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Final authority in both regional and local governments lies
in the Soviets of Working People's Deputies, elected "on the
basis of universal, direct and equal suffrage by secret ballot. "
(Constitution, Art. 134). The whole structure may be likened to
a pyramid whose base is formed by the local Soviets; above these
stand those of the townships, regions, provinces, territories, re-
publics, and finally the Supreme Soviet of the U. S. S. R. The
local councils, whether large or small, have numerous economic
and social responsibilities, as well as political duties. Since
sessions are short and members are busy in their regular
occupations, each Soviet elects an Executive Committee to carry
on its functions between meetings.
Each Union Republic and each Autonomous Republic has its
own constitution, governing units, and language; each Region
and District also has self-government and may in time become
at least an Autonomous Republic. Although certain powers are
surrendered to the Central Government, each nationality main-
tains its own customs and institutions. In February, 1944, Union
Republics were granted the right to send diplomats to foreign
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? 32
MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 33
nations and to maintain their own army formations. Such
functions are, however, subject to general regulation by the
Supreme Soviet. Certain rights, such as that of secession, are
guaranteed to the Union Republics, but the "all-Union law pre-
vails" in the "event of a discrepancy" between it and the law of
a Republic or Region. (Constitution, Art. 20).
3. The Role of the Communist Party
"The most active and politically most conscious citizens in
the ranks of the working class and other sections of the working
people unite in the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. "
(Constitution, Art. 126). Although the Party has no legal con-
nection with the government other than that of nominating
candidates, as do other groups, its influence is far-reaching. The
following factors prove this: a large per cent of the Supreme
Soviet members belong to the Communist Party; many officials
hold membership in both the Party and the Government; most
legislation and government policies are planned by Party bodies
before they are discussed in the Soviets; Party members, chosen
for their activity in their own regions, have great influence in
the local Soviets. Thus, although the membership of the Com-
munist Party is relatively small (2,515,481 in 1941 and about
3,500,000 in 1944), it is the controlling political force in the
Soviet Union.
Since the Communist Party is so important, it is necessary to
examine its organization. Membership^ a mark of honor and
responsibility; rules for election are strict; and duties within the
Party are exacting. Party units or committees are elected in
towns or by small groups; these in turn elect larger Party Com-
mittees, as of a province, and so on. The highest group is the
Ail-Union Party Congress, to which all lower councils are re-
sponsible.
The Congress delegates its duties between sessions to a Cen-
tral Committee, elected by it. This Committee elects an
Organization Board, which has administrative duties, and a
Political Bureau, which has executive duties.
Members of the Political Bureau, headed by Stalin, who is
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? 34 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Secretary-General of the Party, formulate and direct Party ac-
tivities. In all Party organizations matters of policy are dis-
cussed at length, but once a given decision is reached discussion
concerning it ceases, and each member is expected to assist in
its enforcement. The maintenance of this so-called "Party line"
accounts for much of the influence of the Communists upon
the government.
4. Democratic processes
In studying the role of democratic processes in the Soviet Union
it is necessary to consider certain ideas before one can judge and
compare. First, the Soviet form of government is new and this
is the first time the Russian people have so fully participated in
self-government. Second, the Soviet theory involves the con-
cept that by a series of gradual but necessary steps man will final-
ly reach the goal of communism. Socialism is regarded as the
present phase of development toward the communist ideal.
Restrictions upon individuals are now less severe than at the
beginning of the Revolution, since the state has reached a more
advanced stage. Likewise, the Constitution of 1936 is a docu-
ment descriptive of Soviet ideals and achievements to date, not
merely an outline of the organization of government.
Third, the meanings of words must be clear; in Soviet termi-
nology the words "democracy" and "dictatorship" express some-
what different ideas from our usually accepted meanings. The
Soviet belief is that the dictatorship of the proletariat (working
classes) is democratic, as changes will occur gradually in direc-
tions guided by the will of the people. They regard this dic-
tatorship as a temporary but necessary phase. Fourth, the funda-
mental principle concerning the state and the individual ex-
plains that the individual acts within the collective (group), that
he has personal freedom as a member of the group, but that he
must work for the group interest so that the progress of the
people as a whole will be aided.
The Soviets "constitute the political foundation of the
U. S. S. R. " (Constitution, Art. 2), and the people express their
ideas on government constantly, especially in the local councils.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 35
Leaders and writers of the Soviet Union stress the importance of
popular rule and mass control. The Constitution guarantees the
rights of voting, nominating candidates, holding office, and re-
calling unsatisfactory officials. The elective principle operates
in trade unions, on collective farms, and in the Communist
Party. Although candidates for office do not have to be Party
members and much discussion goes on before nominations occur,
the percentage of Party members chosen in federal elections is
high. The percentage of Party members chosen in local elec-
tions of Soviets and in trade unions is, however, lower. Self-
criticism is encouraged and locally much discussion centers upon
the efficiency of the office-holders. The policy of accountability
of one group to another operates in all government and Party
groups; in fact, one of the most important duties of a deputy is
to keep his electorate informed. The war has increased popular
participation in political affairs, since many officials have had to
assume other duties in the emergency.
Many civil liberties are listed in the Constitution and methods
guaranteeing these rights are definitely stated. Freedom of ex-
pression is limited so as to be "in conformity with the interests
of the working people, and in order to strengthen the socialist
system. " (Constitution, Art. 125). Thus opposition to such
fundamental policies as socialized industry, collective farming,
the dictatorship of the workers, and socialism as a step toward
communism, is prohibited. Severe, even ruthless, methods are
sometimes used to enforce compliance with these principles.
However, the ways in which these basic ideas are carried out
can be and are widely debated. Limitations on political liberty
are based upon the theory that the system is fundamentally
sound, and that social and economic conditions will gradually
improve if they are protected as they grow.
Although civil liberties, as generally understood, do not fully
operate in the U. S. S. R. , there are other democratic ideals which
are more fully developed. Racial or ethnic democracy is one of
the major contributions. Much progress has been made in secur-
ing equal rights for women in all fields of activity. Economic
rights to work, to organization into labor groups, to maintenance
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? j6 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
in old age, or in case of sickness or accident, and to "rest and
leisure" (Constitution, Art. 119) are not only guaranteed by the
Constitution, but are being fulfilled. The "right to education"
has also been "ensured. " (Constitution, Art. 121). However great
the restrictions upon individuals, however extensive the ad-
mitted bureaucracy, however limited the actual control of gov-
ernment by the majority of the people, there can be no doubt of
the faith of the Soviet citizens in their cause and of the unity
of the people in the present war.
References on Government:
American Russian Institute, The Soviet Union Today, An Outline
Study, pp. 24-35.
Constitution of the U3. S. R.
Harper, S. N. , The Government of the Soviet Union, pp. 42-115, 138-
? 43- 153-158. 169-174.
Webb, S. and B. , Soviet Communism: A New Civilization? , Vol. I,
pp. 11-160, 339-451.
Williams, A. R. , The Soviets, pp. 22-26, 41-73, 93-108.
Some Suggested Activities on Government:
1. "What's in a name? " Explain carefully, in paragraph form, the mean-
of the words in the title--Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Use
these references, Constitution, Art. 1-8, 13; Williams, A. R. , The
Soviets, pp. 22-24, *6, 39-45-
2. "The sovereignty of the Union Republics is limited only within the
provisions set forth in Article 14 of the Constitution of the U. S. S. R.
Outside of these provisions, each Union Republic exercises state au-
thority independently. " (Constitution, Art. 15) Study the parts of the
Constitution dealing with the powers of the federal government and
of the Union Republics; for class discussion prepare a statement of
these powers and the reasons for such a division of power.
3. It is important to understand the meanings of terms used to describe the
government of the Soviet Union. Write concise definitions of the fol-
lowing terms: soviet, socialism, communism, "dictatorship of the pro-
letariat," union republic, autonomous republic, workers and peasants,
state planning, collective, commissar.
4. Responsibility of one group to another (accountability) is a cardinal
principle of Soviet political theory. Find the articles in the Constitu-
tion which deal with this principle; explain the examples given, as a
basis for a class discussion.
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 37
5. "Members of all Soviets . . . are chosen by the electors on the basis of
universal, direct and equal suffrage by secret ballot. " (Constitution,
Art. 134). After reading the Constitution, Art. 134-142, and Williams,
The Soviets, pp. 41-51, describe, in writing, the qualifications for vot-
ing in the U. S. S. R. , the electoral rights of citizens, and the part the
citizens take in elections. Be prepared, for class discussion, to compare
voting and election procedures in the Soviet Union and in the United
States.
6. "'Will passionately,' said Stalin, 'and you can achieve anything, over-
come anything. '" From a study of Stalin's life and work, as given in
Williams, The Soviets, pp.
93-102, write a composition showing how
Stalin has carried out the above rule in his own work.
7. The Constitution of the U. S. S. R. provides, as does the Constitution
of the United States, a method of amendment. After reading the parts
of both Constitutions on this topic, prepare the following for class dis-
cussion: processes of amending both Constitutions, the number of
amendments to each, and a statement about the importance of being
able to amend a constitution.
8. The United States of America.
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
In many respects the political structures of the United States and of
the Soviet Union are similar, in many respects different. Study the fol-
lowing references and complete the chart given below: Constitution of
the US. , Preamble, Art. I, II, III; Constitution of the USS. R. , Art. 1-5,
9-12, 30-56, 60, 64-78, 102-117, 134-142; Stewart, Land of the Soviets,
pp. 66-69.
Items of comparison U. S. A. U. S. S. R.
Nature of the union
Aims of government
Legislative branch
Executive branch
Judicial branch
Relationship of state
units to the central
government
After completing the chart write a composition to prove that although
there are likenesses and differences in the governments of the United
States and the Soviet Union, the federal principle is fundamental to
both.
9. "'The Party openly admits,' says Stalin, 'that it guides and gives gen-
eral direction to the government. '" Read these references: Constitu-
tion, Art. 126 and 141; Dean, Russia at War, pp. 34-38; and Williams,
The Soviets, pp. 54-67. Prepare these topics for class discussion: the
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? 38 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
RIGHTS
MEANS OF ENSURING
OF
THE RIGHTS OF
CITIZENS
CITIZENS
Constitutional bases for the Communist Party, its organization, qualifica-
tions for membership, duties and privileges of members, the extent of
its power, and a statement about the value of the one-party system as
it operates in the U. S. S. R.
10. The Constitution of the U. S. S. R. not only lists rights guaranteed to its
citizens, but also the means of ensuring these rights; furthermore, duties
of citizens are specifically written into the Constitution. Study the Con-
stitution and fill in a chart under these headings:
DUTIES
OF
CITIZENS
Make a list of generalizations concerning the ways in which rights and
duties are both essential to the success of popular government.
11. The United States and the Soviet Union are today pledged to the
"Four Freedoms," whose continuance is therefore important as one
basis for post-war cooperation. Read these references: Constitutions of
the U. S. and the U. S. S. R. ; the article "Russia and the Four Freedoms," in
Soviet Russia Today, June, 1944; Stewart, Land of the Soviets, pp. 72-81.
Write answers to the following questions:
(1) State the rights, pertaining to the four freedoms, which are given
in the two Constitutions.
(2) By what means are these rights secured to the people by the
Constitutions?
(3) Which of the four freedoms do you consider to be:
(a) most fully carried out in the U. S. S. R. ?
(b) least fully carried out in the U. S. S. R. ?
Give reasons to support your answers.
12. Is the U. S. S. R. a dictatorship in the same sense of the word as Nazi
Germany? To prepare for class discussion on this question read these
references: Constitution of the U. S. S. R. , Chapter X; Lamont, Soviet
Russia versus Nazi Germany.
B. Nationality Policies
Soviet scientists have counted more than 189 races, national
groups and tribes in the Soviet Union, and some 150 languages
and dialects. Of the more than 202,000,000 people, only about
103,000,000 are Great Russians. Nevertheless, in Tsarist Russia
the power was exercised by the Russian nation, which adopted a
policy of compulsory Russifkation toward all other peoples.
Tsarist policy aimed to curtail the industrial growth of minority
peoples, to keep them in ignorance, and to foster mistrust
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 39
among the nationalities. Pogroms of the Jews were encouraged,
and the Turco-Tatars massacred the Armenians by the thousands.
Against this background Soviet policy stands out in sharp dis-
tinction. The nationality policy of the Soviets is probably their
most significant contribution to statecraft, and is the area in
which they have outstripped other multi-national states.
In 1917, just eight days after the Bolsheviks came into power,
the Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia was issued. It
was signed by Lenin, and by Stalin, who was at that time the
Commissar of Nationalities. This decree defined the basic prin-
ciples of Soviet policy toward nationalities, and these principles
have since been incorporated in the successive constitutions.
Tsarist policies were reversed. Article 123 of the Constitution
of 1936 guarantees equality of rights of citizens of the U. S. S. R.
"irrespective of their nationality or race," and provides penalties
for the infringement of these rights. The Soviets aim at the
fullest development of each people, and have attempted to bring
each of them up to the economic and cultural level of the Great
Russians. Every nationality, large or small, has the opportunity
to grow into a modern nation. In Tsarist Russia the idea of the
inferiority of women was deeply entrenched at every level of
society. In some of the retarded areas, such as those where
Mohammedanism prevailed, the women were little more than
servants. Now, as in all other parts of the Soviet Union, these
women are entitled to equality with men in the life of the nation.
Each people is assured the use of its own language in the schools
and in the courts. Some nationalities possessed no written
language, and Soviet scientists have reduced forty of these to
writing. They have been supplied with primers, grammars, and
dictionaries. Similarly, their music and folk songs have been
written down. As a result of these policies there has been a
revival of national cultures.
Soviet policy toward the Jews is worthy of special note be-
cause of the persecutions to which they had been subject in
the Tsarist regime, and because of the attitude Nazi Germany
has taken toward them. Not only do Jews have full equality
with all other nationalities in the Soviet Union, but anti-
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? 40 MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS
Semitism is officially a crime. There are more than five
million Jews in the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Government
has set apart a special territory where Jews from the U. S. S. R.
or from anywhere in the world can come to live if they wish.
This is the territory of Birobidjan in the Far East. In 1934 it
became the Jewish Autonomous Region.
The nationalities of the U. S. S. R. are an integral part of the
government. The Supreme Soviet consists of two chambers, one
of which is the Soviet of Nationalities. Article 37 of the Consti-
tution of 1936 provides that both houses shall have equal rights.
Just as each state in the United States sends two representatives
to the Senate, so each nationality in the Soviet Union sends
deputies as follows: twenty-five from each of the union republics;
eleven from each autonomous republic, five from each autono-
mous region, and one from each national district.
References on Nationalities:
Fischer, Louis, "Under the Soviet Rainbow," Survey Graphic, February,
1944-
Lamont, Corliss, "The Peoples of the Soviet Union," Soviet Russia Today,
June, 1944.
Stern, Bern hard J. , "Soviet Policy on National Minorities," American
Sociological Review, June, 1944.
Williams, Albert Rhys, The Soviets, Parts 4 and 5.
Some Suggested Activities on Nationalities:
1. "In the Soviet Union there is no race problem and no feeling of na-
tional inferiority or superiority. "--George Vernadsky, A History of
Russia, p. 397.
"Of course, all the devils of nationalism, of racial pride and chauvin-
ism have not been extirpated. "--Albert Rhys Williams, The Russians,
P- 3*-
Here are two statements that indicate a difference of opinion. As a
preparation for discussion of the treatment of minorities in the
U. S. S. R. you will find it helpful to read the following:
a. The passages from which these two statements were selected.
b. Article 123 of the Soviet Constitution of 1936.
c. Any other discussion of the treatment of minorities which you
find interesting.
2. There are about 189 nationality groups in the Soviet Union.
a. Construct a circle graph showing the percentage of the people
who belong to each of the ten largest nationality groups, and the
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? MEET THE SOVIET RUSSIANS 41
total percentage belong to the remaining groups. You will
find the statistics you need in the pamphlet by Vera Dean,
entitled Russia at War.
b. Find the articles in the Constitution which deal with the rights
of nationalities, and answer the following questions in writing:
(1) What policy of the Soviet government prevents the most
numerous group from dominating the other nationalities?
(2) What political rights do the peoples of the various nation-
ality groups have?
3. You were the Jewish owner of a small shop in Hamburg, Germany.
On the eve of Hitler's rise to power you sold your shop and moved
on to Leningrad, in the Soviet Union. After you have lived there for a few
years, write a letter to a friend in Germany in which you try to per-
suade him to do as you have done.
4. In an article in the Survey Graphic for February, 1944, Louis Fischer
says, "The Soviets catalogued men not according to blood and birth,
but by class, occupations, and ideas. That is why the theory of Bol-
shevism is the extreme opposite of Fascism. " Read the article from
which this quotation is taken. Do you agree or disagree with this
statement? In what ways do the Soviets and the Nazis differ in their
treatment of subject nationalities? You will find good material in the
pamphlet by Corliss Lamont, entitled Soviet Russia versus Nazi Ger-
many. Write your conclusions in a brief paper.
5. In 1930 two white American workers in Stalingrad were irritated be-
cause an American Negro was allowed to eat in the special dining hall
for foreign technicians. They were so angry that they first insulted,
then attacked the Negro. The case was taken up by the Soviet officials,
and there were demonstrations by labor organizations throughout the
country opposing racial discrimination. The court secured proof that
the attack had been made because of race hatred, and recommended
that the two offenders be imprisoned for two years. The sentence was
later reduced to deportation and exclusion from the Soviet Union for
a period of ten years. Hold a group discussion on this case.