To some degree, these margin notes seem to have been
intended
to serve
in place of an index, the original having none.
in place of an index, the original having none.
Hobbes - Leviathan
LEVIATHAN
By Thomas Hobbes
1651
LEVIATHAN OR THE MATTER, FORME, & POWER OF A COMMON-WEALTH
ECCLESIASTICAL AND CIVILL
Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury
Printed for Andrew Crooke, at the Green Dragon in St. Paul's Churchyard,
1651.
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES ON THE E-TEXT:
This E-text was prepared from the Pelican Classics edition of Leviathan,
which in turn was prepared from the first edition. I have tried to
follow as closely as possible the original, and to give the flavour of
the text that Hobbes himself proof-read, but the following differences
were unavoidable.
Hobbes used capitals and italics very extensively, for emphasis, for
proper names, for quotations, and sometimes, it seems, just because.
The original has very extensive margin notes, which are used to show
where he introduces the definitions of words and concepts, to give in
short the subject that a paragraph or section is dealing with, and to
give references to his quotations, largely but not exclusively biblical.
To some degree, these margin notes seem to have been intended to serve
in place of an index, the original having none. They are all in italics.
He also used italics for words in other languages than English, and
there are a number of Greek words, in the Greek alphabet, in the text.
To deal with these within the limits of plain vanilla ASCII, I have done
the following in this E-text.
I have restricted my use of full capitalization to those places where
Hobbes used it, except in the chapter headings, which I have fully
capitalized, where Hobbes used a mixture of full capitalization and
italics.
Where it is clear that the italics are to indicate the text is quoting,
I have introduced quotation marks. Within quotation marks I have
retained the capitalization that Hobbes used.
Where italics seem to be used for emphasis, or for proper names, or just
because, I have capitalized the initial letter of the words. This has
the disadvantage that they are not then distinguished from those that
Hobbes capitalized in plain text, but the extent of his italics would
make the text very ugly if I was to use an underscore or slash.
Where the margin notes are either to introduce the paragraph subject,
or to show where he introduces word definitions, I have included them as
headers to the paragraph, again with all words having initial capitals,
and on a shortened line.
For margin references to quotes, I have included them in the text,
in brackets immediately next to the quotation. Where Hobbes included
references in the main text, I have left them as he put them, except to
change his square brackets to round.
For the Greek alphabet, I have simply substituted the nearest ordinary
letters that I can, and I have used initial capitals for foreign
language words.
Neither Thomas Hobbes nor his typesetters seem to have had many
inhibitions about spelling and punctuation. I have tried to reproduce
both exactly, with the exception of the introduction of quotation marks.
In preparing the text, I have found that it has much more meaning if
I read it with sub-vocalization, or aloud, rather than trying to read
silently. Hobbes' use of emphasis and his eccentric punctuation and
construction seem then to work.
TO MY MOST HONOR'D FRIEND Mr. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN of GODOLPHIN
HONOR'D SIR.
Your most worthy Brother Mr SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, when he lived, was pleas'd
to think my studies something, and otherwise to oblige me, as you know,
with reall testimonies of his good opinion, great in themselves, and the
greater for the worthinesse of his person. For there is not any vertue
that disposeth a man, either to the service of God, or to the service
of his Country, to Civill Society, or private Friendship, that did not
manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity,
or affected upon occasion, but inhaerent, and shining in a generous
constitution of his nature. Therefore in honour and gratitude to him,
and with devotion to your selfe, I humbly Dedicate unto you this my
discourse of Common-wealth. I know not how the world will receive it,
nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favour it. For in a
way beset with those that contend on one side for too great Liberty, and
on the other side for too much Authority, 'tis hard to passe between the
points of both unwounded. But yet, me thinks, the endeavour to advance
the Civill Power, should not be by the Civill Power condemned; nor
private men, by reprehending it, declare they think that Power too
great. Besides, I speak not of the men, but (in the Abstract) of the
Seat of Power, (like to those simple and unpartiall creatures in the
Roman Capitol, that with their noyse defended those within it, not
because they were they, but there) offending none, I think, but those
without, or such within (if there be any such) as favour them. That
which perhaps may most offend, are certain Texts of Holy Scripture,
alledged by me to other purpose than ordinarily they use to be by
others. But I have done it with due submission, and also (in order to
my Subject) necessarily; for they are the Outworks of the Enemy, from
whence they impugne the Civill Power. If notwithstanding this, you find
my labour generally decryed, you may be pleased to excuse your selfe,
and say that I am a man that love my own opinions, and think all true I
say, that I honoured your Brother, and honour you, and have presum'd on
that, to assume the Title (without your knowledge) of being, as I am,
Sir,
Your most humble, and most obedient servant, Thomas Hobbes.
Paris APRILL 15/25 1651.
CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTERS
THE FIRST PART
OF MAN
INTRODUCTION
1. OF SENSE
2. OF IMAGINATION
3. OF THE CONSEQUENCES OR TRAIN OF IMAGINATIONS
4. OF SPEECH
5. OF REASON AND SCIENCE
6. OF THE INTERIOUR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS, COMMONLY CALLED THE
PASSIONS; AND THE SPEECHES BY WHICH THEY ARE EXPRESSED
7. OF THE ENDS OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE
8. OF THE VERTUES, COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUALL, AND THEIR CONTRARY
DEFECTS
9. OF THE SEVERALL SUBJECTS OF KNOWLEDGE
10. OF POWER, WORTH, DIGNITY, HONOUR, AND WORTHINESSE
11. OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS
12. OF RELIGION
13. OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY
AND MISERY
14. OF THE FIRST AND SECOND NATURALL LAWES, AND OF CONTRACT
15. OF OTHER LAWES OF NATURE
16. OF PERSONS, AUTHORS, AND THINGS PERSONATED
THE SECOND PART
OF COMMON-WEALTH
17. OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH
18. OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVERAIGNES BY INSTITUTION
19. OF SEVERALL KINDS OF COMMON-WEALTH BY INSTITUTION; AND OF SUCCESION
TO THE SOVERAIGN POWER
20. OF DOMINION PATERNALL, AND DESPOTICALL
21. OF THE LIBERTY OF SUBJECTS
22. OF SYSTEMES SUBJECT, POLITICALL, AND PRIVATE
23. OF THE PUBLIQUE MINISTERS OF SOVERAIGN POWER
24. OF THE NUTRITION, AND PROCREATION OF A COMMON-WEALTH
25. OF COUNSELL
26. OF CIVILL LAWES
27. OF CRIMES, EXCUSES, AND EXTENUATIONS
28. OF PUNISHMENTS, AND REWARDS
29. OF THOSE THINGS THAT WEAKEN, OR TEND TO THE DISSOLUTION OF A
COMMON-WEALTH
30. OF THE OFFICE OF THE SOVERAIGN REPRESENTATIVE
31. OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD BY NATURE
THE THIRD PART
OF A CHRISTIAN COMMON-WEALTH
32. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CHRISTIAN POLITIQUES
33. OF THE NUMBER, ANTIQUITY, SCOPE, AUTHORITY, AND INTERPRETERS OF THE
BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
34. OF THE SIGNIFICATION, OF SPIRIT, ANGELL, AND INSPIRATION IN THE
BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE
35. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, OF HOLY,
SACRED, AND SACRAMENT
36. OF THE WORD OF GOD, AND OF PROPHETS
37. OF MIRACLES, AND THEIR USE
38. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNALL LIFE, HEL, SALVATION,
THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
39. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE WORD CHURCH
40. OF THE RIGHTS OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, IN ABRAHAM, MOSES, THE HIGH
PRIESTS, AND THE KINGS OF JUDAH
41. OF THE OFFICE OF OUR BLESSED SAVIOUR
42. OF POWER ECCLESIASTICALL
43. OF WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR MANS RECEPTION INTO THE KINGDOME OF HEAVEN
THE FOURTH PART
OF THE KINGDOME OF DARKNESSE
44. OF SPIRITUALL DARKNESSE FROM MISINTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE
45. OF DAEMONOLOGY, AND OTHER RELIQUES OF THE RELIGION OF THE GENTILES
46. OF DARKNESSE FROM VAINE PHILOSOPHY, AND FABULOUS TRADITIONS
47. OF THE BENEFIT PROCEEDING FROM SUCH DARKNESSE; AND TO WHOM IT
ACCREWETH
48. A REVIEW AND CONCLUSION
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the
art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it
can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs,
the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not
say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and
wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the
Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the
Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as
was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that
Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created
that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine
CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature
and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it
was intended; and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as
giving life and motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other
Officers of Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and
Punishment (by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt
and member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that do the
same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular
members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its
Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know,
are suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall
Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War,
Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this Body
Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that
Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the Creation.
To describe the Nature of this Artificiall man, I will consider
First the Matter thereof, and the Artificer; both which is Man.
Secondly, How, and by what Covenants it is made; what are the Rights and
just Power or Authority of a Soveraigne; and what it is that Preserveth
and Dissolveth it.
Thirdly, what is a Christian Common-Wealth.
Lastly, what is the Kingdome of Darkness.
Concerning the first, there is a saying much usurped of late, That
Wisedome is acquired, not by reading of Books, but of Men. Consequently
whereunto, those persons, that for the most part can give no other proof
of being wise, take great delight to shew what they think they have read
in men, by uncharitable censures of one another behind their backs.
But there is another saying not of late understood, by which they might
learn truly to read one another, if they would take the pains; and that
is, Nosce Teipsum, Read Thy Self: which was not meant, as it is now
used, to countenance, either the barbarous state of men in power,
towards their inferiors; or to encourage men of low degree, to a
sawcie behaviour towards their betters; But to teach us, that for the
similitude of the thoughts, and Passions of one man, to the thoughts,
and Passions of another, whosoever looketh into himselfe, and
considereth what he doth, when he does Think, Opine, Reason, Hope,
Feare, &c, and upon what grounds; he shall thereby read and know,
what are the thoughts, and Passions of all other men, upon the like
occasions. I say the similitude of Passions, which are the same in all
men, Desire, Feare, Hope, &c; not the similitude or The Objects of the
Passions, which are the things Desired, Feared, Hoped, &c: for these the
constitution individuall, and particular education do so vary, and they
are so easie to be kept from our knowledge, that the characters of mans
heart, blotted and confounded as they are, with dissembling, lying,
counterfeiting, and erroneous doctrines, are legible onely to him that
searcheth hearts. And though by mens actions wee do discover their
designee sometimes; yet to do it without comparing them with our own,
and distinguishing all circumstances, by which the case may come to
be altered, is to decypher without a key, and be for the most part
deceived, by too much trust, or by too much diffidence; as he that
reads, is himselfe a good or evill man.
But let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it
serves him onely with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that is
to govern a whole Nation, must read in himselfe, not this, or that
particular man; but Man-kind; which though it be hard to do, harder than
to learn any Language, or Science; yet, when I shall have set down my
own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be
onely to consider, if he also find not the same in himselfe. For this
kind of Doctrine, admitteth no other Demonstration.
PART 1 OF MAN
CHAPTER I. OF SENSE
Concerning the Thoughts of man, I will consider them first Singly, and
afterwards in Trayne, or dependance upon one another. Singly, they
are every one a Representation or Apparence, of some quality, or other
Accident of a body without us; which is commonly called an Object. Which
Object worketh on the Eyes, Eares, and other parts of mans body; and by
diversity of working, produceth diversity of Apparences.
The Originall of them all, is that which we call Sense; (For there is
no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by
parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense. ) The rest are derived
from that originall.
To know the naturall cause of Sense, is not very necessary to the
business now in hand; and I have els-where written of the same at large.
Nevertheless, to fill each part of my present method, I will briefly
deliver the same in this place.
The cause of Sense, is the Externall Body, or Object, which presseth the
organ proper to each Sense, either immediatly, as in the Tast and Touch;
or mediately, as in Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling: which pressure, by
the mediation of Nerves, and other strings, and membranes of the body,
continued inwards to the Brain, and Heart, causeth there a resistance,
or counter-pressure, or endeavour of the heart, to deliver it self:
which endeavour because Outward, seemeth to be some matter without. And
this Seeming, or Fancy, is that which men call sense; and consisteth, as
to the Eye, in a Light, or Colour Figured; To the Eare, in a Sound; To
the Nostrill, in an Odour; To the Tongue and Palat, in a Savour; and
to the rest of the body, in Heat, Cold, Hardnesse, Softnesse, and such
other qualities, as we discern by Feeling. All which qualities called
Sensible, are in the object that causeth them, but so many several
motions of the matter, by which it presseth our organs diversly. Neither
in us that are pressed, are they anything els, but divers motions; (for
motion, produceth nothing but motion. ) But their apparence to us is
Fancy, the same waking, that dreaming. And as pressing, rubbing,
or striking the Eye, makes us fancy a light; and pressing the Eare,
produceth a dinne; so do the bodies also we see, or hear, produce the
same by their strong, though unobserved action, For if those Colours,
and Sounds, were in the Bodies, or Objects that cause them, they could
not bee severed from them, as by glasses, and in Ecchoes by reflection,
wee see they are; where we know the thing we see, is in one place; the
apparence, in another. And though at some certain distance, the reall,
and very object seem invested with the fancy it begets in us; Yet still
the object is one thing, the image or fancy is another. So that Sense in
all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I have said)
by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall things upon our
Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.
But the Philosophy-schooles, through all the Universities of
Christendome, grounded upon certain Texts of Aristotle, teach another
doctrine; and say, For the cause of Vision, that the thing seen, sendeth
forth on every side a Visible Species(in English) a Visible Shew,
Apparition, or Aspect, or a Being Seen; the receiving whereof into the
Eye, is Seeing. And for the cause of Hearing, that the thing heard,
sendeth forth an Audible Species, that is, an Audible Aspect, or Audible
Being Seen; which entring at the Eare, maketh Hearing. Nay for the
cause of Understanding also, they say the thing Understood sendeth forth
Intelligible Species, that is, an Intelligible Being Seen; which
comming into the Understanding, makes us Understand. I say not this,
as disapproving the use of Universities: but because I am to speak
hereafter of their office in a Common-wealth, I must let you see on
all occasions by the way, what things would be amended in them; amongst
which the frequency of insignificant Speech is one.
CHAPTER II. OF IMAGINATION
That when a thing lies still, unlesse somewhat els stirre it, it will
lye still for ever, is a truth that no man doubts of. But that when a
thing is in motion, it will eternally be in motion, unless somewhat els
stay it, though the reason be the same, (namely, that nothing can change
it selfe,) is not so easily assented to. For men measure, not onely
other men, but all other things, by themselves: and because they find
themselves subject after motion to pain, and lassitude, think every
thing els growes weary of motion, and seeks repose of its own accord;
little considering, whether it be not some other motion, wherein that
desire of rest they find in themselves, consisteth. From hence it is,
that the Schooles say, Heavy bodies fall downwards, out of an appetite
to rest, and to conserve their nature in that place which is most proper
for them; ascribing appetite, and Knowledge of what is good for their
conservation, (which is more than man has) to things inanimate absurdly.
When a Body is once in motion, it moveth (unless something els hinder
it) eternally; and whatsoever hindreth it, cannot in an instant, but in
time, and by degrees quite extinguish it: And as wee see in the water,
though the wind cease, the waves give not over rowling for a long
time after; so also it happeneth in that motion, which is made in the
internall parts of a man, then, when he Sees, Dreams, &c. For after the
object is removed, or the eye shut, wee still retain an image of the
thing seen, though more obscure than when we see it. And this is it,
that Latines call Imagination, from the image made in seeing; and apply
the same, though improperly, to all the other senses. But the Greeks
call it Fancy; which signifies Apparence, and is as proper to one sense,
as to another. Imagination therefore is nothing but Decaying Sense; and
is found in men, and many other living Creatures, as well sleeping, as
waking.
Memory
The decay of Sense in men waking, is not the decay of the motion made in
sense; but an obscuring of it, in such manner, as the light of the Sun
obscureth the light of the Starres; which starrs do no less exercise
their vertue by which they are visible, in the day, than in the night.
But because amongst many stroaks, which our eyes, eares, and other
organs receive from externall bodies, the predominant onely is sensible;
therefore the light of the Sun being predominant, we are not affected
with the action of the starrs. And any object being removed from our
eyes, though the impression it made in us remain; yet other objects more
present succeeding, and working on us, the Imagination of the past is
obscured, and made weak; as the voyce of a man is in the noyse of the
day. From whence it followeth, that the longer the time is, after the
sight, or Sense of any object, the weaker is the Imagination. For the
continuall change of mans body, destroyes in time the parts which in
sense were moved: So that the distance of time, and of place, hath one
and the same effect in us. For as at a distance of place, that which wee
look at, appears dimme, and without distinction of the smaller parts;
and as Voyces grow weak, and inarticulate: so also after great distance
of time, our imagination of the Past is weak; and wee lose( for example)
of Cities wee have seen, many particular Streets; and of Actions, many
particular Circumstances. This Decaying Sense, when wee would express
the thing it self, (I mean Fancy it selfe,) wee call Imagination, as I
said before; But when we would express the Decay, and signifie that the
Sense is fading, old, and past, it is called Memory. So that Imagination
and Memory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hath
divers names.
Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience. Againe,
Imagination being only of those things which have been formerly
perceived by Sense, either all at once, or by parts at severall
times; The former, (which is the imagining the whole object, as it was
presented to the sense) is Simple Imagination; as when one imagineth a
man, or horse, which he hath seen before. The other is Compounded; as
when from the sight of a man at one time, and of a horse at another, we
conceive in our mind a Centaure. So when a man compoundeth the image of
his own person, with the image of the actions of an other man; as when a
man imagins himselfe a Hercules, or an Alexander, (which happeneth often
to them that are much taken with reading of Romants) it is a compound
imagination, and properly but a Fiction of the mind. There be also other
Imaginations that rise in men, (though waking) from the great impression
made in sense; As from gazing upon the Sun, the impression leaves an
image of the Sun before our eyes a long time after; and from being long
and vehemently attent upon Geometricall Figures, a man shall in the
dark, (though awake) have the Images of Lines, and Angles before his
eyes: which kind of Fancy hath no particular name; as being a thing that
doth not commonly fall into mens discourse.
Dreams
The imaginations of them that sleep, are those we call Dreams. And these
also (as all other Imaginations) have been before, either totally, or
by parcells in the Sense. And because in sense, the Brain, and Nerves,
which are the necessary Organs of sense, are so benummed in sleep, as
not easily to be moved by the action of Externall Objects, there can
happen in sleep, no Imagination; and therefore no Dreame, but what
proceeds from the agitation of the inward parts of mans body; which
inward parts, for the connexion they have with the Brayn, and other
Organs, when they be distempered, do keep the same in motion; whereby
the Imaginations there formerly made, appeare as if a man were waking;
saving that the Organs of Sense being now benummed, so as there is
no new object, which can master and obscure them with a more vigorous
impression, a Dreame must needs be more cleare, in this silence of
sense, than are our waking thoughts. And hence it cometh to pass, that
it is a hard matter, and by many thought impossible to distinguish
exactly between Sense and Dreaming. For my part, when I consider, that
in Dreames, I do not often, nor constantly think of the same Persons,
Places, Objects, and Actions that I do waking; nor remember so long a
trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as at other times; And because
waking I often observe the absurdity of Dreames, but never dream of
the absurdities of my waking Thoughts; I am well satisfied, that being
awake, I know I dreame not; though when I dreame, I think my selfe
awake.
And seeing dreames are caused by the distemper of some of the inward
parts of the Body; divers distempers must needs cause different Dreams.
And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth
the thought and Image of some fearfull object (the motion from the
brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the Brain being
reciprocall:) and that as Anger causeth heat in some parts of the Body,
when we are awake; so when we sleep, the over heating of the same parts
causeth Anger, and raiseth up in the brain the Imagination of an Enemy.
In the same manner; as naturall kindness, when we are awake causeth
desire; and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so
also, too much heat in those parts, while wee sleep, raiseth in the
brain an imagination of some kindness shewn. In summe, our Dreams are
the reverse of our waking Imaginations; The motion when we are awake,
beginning at one end; and when we Dream, at another.
Apparitions Or Visions
The most difficult discerning of a mans Dream, from his waking thoughts,
is then, when by some accident we observe not that we have slept:
which is easie to happen to a man full of fearfull thoughts; and
whose conscience is much troubled; and that sleepeth, without the
circumstances, of going to bed, or putting off his clothes, as one that
noddeth in a chayre. For he that taketh pains, and industriously layes
himselfe to sleep, in case any uncouth and exorbitant fancy come unto
him, cannot easily think it other than a Dream. We read of Marcus
Brutes, (one that had his life given him by Julius Caesar, and was also
his favorite, and notwithstanding murthered him,) how at Phillipi,
the night before he gave battell to Augustus Caesar, he saw a fearfull
apparition, which is commonly related by Historians as a Vision: but
considering the circumstances, one may easily judge to have been but
a short Dream. For sitting in his tent, pensive and troubled with the
horrour of his rash act, it was not hard for him, slumbering in the
cold, to dream of that which most affrighted him; which feare, as by
degrees it made him wake; so also it must needs make the Apparition by
degrees to vanish: And having no assurance that he slept, he could have
no cause to think it a Dream, or any thing but a Vision. And this is no
very rare Accident: for even they that be perfectly awake, if they be
timorous, and supperstitious, possessed with fearfull tales, and alone
in the dark, are subject to the like fancies, and believe they see
spirits and dead mens Ghosts walking in Churchyards; whereas it is
either their Fancy onely, or els the knavery of such persons, as make
use of such superstitious feare, to pass disguised in the night, to
places they would not be known to haunt.
From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and other strong
Fancies, from vision and Sense, did arise the greatest part of the
Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshipped Satyres, Fawnes,
nymphs, and the like; and now adayes the opinion than rude people have
of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins; and of the power of Witches. For as for
Witches, I think not that their witch craft is any reall power; but yet
that they are justly punished, for the false beliefe they have, that
they can do such mischiefe, joyned with their purpose to do it if they
can; their trade being neerer to a new Religion, than to a Craft or
Science. And for Fayries, and walking Ghosts, the opinion of them has I
think been on purpose, either taught, or not confuted, to keep in
credit the use of Exorcisme, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other such
inventions of Ghostly men. Neverthelesse, there is no doubt, but God can
make unnaturall Apparitions. But that he does it so often, as men need
to feare such things, more than they feare the stay, or change, of the
course of Nature, which he also can stay, and change, is no point of
Christian faith. But evill men under pretext that God can do any thing,
are so bold as to say any thing when it serves their turn, though
they think it untrue; It is the part of a wise man, to believe them no
further, than right reason makes that which they say, appear credible.
If this superstitious fear of Spirits were taken away, and with it,
Prognostiques from Dreams, false Prophecies, and many other things
depending thereon, by which, crafty ambitious persons abuse the
simple people, men would be much more fitted than they are for civill
Obedience.
And this ought to be the work of the Schooles; but they rather nourish
such doctrine. For (not knowing what Imagination, or the Senses are),
what they receive, they teach: some saying, that Imaginations rise of
themselves, and have no cause: Others that they rise most commonly from
the Will; and that Good thoughts are blown (inspired) into a man, by
God; and evill thoughts by the Divell: or that Good thoughts are powred
(infused) into a man, by God; and evill ones by the Divell. Some say
the Senses receive the Species of things, and deliver them to the
Common-sense; and the Common Sense delivers them over to the Fancy, and
the Fancy to the Memory, and the Memory to the Judgement, like
handing of things from one to another, with many words making nothing
understood.
Understanding
The Imagination that is raysed in man (or any other creature indued with
the faculty of imagining) by words, or other voluntary signes, is that
we generally call Understanding; and is common to Man and Beast. For a
dogge by custome will understand the call, or the rating of his Master;
and so will many other Beasts. That Understanding which is peculiar to
man, is the Understanding not onely his will; but his conceptions and
thoughts, by the sequell and contexture of the names of things into
Affirmations, Negations, and other formes of Speech: And of this kinde
of Understanding I shall speak hereafter.
CHAPTER III. OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAYNE OF IMAGINATIONS
By Consequence, or Trayne of Thoughts, I understand that succession
of one Thought to another, which is called (to distinguish it from
Discourse in words) Mentall Discourse.
When a man thinketh on any thing whatsoever, His next Thought after, is
not altogether so casuall as it seems to be. Not every Thought to every
Thought succeeds indifferently. But as wee have no Imagination, whereof
we have not formerly had Sense, in whole, or in parts; so we have no
Transition from one Imagination to another, whereof we never had the
like before in our Senses. The reason whereof is this. All Fancies
are Motions within us, reliques of those made in the Sense: And those
motions that immediately succeeded one another in the sense, continue
also together after Sense: In so much as the former comming again to
take place, and be praedominant, the later followeth, by coherence of
the matter moved, is such manner, as water upon a plain Table is drawn
which way any one part of it is guided by the finger. But because
in sense, to one and the same thing perceived, sometimes one thing,
sometimes another succeedeth, it comes to passe in time, that in the
Imagining of any thing, there is no certainty what we shall Imagine
next; Onely this is certain, it shall be something that succeeded the
same before, at one time or another.
Trayne Of Thoughts Unguided
This Trayne of Thoughts, or Mentall Discourse, is of two sorts. The
first is Unguided, Without Designee, and inconstant; Wherein there is no
Passionate Thought, to govern and direct those that follow, to it self,
as the end and scope of some desire, or other passion: In which case the
thoughts are said to wander, and seem impertinent one to another, as
in a Dream. Such are Commonly the thoughts of men, that are not onely
without company, but also without care of any thing; though even then
their Thoughts are as busie as at other times, but without harmony; as
the sound which a Lute out of tune would yeeld to any man; or in tune,
to one that could not play. And yet in this wild ranging of the mind,
a man may oft-times perceive the way of it, and the dependance of one
thought upon another. For in a Discourse of our present civill warre,
what could seem more impertinent, than to ask (as one did) what was the
value of a Roman Penny? Yet the Cohaerence to me was manifest enough.
For the Thought of the warre, introduced the Thought of the delivering
up the King to his Enemies; The Thought of that, brought in the Thought
of the delivering up of Christ; and that again the Thought of the 30
pence, which was the price of that treason: and thence easily followed
that malicious question; and all this in a moment of time; for Thought
is quick.
Trayne Of Thoughts Regulated
The second is more constant; as being Regulated by some desire, and
designee. For the impression made by such things as wee desire, or
feare, is strong, and permanent, or, (if it cease for a time,) of quick
return: so strong it is sometimes, as to hinder and break our sleep.
From Desire, ariseth the Thought of some means we have seen produce the
like of that which we ayme at; and from the thought of that, the
thought of means to that mean; and so continually, till we come to some
beginning within our own power. And because the End, by the greatnesse
of the impression, comes often to mind, in case our thoughts begin to
wander, they are quickly again reduced into the way: which observed by
one of the seven wise men, made him give men this praecept, which is
now worne out, Respice Finem; that is to say, in all your actions,
look often upon what you would have, as the thing that directs all your
thoughts in the way to attain it.
Remembrance
The Trayn of regulated Thoughts is of two kinds; One, when of an effect
imagined, wee seek the causes, or means that produce it: and this
is common to Man and Beast. The other is, when imagining any thing
whatsoever, wee seek all the possible effects, that can by it be
produced; that is to say, we imagine what we can do with it, when wee
have it. Of which I have not at any time seen any signe, but in man
onely; for this is a curiosity hardly incident to the nature of any
living creature that has no other Passion but sensuall, such as are
hunger, thirst, lust, and anger. In summe, the Discourse of the Mind,
when it is governed by designee, is nothing but Seeking, or the faculty
of Invention, which the Latines call Sagacitas, and Solertia; a hunting
out of the causes, of some effect, present or past; or of the effects,
of some present or past cause, sometimes a man seeks what he hath lost;
and from that place, and time, wherein hee misses it, his mind runs
back, from place to place, and time to time, to find where, and when
he had it; that is to say, to find some certain, and limited time and
place, in which to begin a method of seeking. Again, from thence, his
thoughts run over the same places and times, to find what action, or
other occasion might make him lose it. This we call Remembrance,
or Calling to mind: the Latines call it Reminiscentia, as it were a
Re-Conning of our former actions.
Sometimes a man knows a place determinate, within the compasse whereof
his is to seek; and then his thoughts run over all the parts thereof,
in the same manner, as one would sweep a room, to find a jewell; or as
a Spaniel ranges the field, till he find a sent; or as a man should run
over the alphabet, to start a rime.
Prudence
Sometime a man desires to know the event of an action; and then he
thinketh of some like action past, and the events thereof one after
another; supposing like events will follow like actions.
To some degree, these margin notes seem to have been intended to serve
in place of an index, the original having none. They are all in italics.
He also used italics for words in other languages than English, and
there are a number of Greek words, in the Greek alphabet, in the text.
To deal with these within the limits of plain vanilla ASCII, I have done
the following in this E-text.
I have restricted my use of full capitalization to those places where
Hobbes used it, except in the chapter headings, which I have fully
capitalized, where Hobbes used a mixture of full capitalization and
italics.
Where it is clear that the italics are to indicate the text is quoting,
I have introduced quotation marks. Within quotation marks I have
retained the capitalization that Hobbes used.
Where italics seem to be used for emphasis, or for proper names, or just
because, I have capitalized the initial letter of the words. This has
the disadvantage that they are not then distinguished from those that
Hobbes capitalized in plain text, but the extent of his italics would
make the text very ugly if I was to use an underscore or slash.
Where the margin notes are either to introduce the paragraph subject,
or to show where he introduces word definitions, I have included them as
headers to the paragraph, again with all words having initial capitals,
and on a shortened line.
For margin references to quotes, I have included them in the text,
in brackets immediately next to the quotation. Where Hobbes included
references in the main text, I have left them as he put them, except to
change his square brackets to round.
For the Greek alphabet, I have simply substituted the nearest ordinary
letters that I can, and I have used initial capitals for foreign
language words.
Neither Thomas Hobbes nor his typesetters seem to have had many
inhibitions about spelling and punctuation. I have tried to reproduce
both exactly, with the exception of the introduction of quotation marks.
In preparing the text, I have found that it has much more meaning if
I read it with sub-vocalization, or aloud, rather than trying to read
silently. Hobbes' use of emphasis and his eccentric punctuation and
construction seem then to work.
TO MY MOST HONOR'D FRIEND Mr. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN of GODOLPHIN
HONOR'D SIR.
Your most worthy Brother Mr SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, when he lived, was pleas'd
to think my studies something, and otherwise to oblige me, as you know,
with reall testimonies of his good opinion, great in themselves, and the
greater for the worthinesse of his person. For there is not any vertue
that disposeth a man, either to the service of God, or to the service
of his Country, to Civill Society, or private Friendship, that did not
manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity,
or affected upon occasion, but inhaerent, and shining in a generous
constitution of his nature. Therefore in honour and gratitude to him,
and with devotion to your selfe, I humbly Dedicate unto you this my
discourse of Common-wealth. I know not how the world will receive it,
nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favour it. For in a
way beset with those that contend on one side for too great Liberty, and
on the other side for too much Authority, 'tis hard to passe between the
points of both unwounded. But yet, me thinks, the endeavour to advance
the Civill Power, should not be by the Civill Power condemned; nor
private men, by reprehending it, declare they think that Power too
great. Besides, I speak not of the men, but (in the Abstract) of the
Seat of Power, (like to those simple and unpartiall creatures in the
Roman Capitol, that with their noyse defended those within it, not
because they were they, but there) offending none, I think, but those
without, or such within (if there be any such) as favour them. That
which perhaps may most offend, are certain Texts of Holy Scripture,
alledged by me to other purpose than ordinarily they use to be by
others. But I have done it with due submission, and also (in order to
my Subject) necessarily; for they are the Outworks of the Enemy, from
whence they impugne the Civill Power. If notwithstanding this, you find
my labour generally decryed, you may be pleased to excuse your selfe,
and say that I am a man that love my own opinions, and think all true I
say, that I honoured your Brother, and honour you, and have presum'd on
that, to assume the Title (without your knowledge) of being, as I am,
Sir,
Your most humble, and most obedient servant, Thomas Hobbes.
Paris APRILL 15/25 1651.
CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTERS
THE FIRST PART
OF MAN
INTRODUCTION
1. OF SENSE
2. OF IMAGINATION
3. OF THE CONSEQUENCES OR TRAIN OF IMAGINATIONS
4. OF SPEECH
5. OF REASON AND SCIENCE
6. OF THE INTERIOUR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS, COMMONLY CALLED THE
PASSIONS; AND THE SPEECHES BY WHICH THEY ARE EXPRESSED
7. OF THE ENDS OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE
8. OF THE VERTUES, COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUALL, AND THEIR CONTRARY
DEFECTS
9. OF THE SEVERALL SUBJECTS OF KNOWLEDGE
10. OF POWER, WORTH, DIGNITY, HONOUR, AND WORTHINESSE
11. OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS
12. OF RELIGION
13. OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY
AND MISERY
14. OF THE FIRST AND SECOND NATURALL LAWES, AND OF CONTRACT
15. OF OTHER LAWES OF NATURE
16. OF PERSONS, AUTHORS, AND THINGS PERSONATED
THE SECOND PART
OF COMMON-WEALTH
17. OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A COMMON-WEALTH
18. OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVERAIGNES BY INSTITUTION
19. OF SEVERALL KINDS OF COMMON-WEALTH BY INSTITUTION; AND OF SUCCESION
TO THE SOVERAIGN POWER
20. OF DOMINION PATERNALL, AND DESPOTICALL
21. OF THE LIBERTY OF SUBJECTS
22. OF SYSTEMES SUBJECT, POLITICALL, AND PRIVATE
23. OF THE PUBLIQUE MINISTERS OF SOVERAIGN POWER
24. OF THE NUTRITION, AND PROCREATION OF A COMMON-WEALTH
25. OF COUNSELL
26. OF CIVILL LAWES
27. OF CRIMES, EXCUSES, AND EXTENUATIONS
28. OF PUNISHMENTS, AND REWARDS
29. OF THOSE THINGS THAT WEAKEN, OR TEND TO THE DISSOLUTION OF A
COMMON-WEALTH
30. OF THE OFFICE OF THE SOVERAIGN REPRESENTATIVE
31. OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD BY NATURE
THE THIRD PART
OF A CHRISTIAN COMMON-WEALTH
32. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CHRISTIAN POLITIQUES
33. OF THE NUMBER, ANTIQUITY, SCOPE, AUTHORITY, AND INTERPRETERS OF THE
BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE.
34. OF THE SIGNIFICATION, OF SPIRIT, ANGELL, AND INSPIRATION IN THE
BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURE
35. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, OF HOLY,
SACRED, AND SACRAMENT
36. OF THE WORD OF GOD, AND OF PROPHETS
37. OF MIRACLES, AND THEIR USE
38. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNALL LIFE, HEL, SALVATION,
THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
39. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE WORD CHURCH
40. OF THE RIGHTS OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, IN ABRAHAM, MOSES, THE HIGH
PRIESTS, AND THE KINGS OF JUDAH
41. OF THE OFFICE OF OUR BLESSED SAVIOUR
42. OF POWER ECCLESIASTICALL
43. OF WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR MANS RECEPTION INTO THE KINGDOME OF HEAVEN
THE FOURTH PART
OF THE KINGDOME OF DARKNESSE
44. OF SPIRITUALL DARKNESSE FROM MISINTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE
45. OF DAEMONOLOGY, AND OTHER RELIQUES OF THE RELIGION OF THE GENTILES
46. OF DARKNESSE FROM VAINE PHILOSOPHY, AND FABULOUS TRADITIONS
47. OF THE BENEFIT PROCEEDING FROM SUCH DARKNESSE; AND TO WHOM IT
ACCREWETH
48. A REVIEW AND CONCLUSION
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the
art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it
can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs,
the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not
say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and
wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the
Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the
Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as
was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that
Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created
that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine
CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature
and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it
was intended; and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as
giving life and motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other
Officers of Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and
Punishment (by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt
and member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that do the
same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular
members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its
Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know,
are suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall
Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War,
Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this Body
Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that
Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the Creation.
To describe the Nature of this Artificiall man, I will consider
First the Matter thereof, and the Artificer; both which is Man.
Secondly, How, and by what Covenants it is made; what are the Rights and
just Power or Authority of a Soveraigne; and what it is that Preserveth
and Dissolveth it.
Thirdly, what is a Christian Common-Wealth.
Lastly, what is the Kingdome of Darkness.
Concerning the first, there is a saying much usurped of late, That
Wisedome is acquired, not by reading of Books, but of Men. Consequently
whereunto, those persons, that for the most part can give no other proof
of being wise, take great delight to shew what they think they have read
in men, by uncharitable censures of one another behind their backs.
But there is another saying not of late understood, by which they might
learn truly to read one another, if they would take the pains; and that
is, Nosce Teipsum, Read Thy Self: which was not meant, as it is now
used, to countenance, either the barbarous state of men in power,
towards their inferiors; or to encourage men of low degree, to a
sawcie behaviour towards their betters; But to teach us, that for the
similitude of the thoughts, and Passions of one man, to the thoughts,
and Passions of another, whosoever looketh into himselfe, and
considereth what he doth, when he does Think, Opine, Reason, Hope,
Feare, &c, and upon what grounds; he shall thereby read and know,
what are the thoughts, and Passions of all other men, upon the like
occasions. I say the similitude of Passions, which are the same in all
men, Desire, Feare, Hope, &c; not the similitude or The Objects of the
Passions, which are the things Desired, Feared, Hoped, &c: for these the
constitution individuall, and particular education do so vary, and they
are so easie to be kept from our knowledge, that the characters of mans
heart, blotted and confounded as they are, with dissembling, lying,
counterfeiting, and erroneous doctrines, are legible onely to him that
searcheth hearts. And though by mens actions wee do discover their
designee sometimes; yet to do it without comparing them with our own,
and distinguishing all circumstances, by which the case may come to
be altered, is to decypher without a key, and be for the most part
deceived, by too much trust, or by too much diffidence; as he that
reads, is himselfe a good or evill man.
But let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it
serves him onely with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that is
to govern a whole Nation, must read in himselfe, not this, or that
particular man; but Man-kind; which though it be hard to do, harder than
to learn any Language, or Science; yet, when I shall have set down my
own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be
onely to consider, if he also find not the same in himselfe. For this
kind of Doctrine, admitteth no other Demonstration.
PART 1 OF MAN
CHAPTER I. OF SENSE
Concerning the Thoughts of man, I will consider them first Singly, and
afterwards in Trayne, or dependance upon one another. Singly, they
are every one a Representation or Apparence, of some quality, or other
Accident of a body without us; which is commonly called an Object. Which
Object worketh on the Eyes, Eares, and other parts of mans body; and by
diversity of working, produceth diversity of Apparences.
The Originall of them all, is that which we call Sense; (For there is
no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by
parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense. ) The rest are derived
from that originall.
To know the naturall cause of Sense, is not very necessary to the
business now in hand; and I have els-where written of the same at large.
Nevertheless, to fill each part of my present method, I will briefly
deliver the same in this place.
The cause of Sense, is the Externall Body, or Object, which presseth the
organ proper to each Sense, either immediatly, as in the Tast and Touch;
or mediately, as in Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling: which pressure, by
the mediation of Nerves, and other strings, and membranes of the body,
continued inwards to the Brain, and Heart, causeth there a resistance,
or counter-pressure, or endeavour of the heart, to deliver it self:
which endeavour because Outward, seemeth to be some matter without. And
this Seeming, or Fancy, is that which men call sense; and consisteth, as
to the Eye, in a Light, or Colour Figured; To the Eare, in a Sound; To
the Nostrill, in an Odour; To the Tongue and Palat, in a Savour; and
to the rest of the body, in Heat, Cold, Hardnesse, Softnesse, and such
other qualities, as we discern by Feeling. All which qualities called
Sensible, are in the object that causeth them, but so many several
motions of the matter, by which it presseth our organs diversly. Neither
in us that are pressed, are they anything els, but divers motions; (for
motion, produceth nothing but motion. ) But their apparence to us is
Fancy, the same waking, that dreaming. And as pressing, rubbing,
or striking the Eye, makes us fancy a light; and pressing the Eare,
produceth a dinne; so do the bodies also we see, or hear, produce the
same by their strong, though unobserved action, For if those Colours,
and Sounds, were in the Bodies, or Objects that cause them, they could
not bee severed from them, as by glasses, and in Ecchoes by reflection,
wee see they are; where we know the thing we see, is in one place; the
apparence, in another. And though at some certain distance, the reall,
and very object seem invested with the fancy it begets in us; Yet still
the object is one thing, the image or fancy is another. So that Sense in
all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I have said)
by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall things upon our
Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.
But the Philosophy-schooles, through all the Universities of
Christendome, grounded upon certain Texts of Aristotle, teach another
doctrine; and say, For the cause of Vision, that the thing seen, sendeth
forth on every side a Visible Species(in English) a Visible Shew,
Apparition, or Aspect, or a Being Seen; the receiving whereof into the
Eye, is Seeing. And for the cause of Hearing, that the thing heard,
sendeth forth an Audible Species, that is, an Audible Aspect, or Audible
Being Seen; which entring at the Eare, maketh Hearing. Nay for the
cause of Understanding also, they say the thing Understood sendeth forth
Intelligible Species, that is, an Intelligible Being Seen; which
comming into the Understanding, makes us Understand. I say not this,
as disapproving the use of Universities: but because I am to speak
hereafter of their office in a Common-wealth, I must let you see on
all occasions by the way, what things would be amended in them; amongst
which the frequency of insignificant Speech is one.
CHAPTER II. OF IMAGINATION
That when a thing lies still, unlesse somewhat els stirre it, it will
lye still for ever, is a truth that no man doubts of. But that when a
thing is in motion, it will eternally be in motion, unless somewhat els
stay it, though the reason be the same, (namely, that nothing can change
it selfe,) is not so easily assented to. For men measure, not onely
other men, but all other things, by themselves: and because they find
themselves subject after motion to pain, and lassitude, think every
thing els growes weary of motion, and seeks repose of its own accord;
little considering, whether it be not some other motion, wherein that
desire of rest they find in themselves, consisteth. From hence it is,
that the Schooles say, Heavy bodies fall downwards, out of an appetite
to rest, and to conserve their nature in that place which is most proper
for them; ascribing appetite, and Knowledge of what is good for their
conservation, (which is more than man has) to things inanimate absurdly.
When a Body is once in motion, it moveth (unless something els hinder
it) eternally; and whatsoever hindreth it, cannot in an instant, but in
time, and by degrees quite extinguish it: And as wee see in the water,
though the wind cease, the waves give not over rowling for a long
time after; so also it happeneth in that motion, which is made in the
internall parts of a man, then, when he Sees, Dreams, &c. For after the
object is removed, or the eye shut, wee still retain an image of the
thing seen, though more obscure than when we see it. And this is it,
that Latines call Imagination, from the image made in seeing; and apply
the same, though improperly, to all the other senses. But the Greeks
call it Fancy; which signifies Apparence, and is as proper to one sense,
as to another. Imagination therefore is nothing but Decaying Sense; and
is found in men, and many other living Creatures, as well sleeping, as
waking.
Memory
The decay of Sense in men waking, is not the decay of the motion made in
sense; but an obscuring of it, in such manner, as the light of the Sun
obscureth the light of the Starres; which starrs do no less exercise
their vertue by which they are visible, in the day, than in the night.
But because amongst many stroaks, which our eyes, eares, and other
organs receive from externall bodies, the predominant onely is sensible;
therefore the light of the Sun being predominant, we are not affected
with the action of the starrs. And any object being removed from our
eyes, though the impression it made in us remain; yet other objects more
present succeeding, and working on us, the Imagination of the past is
obscured, and made weak; as the voyce of a man is in the noyse of the
day. From whence it followeth, that the longer the time is, after the
sight, or Sense of any object, the weaker is the Imagination. For the
continuall change of mans body, destroyes in time the parts which in
sense were moved: So that the distance of time, and of place, hath one
and the same effect in us. For as at a distance of place, that which wee
look at, appears dimme, and without distinction of the smaller parts;
and as Voyces grow weak, and inarticulate: so also after great distance
of time, our imagination of the Past is weak; and wee lose( for example)
of Cities wee have seen, many particular Streets; and of Actions, many
particular Circumstances. This Decaying Sense, when wee would express
the thing it self, (I mean Fancy it selfe,) wee call Imagination, as I
said before; But when we would express the Decay, and signifie that the
Sense is fading, old, and past, it is called Memory. So that Imagination
and Memory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hath
divers names.
Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience. Againe,
Imagination being only of those things which have been formerly
perceived by Sense, either all at once, or by parts at severall
times; The former, (which is the imagining the whole object, as it was
presented to the sense) is Simple Imagination; as when one imagineth a
man, or horse, which he hath seen before. The other is Compounded; as
when from the sight of a man at one time, and of a horse at another, we
conceive in our mind a Centaure. So when a man compoundeth the image of
his own person, with the image of the actions of an other man; as when a
man imagins himselfe a Hercules, or an Alexander, (which happeneth often
to them that are much taken with reading of Romants) it is a compound
imagination, and properly but a Fiction of the mind. There be also other
Imaginations that rise in men, (though waking) from the great impression
made in sense; As from gazing upon the Sun, the impression leaves an
image of the Sun before our eyes a long time after; and from being long
and vehemently attent upon Geometricall Figures, a man shall in the
dark, (though awake) have the Images of Lines, and Angles before his
eyes: which kind of Fancy hath no particular name; as being a thing that
doth not commonly fall into mens discourse.
Dreams
The imaginations of them that sleep, are those we call Dreams. And these
also (as all other Imaginations) have been before, either totally, or
by parcells in the Sense. And because in sense, the Brain, and Nerves,
which are the necessary Organs of sense, are so benummed in sleep, as
not easily to be moved by the action of Externall Objects, there can
happen in sleep, no Imagination; and therefore no Dreame, but what
proceeds from the agitation of the inward parts of mans body; which
inward parts, for the connexion they have with the Brayn, and other
Organs, when they be distempered, do keep the same in motion; whereby
the Imaginations there formerly made, appeare as if a man were waking;
saving that the Organs of Sense being now benummed, so as there is
no new object, which can master and obscure them with a more vigorous
impression, a Dreame must needs be more cleare, in this silence of
sense, than are our waking thoughts. And hence it cometh to pass, that
it is a hard matter, and by many thought impossible to distinguish
exactly between Sense and Dreaming. For my part, when I consider, that
in Dreames, I do not often, nor constantly think of the same Persons,
Places, Objects, and Actions that I do waking; nor remember so long a
trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as at other times; And because
waking I often observe the absurdity of Dreames, but never dream of
the absurdities of my waking Thoughts; I am well satisfied, that being
awake, I know I dreame not; though when I dreame, I think my selfe
awake.
And seeing dreames are caused by the distemper of some of the inward
parts of the Body; divers distempers must needs cause different Dreams.
And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth
the thought and Image of some fearfull object (the motion from the
brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the Brain being
reciprocall:) and that as Anger causeth heat in some parts of the Body,
when we are awake; so when we sleep, the over heating of the same parts
causeth Anger, and raiseth up in the brain the Imagination of an Enemy.
In the same manner; as naturall kindness, when we are awake causeth
desire; and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so
also, too much heat in those parts, while wee sleep, raiseth in the
brain an imagination of some kindness shewn. In summe, our Dreams are
the reverse of our waking Imaginations; The motion when we are awake,
beginning at one end; and when we Dream, at another.
Apparitions Or Visions
The most difficult discerning of a mans Dream, from his waking thoughts,
is then, when by some accident we observe not that we have slept:
which is easie to happen to a man full of fearfull thoughts; and
whose conscience is much troubled; and that sleepeth, without the
circumstances, of going to bed, or putting off his clothes, as one that
noddeth in a chayre. For he that taketh pains, and industriously layes
himselfe to sleep, in case any uncouth and exorbitant fancy come unto
him, cannot easily think it other than a Dream. We read of Marcus
Brutes, (one that had his life given him by Julius Caesar, and was also
his favorite, and notwithstanding murthered him,) how at Phillipi,
the night before he gave battell to Augustus Caesar, he saw a fearfull
apparition, which is commonly related by Historians as a Vision: but
considering the circumstances, one may easily judge to have been but
a short Dream. For sitting in his tent, pensive and troubled with the
horrour of his rash act, it was not hard for him, slumbering in the
cold, to dream of that which most affrighted him; which feare, as by
degrees it made him wake; so also it must needs make the Apparition by
degrees to vanish: And having no assurance that he slept, he could have
no cause to think it a Dream, or any thing but a Vision. And this is no
very rare Accident: for even they that be perfectly awake, if they be
timorous, and supperstitious, possessed with fearfull tales, and alone
in the dark, are subject to the like fancies, and believe they see
spirits and dead mens Ghosts walking in Churchyards; whereas it is
either their Fancy onely, or els the knavery of such persons, as make
use of such superstitious feare, to pass disguised in the night, to
places they would not be known to haunt.
From this ignorance of how to distinguish Dreams, and other strong
Fancies, from vision and Sense, did arise the greatest part of the
Religion of the Gentiles in time past, that worshipped Satyres, Fawnes,
nymphs, and the like; and now adayes the opinion than rude people have
of Fayries, Ghosts, and Goblins; and of the power of Witches. For as for
Witches, I think not that their witch craft is any reall power; but yet
that they are justly punished, for the false beliefe they have, that
they can do such mischiefe, joyned with their purpose to do it if they
can; their trade being neerer to a new Religion, than to a Craft or
Science. And for Fayries, and walking Ghosts, the opinion of them has I
think been on purpose, either taught, or not confuted, to keep in
credit the use of Exorcisme, of Crosses, of holy Water, and other such
inventions of Ghostly men. Neverthelesse, there is no doubt, but God can
make unnaturall Apparitions. But that he does it so often, as men need
to feare such things, more than they feare the stay, or change, of the
course of Nature, which he also can stay, and change, is no point of
Christian faith. But evill men under pretext that God can do any thing,
are so bold as to say any thing when it serves their turn, though
they think it untrue; It is the part of a wise man, to believe them no
further, than right reason makes that which they say, appear credible.
If this superstitious fear of Spirits were taken away, and with it,
Prognostiques from Dreams, false Prophecies, and many other things
depending thereon, by which, crafty ambitious persons abuse the
simple people, men would be much more fitted than they are for civill
Obedience.
And this ought to be the work of the Schooles; but they rather nourish
such doctrine. For (not knowing what Imagination, or the Senses are),
what they receive, they teach: some saying, that Imaginations rise of
themselves, and have no cause: Others that they rise most commonly from
the Will; and that Good thoughts are blown (inspired) into a man, by
God; and evill thoughts by the Divell: or that Good thoughts are powred
(infused) into a man, by God; and evill ones by the Divell. Some say
the Senses receive the Species of things, and deliver them to the
Common-sense; and the Common Sense delivers them over to the Fancy, and
the Fancy to the Memory, and the Memory to the Judgement, like
handing of things from one to another, with many words making nothing
understood.
Understanding
The Imagination that is raysed in man (or any other creature indued with
the faculty of imagining) by words, or other voluntary signes, is that
we generally call Understanding; and is common to Man and Beast. For a
dogge by custome will understand the call, or the rating of his Master;
and so will many other Beasts. That Understanding which is peculiar to
man, is the Understanding not onely his will; but his conceptions and
thoughts, by the sequell and contexture of the names of things into
Affirmations, Negations, and other formes of Speech: And of this kinde
of Understanding I shall speak hereafter.
CHAPTER III. OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAYNE OF IMAGINATIONS
By Consequence, or Trayne of Thoughts, I understand that succession
of one Thought to another, which is called (to distinguish it from
Discourse in words) Mentall Discourse.
When a man thinketh on any thing whatsoever, His next Thought after, is
not altogether so casuall as it seems to be. Not every Thought to every
Thought succeeds indifferently. But as wee have no Imagination, whereof
we have not formerly had Sense, in whole, or in parts; so we have no
Transition from one Imagination to another, whereof we never had the
like before in our Senses. The reason whereof is this. All Fancies
are Motions within us, reliques of those made in the Sense: And those
motions that immediately succeeded one another in the sense, continue
also together after Sense: In so much as the former comming again to
take place, and be praedominant, the later followeth, by coherence of
the matter moved, is such manner, as water upon a plain Table is drawn
which way any one part of it is guided by the finger. But because
in sense, to one and the same thing perceived, sometimes one thing,
sometimes another succeedeth, it comes to passe in time, that in the
Imagining of any thing, there is no certainty what we shall Imagine
next; Onely this is certain, it shall be something that succeeded the
same before, at one time or another.
Trayne Of Thoughts Unguided
This Trayne of Thoughts, or Mentall Discourse, is of two sorts. The
first is Unguided, Without Designee, and inconstant; Wherein there is no
Passionate Thought, to govern and direct those that follow, to it self,
as the end and scope of some desire, or other passion: In which case the
thoughts are said to wander, and seem impertinent one to another, as
in a Dream. Such are Commonly the thoughts of men, that are not onely
without company, but also without care of any thing; though even then
their Thoughts are as busie as at other times, but without harmony; as
the sound which a Lute out of tune would yeeld to any man; or in tune,
to one that could not play. And yet in this wild ranging of the mind,
a man may oft-times perceive the way of it, and the dependance of one
thought upon another. For in a Discourse of our present civill warre,
what could seem more impertinent, than to ask (as one did) what was the
value of a Roman Penny? Yet the Cohaerence to me was manifest enough.
For the Thought of the warre, introduced the Thought of the delivering
up the King to his Enemies; The Thought of that, brought in the Thought
of the delivering up of Christ; and that again the Thought of the 30
pence, which was the price of that treason: and thence easily followed
that malicious question; and all this in a moment of time; for Thought
is quick.
Trayne Of Thoughts Regulated
The second is more constant; as being Regulated by some desire, and
designee. For the impression made by such things as wee desire, or
feare, is strong, and permanent, or, (if it cease for a time,) of quick
return: so strong it is sometimes, as to hinder and break our sleep.
From Desire, ariseth the Thought of some means we have seen produce the
like of that which we ayme at; and from the thought of that, the
thought of means to that mean; and so continually, till we come to some
beginning within our own power. And because the End, by the greatnesse
of the impression, comes often to mind, in case our thoughts begin to
wander, they are quickly again reduced into the way: which observed by
one of the seven wise men, made him give men this praecept, which is
now worne out, Respice Finem; that is to say, in all your actions,
look often upon what you would have, as the thing that directs all your
thoughts in the way to attain it.
Remembrance
The Trayn of regulated Thoughts is of two kinds; One, when of an effect
imagined, wee seek the causes, or means that produce it: and this
is common to Man and Beast. The other is, when imagining any thing
whatsoever, wee seek all the possible effects, that can by it be
produced; that is to say, we imagine what we can do with it, when wee
have it. Of which I have not at any time seen any signe, but in man
onely; for this is a curiosity hardly incident to the nature of any
living creature that has no other Passion but sensuall, such as are
hunger, thirst, lust, and anger. In summe, the Discourse of the Mind,
when it is governed by designee, is nothing but Seeking, or the faculty
of Invention, which the Latines call Sagacitas, and Solertia; a hunting
out of the causes, of some effect, present or past; or of the effects,
of some present or past cause, sometimes a man seeks what he hath lost;
and from that place, and time, wherein hee misses it, his mind runs
back, from place to place, and time to time, to find where, and when
he had it; that is to say, to find some certain, and limited time and
place, in which to begin a method of seeking. Again, from thence, his
thoughts run over the same places and times, to find what action, or
other occasion might make him lose it. This we call Remembrance,
or Calling to mind: the Latines call it Reminiscentia, as it were a
Re-Conning of our former actions.
Sometimes a man knows a place determinate, within the compasse whereof
his is to seek; and then his thoughts run over all the parts thereof,
in the same manner, as one would sweep a room, to find a jewell; or as
a Spaniel ranges the field, till he find a sent; or as a man should run
over the alphabet, to start a rime.
Prudence
Sometime a man desires to know the event of an action; and then he
thinketh of some like action past, and the events thereof one after
another; supposing like events will follow like actions. As he that
foresees what wil become of a Criminal, re-cons what he has seen follow
on the like Crime before; having this order of thoughts, The Crime,
the Officer, the Prison, the Judge, and the Gallowes. Which kind
of thoughts, is called Foresight, and Prudence, or Providence; and
sometimes Wisdome; though such conjecture, through the difficulty of
observing all circumstances, be very fallacious. But this is certain; by
how much one man has more experience of things past, than another; by
so much also he is more Prudent, and his expectations the seldomer faile
him. The Present onely has a being in Nature; things Past have a being
in the Memory onely, but things To Come have no being at all; the Future
being but a fiction of the mind, applying the sequels of actions Past,
to the actions that are Present; which with most certainty is done by
him that has most Experience; but not with certainty enough. And though
it be called Prudence, when the Event answereth our Expectation; yet in
its own nature, it is but Presumption. For the foresight of things to
come, which is Providence, belongs onely to him by whose will they are
to come. From him onely, and supernaturally, proceeds Prophecy.
