adjust rather easily to the peaceful
utilization of the potent atom.
Despite the major emphasis in all the Five-Year Plans
to date on capital construction and heavy industry, the
post-war upsurge in general living standards has been
notable. Although it is most difficult to compare accu-
rately the standard of living with that in other countries,
it is sound to state that the Soviet worker today eats as
well as the British, French, German or Italian worker.
A well-known English chocolate manufacturer, Paul
Cadbury, who visited the Soviet Union with a Quaker
group in the summer of 1951, declared in an address at
Swarthmore College: "The standard of living of the
ordinary people in Russia today is comparable, perhaps
not exactly the same, but in the same bracket as the
standard of living in England; they are well fed, well
clothed, satisfied and content with the country in which
they live. . . . I find that there is a good deal of ignorance
in America about conditions as they are in Russia. Several
people have asked me, 'Did you see anyone smile? ' Well,
it made me smile to be asked that question because quite
unlike the conditions in Germany before the war, or even
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? ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL PROGRESS
as I noticed them in Czechoslovakia on our way out to
Moscow, people in Russia seem happy. I think that the
reason is this: They measure everything by their own
past. "16
What the secretary of a British workers' delegation
to the Soviet Union in 1950 reported about the Russians
is of equal significance: "When you talk to them as we
did on our visit, and ask them about their living stand-
ards, they usually start right off by telling you that they
have abolished fear of being unemployed, fear of being
thrown on the scrap heap because of old age, fear of what
might happen if the breadwinner became ill, fear of not
being able to pay rent, fear of not being able to give the
children a good start in life. This complete absence of
anxiety about the future, this lack of worry about whether
there will be enough work, surely must be ranked among
the most priceless possessions. It must create a light-
heartedness and care-ffee spirit such as few of us, not even
the wealthy ones among us with their stocks and share
troubles, can imagine. It must release tremendous ener-
gies, mental and physical. "17
Typical of Soviet Russia's earth-shaking projects is
the Fifteen-Year Agricultural Plan, 1949-65. This ambi-
tious scheme, generally known as the Plan for Field Pro-
tecting Forest Belts, aims to alter the climate, prevent
drought and stabilize the harvests throughout an area in
southern Russia and Siberia that is half the size of the
United States and contains 75,000,000 people. In this
vast region west and south of the Ural Mountains the
hot, dry, relentless winds from the east have for centuries
swept over the open steppes of the Lower Volga Valley,
the Northern Caucasus and Ukraine, drying out or blow-
201
?
gram in agriculture with all possible weapons, includ-
ing those of murder and arson. The Communist Govern-
ment, on its part, retaliated with severity and harshness,
deporting hundreds of thousands of the kulaks to work-
camps in the Urals and Siberia. Other groups among
the peasants, especially in the Ukraine where a separatist
movement was stirring, became disgruntled over the
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? ECOHOMIC AN? D CULTURAL PROGRESS
collectivization program. And in 1931 and 1932 the
grain crops fell to a critical level, while an enormous
number of livestock were slaughtered. During the winter
of 1933 the entire U. S. S. R. felt the effects of a serious
food shortage, which in some areas was undoubtedly
responsible for a heavy toll in malnutrition and death.
But the bad situation quickly changed for the better.
The Communists and the Government became more
moderate in their attitude and made certain compromises
to the still strongly individualistic psychology of the
peasants. The collectives themselves began to operate
more efficiently and to attract farmers by their marked
superiority to the old system. In the fall of 1933 the
country had the biggest harvest in its entire annals. By
the end of the same year two-thirds of all the peasants
in the U. S. S. R. had joined collectives numbering almost
225,000. Collectivization had won through to a great
and lasting victory. It was one of the most significant
agrarian revolutions in history; and was of invaluable
aid to the industrial program in that it ensured plenty
of food for the cities and, by effecting much labor-saving
on the farms, released millions of peasants for work in
industry.
The accomplishment of the third main goal of the
First Five-Year Plan, the mastering of twentieth-cen-
tury technique, was likewise a costly process. A large
proportion of the skilled professional class had left Russia
at the time of the 1917 Revolution; and many of those
who remained continued to be hostile to the new regime
and to sabotage its economic program whenever possible.
Hence the Soviet Government had to train a whole new
generation of socialist technicians whose efficiency and
loyalty could be counted on. This took time. It was also
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
expensive in terms of production costs. Tens of thou-
sands of unskilled workers and raw peasants, starting from
scratch to learn how to operate complicated machinery,
showed much awkwardness at first and ruined much
machinery in the course of their education. Yet in the
end the objective was largely achieved. The workers
demonstrated proficiency in the arts of modern industry.
The institutes of technical education turned out in-
creasing numbers of engineers and other specialists fully
capable of coping with the complex problems of the
machine age. And the quality of all sorts of manufac-
tured goods steadily improved.
The Second Five-Year Plan, extending from January
1, 1933, to December 31, 1937, continued in practically
every respect the advances made under the First. The
chief differences were a greater stress on consumption
goods -- clothes, kitchen utensils, furniture, phonographs,
radios, cameras, bicycles and so on -- and a somewhat
less arduous rate of expansion. As the Second Plan pro-
gressed, the people proceeded more and more to reap
the benefits of the hard work and self-sacrifice necessi-
tated by the First. As Stalin put it in 1935, "Life has
improved, comrades. Life is more joyous. "8 Consumers'
goods, the output of which more than doubled between
1933 and the end of 1937, poured out of the factories in
vast quantities, visibly raising the standard of living in
urban and rural districts alike. Meanwhile the average
real wage went up 103 percent and labor productivity in
industry 82 percent.
The last year of the Second Five-Year Plan witnessed
the gross volume of industrial output with socialized
property accounting for 99. 8 percent of it, rise no less
than 800 percent above 1913 and attain a place among
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
the countries of the world second only to that of the
United States. We have already seen that in 1933, the
first year of the Second Five-Year Plan, collective agri-
culture became firmly established. By 1937, Soviet in-
dustry was manufacturing approximately 90 percent of
the tractors and harvester-combines used in farming;
while the proportion of collectivized peasant households
had risen to 92 percent of the total number and, together
with 4,000 State farms, covered 99 percent of the culti-
vated land. With the exception of two years when
drought conditions were widespread, the harvests con-
tinued to be bigger and bigger. Famine, which for gene-
ration after generation in the old Russia constituted the
major economic evil, had become a thing of the past.
It was also during the Second Five-Year Plan that the
new Constitution of 1936, reflecting the immense eco-
nomic and cultural progress of the preceding years, went
into effect. V. M. Molotov, at that time Premier of the
U. S. S. R. , summed up the achievements of the Plan in
typically Marxist fashion: "The chief historical task
assigned by the Second Five-Year Plan has been accom-
plished: all exploiting classes have been completely abol-
ished, and the causes giving rise to the exploitation of
man by man and to the division of society into exploiters
and exploited have been done away with for all time.
All this is primarily the result of the abolition of the
private ownership of the means of production. It is the
result of the triumph in our country of state and of co-
operative and collective-farm property, that is, socialist
property. "9
As the Third Five-Year Plan, scheduled for 1938-43,
swung into high gear, it was evident that the planned
economy was by and large succeeding and was beginning
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
to fulfil its promise of an abundant existence for the
entire population. These were indeed the "Fat Years"
for the Soviet people. When my wife and I made our
second trip to the U. S. S. R. in the spring of 1938, we
immediately noticed the great improvement over 1932
in foodstuffs, manufactured articles and the clothes which
people were wearing. Consumers' goods filled to over-
flowing the shops of Moscow and other cities, as well as
of the villages through which we wandered in the Uk-
raine. An immense amount of new construction was
going on everywhere. All the chief cities were putting
across five- or ten-year plans of reconstruction and were
erecting factories, workers' apartments, offices, hotels,
schools, theatres, stadiums and bridges.
We were struck, too, by the widespread mechanical
development. Soviet-manufactured automobiles, buses
and trucks now filled the newly macadamized streets of
the cities with quite heavy traffic. And the new Moscow
subway, with its smooth-working escalators and beautiful,
airy stations, seemed to be running with admirable
efficiency. The people themselves constantly impressed
us with their spirit of gaiety and confidence. We saw
them dancing and merry-making in the public squares;
we mingled with them in the streets and parks, at work-
ers' clubs and children's schools; we participated with
them in festivities during holidays and other occasions;
we enjoyed with them theatre and movie; opera and
ballet; we met them personally at their offices and homes,
at lunch and dinner and during special outings.
The widely circulated idea that tourists in Soviet
Russia are shown only what is sure to make a good im-
pression and are strictly kept away from everything else
is simply fantastic. My wife and I walked around alone
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
a large part of the time and observed plenty of things
that were on the seamy side, such as wretched housing
here and there, bad sanitary facilities, run-down public
buildings and spoiled food. As for our favorable impres-
sions, it is rather difficult to believe that Stalin issued a
secret decree ordering the Soviet people everywhere to
smile and look happy on our behalf, or that the bustling
economic activity and large supplies of consumers' goods
were in any sense faked for the benefit of foreign visitors.
The Third Five-Year Plan was designed to achieve
more social-economic progress than both of its predeces-
sors put together. The colossal expansion of industry was
to be continued. In the first three years of the Plan,
through 1940, the capital investment was 192 billion
rubles as compared with a total of 165 billion from 1928
to 1938 -- 51 billion for the First Five-Year Plan and
114 billion for the Second. At the same time the schedules
of the Third Five-Year Plan called for a large increase
in consumption goods and in wages, both of which by
1941 rose by a third over 1937. Labor productivity,
providing much of the growth in national income from
which higher wages were to come, went up even faster.
Yet no sooner was the Third Five-Year Plan well
under way than the shadows of war began to gather most
menacingly. The Anglo-French surrender to Hitler at
Munich took place in the fall of 1938. The Second World
War broke out a year later. And in June, 1940, France
yielded to the Nazi blitzkrieg. These tragic happenings
naturally had a heavy impact on the Soviet Union. From
the time of Munich on, the Soviet Government felt
impelled to put more and more into the defense budget
and the manufacture of armaments. When fascist ag-
gression finally engulfed the Soviet Republic in June of
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
1941, much of the Third Five-Year Plan, especially that
part of it concerned with higher living standards, was
discarded so that the energies of the nation could be con-
centrated on war production and defense.
Once more the people had to forego the rewards of
their titanic labors, postponing their richly deserved
leisure and enjoyments to a future when peace would
reign again. The hurricane that had swept Europe de-
scended upon the Russians with unparalleled fury. And
the additional tragedy for the Soviet Union was that it
was truly in sight of the promised land when Hitler's
murderous legions marched into the depths of the coun-
try carrying death, arson and destruction.
Ralph Parker, New York Times correspondent in
Moscow during the war years, wrote: "Try hard as they
can, it is well-nigh impossible for people in lands that
have not been fought over and occupied to grasp the scale
of the hardships borne by the individual Russian during
the war. Conditions had been such in the pre-war years
that very few had been able to accumulate more than the
most modest possessions, and when victory came, every-
thing had been consumed. The furniture had been used
to feed the little stoves. Schoolchildren wrote their exer-
cises in copy-books made of old newspapers. In winter,
the office-workers sat in their overcoats. Large cities like
Smolensk and Kiev were without electric light or tap
water. Over areas the size of France the factories stood
idle or in ruins. There were large farms where only
women worked. Peasants stood in markets from dawn
to dusk with three or four eggs to sell. The trains ran
ten miles an hour. With eyes smudged with fatigue,
shabby, speechless, people dragged themselves slowly to
work. "10 Mr. Parker was echoing what Winston Chur-
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
chill had said earlier: "The Russians, under their warrior
chief, Stalin, sustained losses which no other country or
government has ever borne in so short a time and lived. "11
From the moment of the Nazi invasion total planning
for total war became the order of the day. The special-
ists of the State Planning Committee one and all had
to become experts on how to mobilize the full economic
resources of the U. S. S. R. Throughout the conflict this
Committee worked closely with the special State Defense
Committee, a war cabinet of eight high-ranking Soviet
leaders, with Premier Stalin as Chairman, which took over
the full powers of government from June, 1941, to Sep-
tember, 1945. The people themselves, in locality after
locality, having learned over the years the meaning and
methods of planning, adapted their cooperative technique
to the war emergency and coordinated all efforts for
victory over the invader.
Social-economic planning went right on operating
throughout the four years of terrible warfare and, as I
have already recounted, played an indispensable part in
the ultimate defeat of Hitler. Prior to the war, that
planning had built up the economic and armed strength
of the U. S. S. R. to the point where the country could
withstand the greatest military assault ever unleashed
upon this planet. The Five-Year Plans had not only
created immense industrial facilities behind the barrier
of the Ural Mountains, but also a huge and reliable agri-
cultural reserve for the production of foodstuffs in this
same Siberian hinterland. Had it not been for this re-
serve, the nation might well have collapsed from lack
of food after the Germans had occupied the Ukraine,
traditional granary for all Russia.
As soon as, in 1943, the Red Army started to recapture
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
large sections of the Ukraine and western Russia, the
Soviet planners were on the spot to help reconstruct the
devastated regions. Declared the head of the Technical
Department of the Coal Ministry in 1943: "The earth
has not yet cooled off after the hot fighting, when the
coal experts who follow in the wake of the Red Army are
already on the job, organizing restoration of the mines. "12
The miners were back working in the pits one week after
the liberation of the vital Donbas area in the Ukraine;
and within another week newly dug coal from these
mines was reaching Moscow. During the same year the
Government launched in the liberated regions a general
program of rebuilding and restoration.
By the end of December, 1944, when it seemed that
Hitler's downfall was not far off, some industries began
to make initial preparations for peacetime production.
Almost immediately after the Nazi surrender extensive
demobilization started in the Soviet Union. Less than
a week after Japan's unconditional surrender to the Allies
on August 14, 1945, the Soviet Government and the
Communist Party called upon the State Planning Com-
mittee to make ready tentative schedules for a Fourth
Five-Year Plan. The Committee proceeded to draw up
the Plan, which was later ratified, with some revisions,
by the Supreme Soviet. It went into effect on January 1,
1946, to run through 1950.
4. Post-War Economic Gains
It was clear that the main goals of the Fourth Five-
Year Plan would have to be economic reconstruction and
reconversion. The war against Germany and Japan had
cost the Soviet Union approximately 485 billion dollars,
including total property damages of about 128 billion
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? ECOHOMIC AND CULTURAL PROGRESS
from the Nazi invasion and occupation. The Nazis de-
molished or put out of commission more than one-third
of the industrial plant existing in 1941; they destroyed
1,710 towns, 70,000 villages and hamlets, 35,000 factories
and 40,000 hospitals; and they made 25,000,000 persons
homeless.
The vast tasks of reconversion were apparent in the
fact that toward the conclusion of the war the Soviets
were manufacturing annually 40,000 airplanes, 30,000
tanks, 120,000 pieces of artillery, 450,000 machine-guns
and 5,000,000 rifles and tommy-guns. The Plan aimed
to bring back over-all production to the pre-war level of
1940 by the end of 1948; and by the end of 1950 to
achieve complete restoration in the devastated areas and
increase total production 48 percent beyond 1940. It
stressed the development of transportation by railway
and water, further electrification and the expansion of
light industries producing consumer goods such as tex-
tiles, leather and canned foodstuffs.
In December, 1947, rationing, which had been a
necessary hold-over from the war years, was totally abol-
ished; and the ruble, which had depreciated in worth
because of the war inflation, was drastically revalued.
During 1948 production in general fulfilled the Fourth
Five-Year Plan's program of reaching the pre-war level.
In 1949 most industries, as well as agriculture, surged
considerably ahead of the 1940 figures. The 1949 report
of the Central Statistical Administration included the
significant statement: "In 1949, as in preceding years,
there was no unemployment in the country. " Unfortu-
nately, due to fear of aggression and the Government's
insistence on secrecy, the Soviet authorities have con-
tinued the policy instituted in 1940 of releasing no totals
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
for actual output and giving out only percentages of
achievement and increase.
On March 1, 1950, as a result of the economic ad-
vances made in 1949, the Government effected a sweep-
ing reduction in prices on 234 different kinds of food
and consumption goods. This amounted to an average
lowering in price levels of at least 20 percent and of
course a corresponding rise in the purchasing power of
the ruble. It was the fourth general price reduction
which had taken place under the Fourth Five-Year Plan.
At the same time the Soviet Cabinet put the ruble on the
gold standard and increased its official value, in terms
of the dollar, from nineteen to twenty-five cents. This
movement strengthened the ruble both internally and as
a medium of international monetary exchange.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan as a whole was fulfilled in
four years and three months; and in its last year -- 1950
-- the total volume of Soviet industry rose 73 percent
above the level of 1940, as compared with the 48 percent
increase envisaged by the Plan. The production sched-
ules of the Plan were all exceeded in iron, steel, coal,
peat, oil, electric power, machine-building and tractors.
All the hydroelectric power stations destroyed during the
Nazi invasion were restored and many new ones built.
However, the Five-Year Plan goals were not reached for
certain types of machine equipment, for the production
of bricks and tiles, for the hauling of timber and for the
general reduction of construction costs. But in all these
categories the figures were far above those of 1940.
Soviet economists considered the repair of destroyed
railways as the most decisive task of the Fourth Five-Year
Plan. By the end of 1950 the full Plan for the restoration
and building of railroads, bridges and stations had been
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
met. Average daily loadings on the railways for 1950
amounted to 121 percent of 1940 and 103 percent of the
Plan figure. Production of locomotives rose to 4,000 per
year. The carriage of cargoes by inland water transport
increased to 26 percent above 1940, but did not fulfil
the level set by the Plan.
One of the most significant features of the Fourth
Five-Year Plan was the rapid advance in technology
throughout industry. In steel manufacturing, the use of
oxygen was generally introduced, resulting in much faster
smelting and therefore in greater productive capacities
for furnaces. In the coal industry, cutting, breaking and
hauling the coal underground, and loading it into freight
cars at the surface were largely mechanized, thus saving
much labor and easing the lot of the miner. Much atten-
tion is now being given to developing remote control
and automatic operation of mining equipment so as to
reduce to a minimum the need of underground work by
human beings. Horrifying mine explosions such as still
take place in Britain and America -- witness the one
which killed 119 miners in Illinois in December, 1951 --
have become unknown in the Soviet Union, due to
modern ventilation systems and other technical devices.
During the Fourth Five-Year Plan, in the oil industry,
the production of high-octane aviation fuel and lubricants
was expanded, and quality improved. This period also
continued a major trend, very important for Soviet de-
fense, in the geographical distribution of oil extraction.
Whereas in 1940 only 12 percent of Soviet oil came from
areas outside the Caucasus and Transcaucasus, now 44
percent is taken from territories far away from the fron-
tier, such as the Ural Mountains region and Soviet Cen-
tral Asia.
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
In the manufacture of machine tools, so vital to mod-
ern industry, the Soviet Union has come closest of all to
the United States in quantity and quality. By 1950 there
were more than 1,300,000 machine tools in the U. S. S. R. ,
and production, at over 100,000 per year, was 2. 3 times
as much as 1940. The rapid expansion of the machine-
building industry ensures regular re-equipment of the
entire economy, a steady increase in labor productivity
and continuous technical progress. A striking new devel-
opment was the establishment of automatically operated
lines of machinery in twenty-six factories. The only per-
sons on duty in these installations are supervisory engi-
neers and maintenance mechanics.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan brought about sensational
strides in heavy construction machinery. Today a single
plant in the Urals turns out six complete blast furnaces
a year, each one being, in height and bulk, the equivalent
of a high office building. The bulldozer, the earth-mover
and the walking-excavator -- a power shovel too heavy
for caterpillar tracks -- have now become standard equip-
ment on construction projects. In the building of the
Volga-Don Canal engineers used a dragline excavator
doing the labor of 7,000 pick-and-shovel men and requir-
ing two freight trains each a mile long to move its dis-
assembled parts. According to Soviet engineers, the new
giant dredge-digger, an electric-powered model called
"Stalingrad II," performs the work of more than 300,000
laborers. It can move and transport close to 340,000
cubic yards of earth in a twenty-hour day.
The unceasing development of machine processes has
wrought a revolution On field and farm by leading to the
almost complete industrialization of agriculture. In 1950
more than 95 percent of the ploughing, sowing and har-
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
vesting of grain was done by mechanical traction. The
output of combines had increased 3. 6 times as compared
with 1940 and that of tractors 3. 8 times. And agriculture
in general had received 536,000 new tractors, in terms
of fifteen-horsepower units, as contrasted with 523,000
in use in 1940. Experiments with electrically operated
tractors were proving successful. It is to be stressed that
there is a whole federal Ministry concerned with agri-
cultural machine-building.
The expansion in agricultural machinery from 1946
through 1950 was so great that it became desirable to
merge a large proportion of the smaller collective farms
in order to permit the most effective use of the new equip-
ment. Three-quarters of the collectives amalgamated on
an average basis of three into one. One-quarter of the
previously existing farms were considered big enough
for maximum efficiency and underwent no change. The
result has been a reduction in the number of collective
farms from approximately 252,000 to approximately
123,000. The average collective now probably has about
2,500 acres of arable land worked by close to 200 families.
The Fourth Five-Year Plan also saw the rapid col-
lectivization of agriculture in the three Baltic Republics,
in Moldavia, in western Ukraine and in western Belo-
russia -- the areas reunited with the U. S. S. R. just before
the Nazi invasion. According to Mr. C. L. Sulzberger,
writing in The New York Times of July 26, 1949, special
inducements offered to Baltic farmers to join collectives
that year included: "A 50 percent reduction in income
taxes; loans to collective farmers; and a 10 percent re-
duction in charges for hiring of state tractors. " The
guarantee of these and other immediate benefits, as well
as intensive education as to the general superiority of
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
collective effort, resulted in some 95 percent of the
farmers in the Baltic States joining collective farms by
the end of 1950.
The post-war progress of agriculture quickly put an
end to the meagre food rations of the war period. By the
conclusion of the Fourth Five-Year Plan the total grain
yield was 13 percent above 1940. Butter production had
risen 57 percent, vegetable oil and other fats 10 percent,
meat 7 percent, sausage products 20 percent, tinned goods
48 percent, sugar 17 percent and confectionery products
23 percent. The fish catch increased 27 percent. Baby
foods went up 5. 7 times above the pre-war level and vita-
mins 10. 4 times.
Consumers' goods other than edibles kept pace with
the other advances in the economy. Output in textiles,
clothing, knitted goods and other branches of light
industry increased 17 percent over 1940. To quote the
official report issued jointly by the State Planning Com-
mittee and Central Statistical Administration: "Produc-
tion of the chief articles of light industry increased dur-
ing the five-year period as follows: cotton goods 2. 4 times,
woolen fabrics 2. 9 times, hosiery 5. 2 times, leather foot-
wear 3. 2 times, rubber footwear 7 times. However, the
Five-Year Plan assignment for production of cotton
goods and footwear was not fully met. The assortment
of fabrics, clothing, knitted goods and footwear was sub-
stantially improved and expanded. . . . In 1950 sales of
clocks and watches were 3. 3 times the pre-war year of
1940, radio sets 6 times, electric household appliances
1. 5 times, bicycles 2. 9 times, sewing machines almost
3 times and motorcycles 16 times. "18
I could go on citing innumerable statistics of this sort.
But I have mentioned enough to show that the Fourth
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? ECOHOMIC AHD CULTURAL PROGRESS
Five-Year Plan fulfilled all its main objectives and
demonstrated the ability of socialist planning to sur-
mount the post-war probems of reconstruction and go
far beyond. Nineteen fifty-one, the first year of the Fifth
Five-Year Plan*, 1951-1955, extended the advances and
pushed up total industrial production to twice the pre-
war figure. This puts the people within sight of the tran-
sition to a communist system, since Soviet economists
claim that a threefold industrial increase over 1940 will
lay the basis for communism. Under communism distri-
bution will be according to need and the country will,
it is predicted, be "literally saturated" with consumer
goods in unheard-of abundance. Soviet theoreticians are
now saying that if the present rate of economic growth
continues, the U. S. S. R. will be ready for communism
around 1960.
Of vital import to evolution towards communism is
likely to be the application of atomic energy to peaceful
purposes in the Soviet Union. On September 23, 1949,
President Truman announced that within recent weeks
an atomic explosion had occurred in the U. S. S. R. The
Russians then asserted that they had possessed the secret
of the atom bomb as early as 1947. In 1950 a leading
Soviet atomic specialist, Professor V. Golubtsov, wrote
in an article that Soviet science had discovered how to
directly transform atomic energy into both electrical
power and heat. In 1951 a top Soviet chemist, A. N.
Nesmeyanov, said that "Russian scientists now are using
atomic energy for developing the nation's industry and
agriculture. "14
While these claims have not yet been verified, I be-
* For the detailed directives and goals of the Fifth Five-Year Plan, which
aims at a 70 percent increase in industrial production and the turnover of
retail goods by the end of 1955, see The New York Times of August 23, 1952.
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? SOVIET CIVILIZATION
lieve it highly probable that atomic power is being har-
nessed in some measure to economic ends. As Mr. Har-
rison E. Salisbury, Moscow correspondent of The New
York Times, has pointed out, Soviet Russia "is free to
apply this new energy when and as needed without en-
countering the problem of competition with existing
forms of energy or of establishing new machinery for
governmental operation of the plants, which in time,
may become the industrial backbone of the nation. "15 In
other words, the Soviet socialist order, based as it is on
public ownership, can adjust rather easily to the peaceful
utilization of the potent atom.
Despite the major emphasis in all the Five-Year Plans
to date on capital construction and heavy industry, the
post-war upsurge in general living standards has been
notable. Although it is most difficult to compare accu-
rately the standard of living with that in other countries,
it is sound to state that the Soviet worker today eats as
well as the British, French, German or Italian worker.
A well-known English chocolate manufacturer, Paul
Cadbury, who visited the Soviet Union with a Quaker
group in the summer of 1951, declared in an address at
Swarthmore College: "The standard of living of the
ordinary people in Russia today is comparable, perhaps
not exactly the same, but in the same bracket as the
standard of living in England; they are well fed, well
clothed, satisfied and content with the country in which
they live. . . . I find that there is a good deal of ignorance
in America about conditions as they are in Russia. Several
people have asked me, 'Did you see anyone smile? ' Well,
it made me smile to be asked that question because quite
unlike the conditions in Germany before the war, or even
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? ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL PROGRESS
as I noticed them in Czechoslovakia on our way out to
Moscow, people in Russia seem happy. I think that the
reason is this: They measure everything by their own
past. "16
What the secretary of a British workers' delegation
to the Soviet Union in 1950 reported about the Russians
is of equal significance: "When you talk to them as we
did on our visit, and ask them about their living stand-
ards, they usually start right off by telling you that they
have abolished fear of being unemployed, fear of being
thrown on the scrap heap because of old age, fear of what
might happen if the breadwinner became ill, fear of not
being able to pay rent, fear of not being able to give the
children a good start in life. This complete absence of
anxiety about the future, this lack of worry about whether
there will be enough work, surely must be ranked among
the most priceless possessions. It must create a light-
heartedness and care-ffee spirit such as few of us, not even
the wealthy ones among us with their stocks and share
troubles, can imagine. It must release tremendous ener-
gies, mental and physical. "17
Typical of Soviet Russia's earth-shaking projects is
the Fifteen-Year Agricultural Plan, 1949-65. This ambi-
tious scheme, generally known as the Plan for Field Pro-
tecting Forest Belts, aims to alter the climate, prevent
drought and stabilize the harvests throughout an area in
southern Russia and Siberia that is half the size of the
United States and contains 75,000,000 people. In this
vast region west and south of the Ural Mountains the
hot, dry, relentless winds from the east have for centuries
swept over the open steppes of the Lower Volga Valley,
the Northern Caucasus and Ukraine, drying out or blow-
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