No More Learning

156 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
of ecclesiastical dogma necessitates in some measure a recast ing of its original meaning, and even the liberal development of it is not intended to break the continuity of the historic growth of the Church's creed, and involves therefore to some extent an " accommodation " to tradition. I shall begin with
those mediating theologians who have the greatest affinity with the speculative theologians already discussed, while
differing from them in that their speculative thinking is not so much an end in itself as the form in which the given ecclesiastical dogmas can be best exhibited with such modifi cations as the times demand.
The most important of these theologians, and the type of the whole school, was indisputably Isaac August Dorner, who possessed a deeply reflective Swabian nature, profound religious earnestness, and a vivid sense of the need of sounding by thought the depths of the truths of Christianity dear to his heart. His youth was passed during the time of the great disturbance in the Church created by Strauss's Leben Jesu. While he was repelled by the negative result of this criticism, his love of truth and fairness was equally opposed to the tumultuous mode in which its opponents replied to with their superficial apologies, or even appeals to ecclesiastical and political force. His view was that the business of scientific theology to bring the Christological problem, propounded
Strauss, nearer to a solution. From the historical re
searches undertaken for this end came his great contribution
to the history of Christology, Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Lehre von der Person Christi (1856), a work in which the
author's profound learning, objectivity of judgment, and fine appreciation of the moving ideas of history were shown, as was universally acknowledged. This book was followed later by another important historical work, his Geschichte der pro- testantischen Theologie (1867). Like Alexander Schweizer, Dorner developed and elaborated his own convictions by his diligent and loving study of the history of the Church's thought and belief. He gave these convictions permanent form in his two principal treatises, Christliche Glaubenslehre, and Christliche Sittenlehre, the former of which
? by
appeared shortly before his death 879-8 1), while the latter was post
humously edited by his son (1886).
Dorner's Glaubenslehre a work extremely rich in thought
and matter. takes the reader through mass of historical
? ? It
a
(1 is
is
it,
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 1 57
material by the examination and discussion of the various opinions of ancient and modern teachers, and so leads up to the author's own view, which is mostly one intermediate be tween the opposite extremes, and appears as a more or less successful synthesis of antagonistic theses. Of his method,
Dorner speaks as follows: "The method of Christian dogmatic
theology must be not simply productive, but rather reproduc tive ; still it must not be merely empirical and reflective, but also constructive and progressive. When the enlightened Christian mind is in harmony by its faith and experience with objective Christianity, which faith knows to be its own origin, and which is also attested by the Scriptures and the scriptural faith of the Church, then such a mind has to justify and develop its religious knowledge in a systematic form. " This is practically the same principle as that adopted by Alexander Schweizer ; and the considerable difference in the results of the two men only proves that this method, while a very valuable one, allows great latitude of individual opinion as to what constitutes objective Christianity, and from the nature of the case must always do so. The arrangement of
Dorner's book is singular. After a lengthy introduction, a
kind of religious phenomenology, leading successively through the different points of view of doubt and of hesitation to that of Christian faith, there follows, in the first part, the discus sion of the general fundamental Christian doctrines -- God, his nature and relation to the world ; man, his nature and original condition ; and finally, religion, as the unity of God and man, resting on divine revelation, realised in the his torical religions, and perfected in the historical appearance of the God-man Christ. Then comes, in the second and special part, the doctrine of sin, its nature and origin, and its con nection with the devil and death, and of Christian salvation, based on Christ's person and work on earth and in heaven, realised in the Church or the kingdom of the Holy Spirit, and to be consummated in the eternity beyond. It is character istic of Dorner that he treats the doctrine of Christ as the God-man among the general fundamental doctrines, placing it before the special doctrines concerning the historical Christ and his work of salvation. The incarnation of God (Gott-
? he regards as a speculative idea of the nature of an a priori truth, following from the nature of God and man, which would necessarily have been realised in history, if there
menschheit)
? ? ? 158
DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
had been no abnormal development of mankind in sin, which was not therefore the condition of the appearance of Christ the God-man, but only of his historical mission of salvation.
This arrangement has, however, the disadvantage of breaking up the doctrine of man, the accounts of his original state and of his sin being separated by the description of the historical
development of religion and revelation until the appearance of the God-man.
The doctrine of God is treated by Dorner with special
thoroughness, and contains valuable thoughts. He rejects the idea of the complete cognisability, as well as of the abso
lute incognisability of God ; our knowledge of God is always incomplete, growing, and relative, but is not therefore untrue. Again, the scientific examination of our belief in God is neither impossible nor unnecessary ; what is indeed primarily an immediate religious certainty, can and ought to be raised to a conviction with a scientific justification. This falls to be done in the section treating of the so-called proofs of the existence of God, though these must be so presented as to contain at the same time the doctrine of the divine nature and attributes. At each stage of the line of proof the idea of God is enriched with some new element, from the metaphysical at tributes of infinitude, omnipresence, and eternity, to the wisdom involving moral purposes, while each successive aspect thus gained of our conception of God is also shown to be the determining principle of some particular religion --the pro cesses of dialectic and history being thus made to run parallel, evidently owing to Hegelian influences. Of the details we must notice Dorner's view of the eternity of God, which he says must not be so conceived as to imply that for God time does not exist, making history a mere semblance without truth ; but the unchangeableness of God's nature does not exclude a changed relation to changes in time, a variation of his knowledge in the course of time ; the immutability
? of God must not be understood in so abstract a sense as to negative his life. Of the spiritual attributes of God justice is placed first, and defined as
God's maintenance of his honour, which, as the absolute standard of all value, is the source of right in the world ; God's justice consists in the ethically good as the absolutely valuable, and secures for it its absolute and unique rights. Absolute intelligence, or omniscience and wisdom, is repre
(Sichselbstgleichkeit)
? ? ? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 1 59
sented as derived from ethical perfection, to indicate that, like everything else, intelligence in the last resort is only a subordinate instrument of moral goodness. The question as to the compatibility of God's self- maintenance, as absolute intelligence and personality, with his self-impartation and immanence in the world, leads to the doctrine of the divine Trinity, which is precisely the Christian synthesis of this antithesis of transcendence and immanence, or of God's just self-maintenance and his loving self-impartation to the world. The essence of every religion is expressed in its conception of God, and thus Christianity by its doctrine of the Trinity has secured itself against both the abstract monotheism of Judaism and the polytheism and pantheism of heathendom. The two Unitarian heresies, Arianism and Sabellianism, were the effects of the imperfections of Jewish deism and heathen poly theism, the former denying the true communion of God and man, the latter the holy exaltation of God above the sinful world. Christian Gnosis rose above both these errors by its conception of the holy love of God, of which the doctrine of the Trinity is the exposition. From this point of view Dor- ner constructs an ethical Trinity : the ethically Necessary, the ethically Free, and the Love uniting both, form the three aspects of the one absolute Personality ; each of these three " modes of being " participates in the personality of God, but is not itself a separate personality, for the absolute personality can only be one. In this way the ecclesiastical dogma of the Trinity is interpreted from the point of view of a speculative theism, bearing the closest resemblance to that of Weisse.
The eternal love of God creates a free world, distinct from God, to establish a communion of love with itself. Being an organism with varied elements, this world is
intended to be the copy of the triune life of God. The creation out of nothing means that the matter and form of the world are alike wholly derived from God ; but this derivation must not be conceived as having had a beginning in time. The conceptions " creation " and " preservation " must neither be confounded nor separated from each other. Preservation is the continued action of the divine creative
will, though in such a way that the secondary causality imparted to the creature itself becomes the means for its own self-reproduction, so that the created world, by reason of the
? all-pervading omnipotence,
is also the cause of itself. If we
? ? ? l6o DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
define creation and preservation teleologically, they lead to the conception of a Providence partly ruling existing things, partly creating new ones. Its final end is a kingdom of moral spirits, governed by holy love ; the freedom of the creature, not fettered by the universal plan, but, as foreknown, is made a part of that plan. Man, on the one hand belonging to nature, and on the other rising above nature as an immortal
spirit, is in the image of God. partly as his original birth right, and partly as his true destination ; he cannot therefore be a mere product of nature, but his existence presupposes a fresh creative act of God. Man, though good by his original creation, became the cause of evil by an act of freewill, of which no further explanation can be given ; the evil became the permanent corruption of human nature, and as such was by the laws of heredity transmitted from the first parents to all mankind. This inherited racial sin involves a general
? need of salvation, but is not personal guilt, and does not decide a man's definitive merit or final destiny, which depends upon his personal decision. The restoration of the image of God, marred by sin in the human race, was only possible by the incarnation of God in the Son.
But this incarnation, as the completion of the revelation of God, was also necessary in itself independently of sin, since mankind was from the first created to arrive at perfection by communion with God. Hence Dorner had previously con nected with the doctrine of man's nature, as created in the image of God, the doctrine of the unity of God and man in religion. God being love, imparts himself to man, and man is spiritually able to receive the communication ; the reality of this impartation and reception affirmed as a unity is religion.
Religion is primarily realised not in one of the spiritual faculties, but in the man as a whole, or in the heart ; as Dorner
very characteristically seeks to prove, not by psychological considerations, but from the fact that God as personality is an indivisible spiritual whole. To God's manifestation of himself in his sovereign power and his will, there corresponds on man's side a primary consciousness of absolute dependence upon God and devotion to him, by reason of which man is filled with divine life in knowledge, freedom, and blessedness. Since religion is not simply a subjective action, but pre supposes an approach of God to man, it implicitly contains the idea of revelation. Revelation is a creative act of God
? ? ? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. l6l
upon the human heart, and its distinctive marks are originality or novelty, constancy and universality, positiveness and
gradual growth. The ideas "supernatural" and "natural," "immediate" and "mediate" in relation to revelation must not be thought of as exclusive and contradictory, but, as from Schleiermacher's point of view, as the two aspects of
every revelation. As regards its form, revelation is partly the outward manifestation of the divine power as interfering in the system of nature (miracles), partly its inward working upon the human spirit (inspiration). The possibility of miracles must be conceded for the sake of the freedom of God in relation to the world, and in virtue of the breadth and elasticity of natural law ; their necessity follows from their importance in authenticating revelation. Very characteristic of Dorner's mode of thought, which is emotional and poetical rather than strictly intellectual, is the sentence, " Every uncorrupted soul rejoices in the miraculous. It is the part of prose to hate the miraculous, of poetry to love it ; of true poetry, of course, which does not create vain phantoms of the imagination, but loves to contemplate the realised ideal, the higher, more perfect, and therefore poetical stage of spiritual freedom, when it is in harmony with nature :"--a sentence which reminds us of the utterances of Romanticism, e. g. , the " magical idealism " of Novalis. Inspiration is the spiritual miracle performed on the spirit as a whole, increasing its strength and purity, or, more particularly, it is enthusiasm (Begeisterung) and enlightenment with regard to truth, for the purpose of establishing permanent religious fellowship. The primary seat of inspiration must not be sought in books, but in men, and must not be separated from the general history of revelation. But though no specific difference can be proved between men endowed with the spirit and inspired men ; still of the latter it is a distinctive and indeed unique characteristic, by virtue of their being vehicles of revelation, that without being personally absolutely incapable of error, they are yet preserved from it in their teaching and preaching, and
? truth, even in historical details, as the word of God. Thus after approaching a freer rational view, Dorner returns to the old ecclesiastical doctrine of the absolute
proclaim only unerring
and infallibility of the Bible, a concession to eccle siastical dogma which was fatal to his position with regard to scientific Biblical criticism.
inspiration
G. T. M
? ? ? l62 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
Revelation, and therefore religion too, reaches in" the first instance perfection in a single being, who, as the absolute God-man," is the Revealer pure and simple ; but as the
man after the image of God, is the instrument of securing the perfection of the world, The necessity of the incarnation does not depend merely upon sinful humanity's need of redemption, but is demanded apart from it by the vocation of mankind to reach full communion with God, and to form a united organism under a central head ; for such a universal head, in whom all the limitations of human individuality are done away, can only be a man in whom God's communication of himself to mankind is absolutely and universally realised, or in whom God as Logos has become man. Indeed, the God-man, as the absolute pneumatic personality of universal spiritual power, is not merely the head of men, but also of angels, his kingdom includes all ranks of spirits, and perfects their conscious unity. Finally, Christianity claims to be the absolute religion, which necessitates an absolute God-man as the
centre of this religion. That this intrinsically necessary incarnation actually took place in Jesus of Nazareth is historically proved by his holy personality, his witness to himself, and his work, as well as by the changes still being wrought in mankind by his influence. The question as to the manner in which God's incarnation in Jesus must be conceived as taking place, is the business of theological speculation to answer. On the basis of the historical development of Christology, Dorner constructs a theory of his own, of which the following is an outline. The subject of the incarnation is " God as Logos," i. e. , not a personal Logos hypostatically distinct from God the Father, but God himself in his loving will to reveal and communicate himself to mankind. That
the Logos " became flesh " must not be understood to mean that he assumed human flesh as a garment, or even changed himself into a man, for he would then only have acted the part of a man, without having become a man ; it rather means that God, as Logos, bestowed not merely his own power, but his absolute self, upon the human person of Jesus, from the moment of his birth in ever-growing measure, while the personality of Jesus received this impartation of the divine life with increasing power and receptivity in the course of his free personal life, becoming ever more completely
perfect
? permanent
? ? ? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 1 63
possessed and filled by God, till his human being became at last absolutely and indissolubly one with the divine mode of being of the Logos. The conscience and the Christian witness of the Spirit -- that of course, the moral and religious consciousness its Christian ideality -- mentioned as having analogy to this union of human knowledge and will with the divine whence we might infer that the person of Christ must be conceived as the first and archetypal manifestation of the Christian ideal of piety and morality. But this inference, however natural, would not quite represent Dorner's view, according to which Christ not a mere individual like others, but differs from all empirical individuals in representing the general idea of the human race, freed not only from sin, but also from the limitations and incomplete ness of other individuals in a word, he "the central in dividual," ordained to be the centre, not only of humanity, but also of the whole realm of spirits, being in consequence the eternal celestial sovereign, and the personal judge of the world at his second coming to consummate the kingdom of God. The motives of this Christology of Dorner are plain he wishes to do fuller justice than done by the ecclesiastical doctrine to the human and ethical side of the person of Christ, and at the same time retain as much as possible of its transcendental metaphysics whether he has satisfactorily accomplished this, particular whether a central individual coincident with the idea of the race conceivable actual history, a question will in this place only suggest. The same holds good of Dorner's treatment of the doctrine of the work of Christ, in which he follows the ecclesiastical tradition still more closely than in his doctrine of Christ's person, not only formally in the doctrine of three offices, but materially, especially on the central point -- the atonement by vicarious satisfaction. Dorner teaches that when Christ put himself the place of mankind, order, his own feeling of pain, to bear the divine displeasure against the guilt of
the race, he made himself an offering for us to the punitive justice of God, and thereby became for the world the perfect surety, for whose sake God can grant, not only freedom from punishment, but even blessedness. --That Christ's three offices are perpetuated the corresponding offices of the
w
? Church, a valuable remark of Dorner's, which naturally have suggested a retrospective modification of his
might
? ? is
in
is
in
;
in
is,
in
in
is
is
in : I
is
in
(~
;
is
;
is
? 164 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
doctrine of Christ's work. -- Finally, we must mention that in
his doctrine of justification, Dorner defended the strictly
Lutheran theory against Hengstenberg's more rationalistic form of it. We can, however, trace a certain hesitation on Dorner's part with regard to the decisive question, whether the ground of justification is the objective merit of Christ to which the believer's relation is simply receptive, or not rather subjective faith itself, as the frame of mind pleasing to God, and, therefore, in principle, the beginning of a new life. Dorner's concern as a churchman for the objectivity of the work of redemption, inclines him to the former view; his
personal concern for the ethical conception of the Christian life of faith to the latter.
On the latter point characteristic words of Dorner's are found in his correspondence with Martensen : " The ethical idea is now all-important. . . . More and more I see Schleiermacher's peculiar greatness, and his unique position among modern princes of science, in virtue of his thorough blending of ethics and dogmatics. This will be a mine of wealth for the times which are now at hand. " What Dorner commends in Schleiermacher characterises also the fundamental principle of his own theology ; he tried to blend dogmatics and ethics, and renovate theology and the Church by the ethical idea of personal freedom in God. In this he is in
complete accord with Rothe. The excellence of this object, and the purity and fervour of his devotion to will keep Dorner's memory in honour, however we may judge of the success of his attempts at dogmatic mediation and the tenability
of his particular doctrinal views.
The Danish theologian Martensen, with whom Dorner was
connected in a long and close friendship, represented a similar
? but differed from Dorner in his way of treating theological doctrines. Dorner had arrived at his results by the process of dialectical reflection upon the
various forms of doctrine of ancient and modern theologians but Martensen the historical method put quite into the background in favour of independent speculation, which indeed
everywhere presupposes the ecclesiastical dogmas, specially those of Lutheranism, but tries to skilfully combine them with the ideas of Bohme's and Baader's theosophy. The problem of dogmatic theology Martensen holds to be the synthesis of the Christian consciousness of redemption and revelation, or
mediating speculative position,
? ? in
is
;
it,
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 165
the reproduction of revealed divine wisdom in our conception of the Christian idea of truth, which ought to comprehend the subjective and the objective, the human and the divine side of Christianity. This idea dogmatic theology has to grasp and develop, showing not only the coherence of its given matter, but also its possibility and basis, and logically recon ciling the antitheses in the unity of the idea. This method was suggestively pursued by Martensen himself, though we cannot deny that his efforts at reconciliation often suffer much from obscurity of conception, owing to the want of a rational intro ductory criticism. We often get the impression of brilliant speculative fireworks, throwing a peculiar light on the Church's dogmas, without making obscure questions really plainer. With the antitheses of nature and spirit, ethical and cosmical, personal and impersonal, he presents a dialectical exhibition which rather confuses than instructs the sober understanding. A few of the chief examples will serve to characterise this method.
On the one hand, the fact is specially emphasised that Christi
anity is an ethical, historical religion, belonging to the world
of spirit, language, conscience, freedom, and personality. Christianity is essentially Christ himself. But on the other hand, Christ must not be conceived as essentially an ethical (or, to use our author's usual term, moral) and historical being simply, not as simply the new Adam, but as the centre of the whole world, of all spirits, and of nature. Schleiermacher's error lay in overlooking Christ's trinitarian pre-existence and his cosmical position. The Logos true, primarily, Martensen as Philo, simply the ideal world of the divine consciousness but he maintains that the superiority of Christi anity lies its making this idea as thought into thinking principle side by side with God, into the second hypostatical ego of the Son just as the will, which raises the necessary content of thought to the freedom of love, must be conceived as a third ego, the hypostasis of the Spirit. Thus the Trinity
constructed by the discrimination of different elements in the divine life, and the transformation of them in the process into independent persons. Dorner had proceeded more
cautiously.
In his doctrine of the creation, Martensen well remarks that
we must combine the heathen point of view of cosmogony, or the world's evolution of itself, with the Jewish view of its free
? ? ? is
in
;
; in
a
is, it is
in
? l66 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
creation ; the world is both nature and creature ; regarded as the former, it is eternal and necessary ; as the latter, it had a beginning in time, and was the product of freedom, so that in its further development also it is exposed to the free inter ference of divine miraculous power. How this conception of the supernatural side of creation can be combined in thought with the idea of nature, or the self-evolution of the world, Martensen did not succeed in explaining.
Very characteristic is Martensen's doctrine as to angels and devils. They must not be conceived merely and primarily as personal, but as ideas and powers in the life of nature and of peoples, intermediate between imagined personifications and real personal beings, but sometimes becoming real persons, ministering spirits in the kingdom of God. In particular, the devil is really the universal principle of cosmical self-existence in its antagonism to God ; being a principle, he has not a self-existing personality, but has only a nascent personality, which "as such is intermediate between existence and non existence, personality and personification, actuality and possi bility, ' being ' and ' signification. ' " The principle only reaches personality in individual creatures, though not merely in human, but also in superhuman spirits ; among the latter is one in whom the principle of evil is so hypostatised as to make him its central revelation, and therefore the personal centre and head of the kingdom of evil -- the personal devil or Antichrist of the Bible. He may be regarded as the younger brother of the Son of God, Christ, and his personal rival throughout the history of revelation. In the snake of the Garden of Eden he was still as it were in swaddling clothes ; then his strength grew more and more, until simultaneously with the revelation of the Logos in Christ, he gained possession of the sovereignty of this world. Although already conquered by Christ, he will continue to exercise his power and craft until the last decisive struggle with the returning King of heaven. Thus our Gnostic theologian regards the personifications, by means of which the poetical imagination vividly realised the warring forces of the world's history, as objective realities, though he cannot quite forget their origin in the creative power of the imagina tion ; the " hovering " of these strange figures between personification and personality is the mark of this theology, with its oscillation between poetical imagery and really definite thought.
? ? ? ? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS.
1 67
The temptation of the first parents in Paradise he explains psychologically, by the antagonistic fundamental impulses of human nature, and also metaphysically, by the contrary super human powers -- God and the cosmical principle. The Mosaic account of the Fall we must regard as "a combination of history and sacred symbolism, a figurative description of an actual fact," that not merely as the symbol of a general, ever- recurring event, but as an historical fact from the earliest times though, again, not as this fact itself, as actually occurred, but only as an emblem or symbol of This justi fies the free allegorising of all the individual features of the narrative, while still preserving its character as traditional history in opposition to the mythological interpretation in
current criticism. How these two conceptions are to be united however not made clear.
In his Christology, Martensen vigorously demands the
reality of the incarnation of God and the union of the two natures in the God-man, as against all mythical and mystical rationalism and idealism. But in order to secure the unity and gradual development of the person of Christ, Martensen revises the ecclesiastical doctrine, partly by postulating Liebner) an act of self-renunciation (kenosis) on the part of the Logos, whereby his divine attributes were reduced to the measure of the human, and partly by maintaining (with Dorner) a gradual growth of the germ of divine life planted in the human child from the unconscious possibility to the conscious reality of an ego at once human and divine. This certainly avoids the stumbling-block of the ecclesiastical doc trine of the two natures, a twofold life Christ, but substitutes for a "twofold life" in the Logos, that "as the pure Logos of the Deity works throughout nature, which filled by its presence," and at the same time, as the Logos incarnate in Christ, has a humanly limited form of existence, and only gradually rises from the unconsciousness of the potential ego to the consciousness of itself. not clear how this life that
humanly developing and that life eternally existing are com bined in the unity of the same personal Logos but the pur pose of this artificial reasoning to show that we must recognise in Christ not merely an ideal man, but the " centre of the universe," the cosmical mediator of the consummation of the whole kingdom of nature and of spirits, which of
importance to our author on account of his doctrine of the
S
? (with
? ? is
is
It is
;
it.
it
is
is
it
is
it
in in
;
is,
? 1 68 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
sacraments and his eschatology. He further teaches that Christ's birth was both truly human and also a true super human miracle ; that his life as man cannot be conceived with out a national colouring, but that he was without the natural limitation attaching to every nationality ; that, since he was subject to human temptation, we must assume the possibility of his sinning, though, on account of the divine source of his life, this possibility could never become actual, and was therefore in fact equivalent to the impossibility of his sinning. The work of reconciliation belonging to Christ's high priestly office must be interpreted not merely as a reconciliation of man to God, but as a reconciliation of God himself. Recon ciliation may be defined as the removal of an antithesis in the process of God's revelation of himself, viz. . the antithesis between his love and his justice. " Although these attri butes are essentially one, there is on account of sin a certain
? between them in the divine nature. For, in spite of God's eternal love of the world, his actual relation to it is not one of love, but only one of holiness and justice, an antithetical relation, since the unity it involves is hindered and kept down. " This contradiction can be removed only by the vicarious satisfaction of the Son of God. The necessity of such an objective vicarious expiation true, again rendered problematical by the subsequent discussion, according to which the subjective consciousness of reconciliation the effect of the new birth, and of faith, which Martensen
as the germinal beginning of the new man. Accordingly, the actual reconciliation appears as a psychological process consciousness, consequence of the ethical change in the human mind so that, after all, the necessity for a reconcilia tion once for all by Christ's satisfaction not made clear.
The same hesitation between an ethical and non-ethical
point of view recurs finally in a specially surprising form Martensen's teaching on the Sacraments. Baptism primarily the pledge of divine grace in view of future faith but more than this also, in truth, the beginning of the Christian life, since " involves, not indeed personal, but substantial and essential regeneration. " an objective mystery, which creative grace establishes a new relation being between God"and man, " incorporating " the latter's unconscious nature into Christ, not psychologically merely, but organically, not figuratively only, but essentially. " Since
disagreement
regards
? ? in
It is
is, it is
it is
: in it
; is
it
of isin in
is
is
;
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 1 69
in the case of a child this cannot, of course, be done by ethical means, a physical influence is the only remaining method, and accordingly Martensen does not hesitate to speak of "a holy nature-mystery. " How this mystery is to be con ceived without having recourse to magic is not explained.
In the same way, Martensen sees in the Lord's Supper " the inseparable union of a holy spirit-mystery, and a holy nature-
mystery," since not only Christ's spirituality, but also his corporality is offered as food, not only for the soul, but for the whole new man, accordingly for that future man of the resurrection also, who is already germinating in secret, and this food is received by all, including the unbelieving. To the old objection of the Zwinglian school, that we cannot think of Christ's body as omnipresent, he returns the not very luminous answer, that we must conceive of heaven as where the glorified Christ is ; not as a material place, a " where " according to the ideas of our present sense-perception, but still as "a more definite ' where,' " where cosmic life is com pletely filled by God.
We see that Martensen's method of speculation never belies its character ; it dazzles by its brilliant antitheses and bold syntheses, but generally leaves us wholly uncertain as to how we are actually to combine the contradictory sides in thought ; dogmatic thought and imaginative contemplation combine to form a Romantic twilight, from which the critical understanding departs unsatisfied.
Of much greater value than his Dogmatik, is Martensen's
? Ethik, in two volumes, in which the versatile
wide knowledge of life and the world is shown in an attractive form. The general lines of this book are best characterised in Martensen's own words in a letter to Dorner : " The onesided views against which we have to contend are those of onesided ecclesiasticism, and onesided individualism.
Both negative the great problem of the modern age--the living union of Christianity and humanism. For a nomistic ecclesiasticism which suppresses all intellectual, and especially all scientific freedom, and an individualism which tries to isolate Christianity, and separate it from the varied spheres of human life, are alike un-Christian and inhuman. The
will continue to be the presentation in life and doctrine of this union and combination of Christianity and genuine and free humanity. "
problem
theologian's
? s
? ? I70 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Blc II.
From Martensen, we pass to the theologian most nearly resembling him in spirit, Johann Peter Lange, a man of rich
imagination
renovate ecclesiastical
gestive thoughts,
and varied culture, who tried to defend and
dogma by theosophical speculation. His Dogmatik (1849-51) contains many fruitful and sug
which, however, are hidden under such a mass of bold figures and strange fancies, and suffer so much
from want of clearness of presentation, that they did not produce any lasting effect. He affirms the true principle that theology must start from a knowledge of man's nature. But his procedure consists rather in an ingenious playing with analogies than in logical inference from ascertained facts. In the pneumatic, or regenerate man, he finds a threefold consciousness, and therein a copy of the Trinity, the Persons of which are to be conceived as threefold forms or centres of consciousness ; each form of consciousness is the whole con sciousness of the divine nature, yet each is fundamentally different from the others ; regarded ideally, it is another person, but regarded really another form of personality. Since religion is deducible from our conceptions of God and man as their real interaction for the purpose of their union, the incarnation is an eternal truth which influenced the whole history of mankind, being as it were gradually realised, until it found its absolute reality in the individual God-man Jesus. Hence, in order rightly to understand the religious importance of this person, we must consider his historical life altogether in the light of the absolute idea. The possibility of the in carnation must be explained from the nature of man : " Man in the God-man is not an individual man, but the man who takes humanity up into himself, just as humanity has taken nature up into itself. Only so does he come into coincident relation with the divine as self-conditioned, and as the Son of God with human conditionality. The man in the God-man comprehends the eternal Becoming of the whole world, as it proceeds from God, according to the potentiality of his nature. He therefore, essentially the real transition of the process of being through the completed Becoming to absolute Being, and hence the fit organ of the Son of God after his ideal entrance upon absolute Becoming. He conditioned
? which identical with unconditioned con ditionality, the divine man who takes up into himself the human God. " cannot be said that this explanation makes
unconditionality,
? ? It
is
is
is,
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. I 7 1
the matter very plain. Peculiar to Lange's Christology, is the reference to the psychological distinction of " day and night consciouness " and the related idea of "genius. " Genius, he well remarks, is a permanent form in which the "day consciousness" receives inspirations from the "night con sciousness," which, as a rule, is a closed world to the ethical " day consciousness," and makes its existence known only in certain special influences. The application of this analogy from the general theory of the soul to the person of Jesus was calculated to explain several points ; but Lange leaves the matter in considerable obscurity, when he says, "The ethical consciousness of Christ's human development was based on the infinitude of his night consciousness, like the lotos flower on the lake ; and this latter consciousness was not the eternal form of consciousness of the Logos per se, but it was the night side of the universal human consciousness which the Logos had assumed with his incarnation. It was
the infinite plastic educative thought of the Son of Man in his personal conditionality, that the human form which the eternal Son could assume, without suffering any obscu ration of his eternal consciousness. " In spite of all analogies from general experience, in spite of all the ideal and real preparation and mediation, Lange leaves the individual per son of the God-man Jesus as "the absolute miracle," and his life on earth as a series of miracles. Lange deduces seven chief miracles from the seven-fold miraculous nature of the God-man. In discussing them he lays stress on the ideal, spiritually symbolical meaning of the narratives, but insists equally upon their proper historical character, because, as he holds, the ideal would otherwise be conceived in a false abstraction, without the real. He follows the same method in the case of the Old Testament legends. The garden of Eden, for example, ideal nature general, but at the same time a definite place the tree of knowledge the
an actual historical tree, no less than an ideal symbol of the seductive charm of the pleasures of nature the cherub with the flaming sword was both real angel, with an ethereal celestial body, and symbol of lost innocence and in general, Christianity presupposes, not only the subjective, but also the objective truth of the appearances of angels and demons. The devil, in Lange's, as in Martensen's view, an ambiguous term on the one hand, the symbol
? garden
? ? is
:
is ;
a
is
in a
in ;;
is,
? 172 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
of absolute evil as a principle, and on the other, a personal evil spirit, or fallen angel, and as such not absolutely evil, but only evil in a great and ever-increasing degree. The Apocalyptic eschatological world-drama of course, inter preted by our theologian quite realistically.
In Dorner, Martensen, and Lange, speculation and
ecclesiastical dogma preserved a certain equilibrium. But neology spread among members of those circles which had undertaken the defence of ecclesiastical, and in particular Lutheran, dogma; so that they too must be included, to some extent, among the Eclectics. especially on the doctrines of Christ's person and work that the Erlangen Lutheran theology deviated from orthodoxy.
The perception of the inconceivability of the complete humanity and human development of Jesus on the sup position that the divine Logos his full personality was present in him, led the Erlangen theologian Thomasius to the so-called " Kenotic Christology. " He held that with the incarnation, the Logos renounced the relative attributes deity, which he considered as not necessarily belonging to the divine nature -- omnipotence, omnipresence, and omniscience, in order to assume the limited form of the existence of Jesus only in the course of the life of Jesus did the Logos make an actuality the absoluteness of action and knowledge which had been voluntarily surrendered or reduced to an inoperative potentiality. But inasmuch as during this kenosis the Logos
supposed not to have given up his personal ego, nor ceased to form part of the Trinity, we get the difficult conception that, though Jesus the divine self-consciousness of the
Logos existed, was not as divine, because supposed not to be omniscient and almighty. Hence Gess was more logical in maintaining a kenosis on the part of the divine Logos to such an extent that he completely renounced his self-consciousness, and converted into the human soul
By virtue of his subordination to the Father he was, said, able to surrender to him his personality, and
virtue of his kinship with the human soul, which the image of God, he was able to convert himself into such soul, which potentially bears within the fulness of all the divine powers, but can only by gradual development become actually able to use them. Jesus, therefore, was from the first a potential but not actual God, and was con
? Jesus.
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is in
it is
is
it in
it is
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in
It is
is,
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 1 73
sequently capable of a human development. During this development, his Logos-consciousness occasionally flashed through the human limitations, in recollection of his pre- existence, but ordinarily it remained only the latent ground of the development of his human consciousness, which rose
step by step to complete identity with the divine Logos-
consciousness, whereby, and not before, the man
was received into the complete unity of the life of the Trinity. The opponents of this theory rightly remarked that it deviated widely from the orthodox doctrine of God and Christ, in representing the life of the Trinity as interrupted and deprived of its second person by the conversion of the
Logos into the human soul of Jesus during the latter's life
on earth, and in regarding Jesus as only a potential but not actual God-man ; but for us the chief interest lies in the fact
that the theory is evidently on the point of quite breaking away from the ecclesiastical dogma, and taking the side of the
speculative theory, according to which the universal capacity for the divine, the innate destiny and vocation of every human soul, was typically realised in Jesus.
Still further removed from orthodoxy was the teaching of the Erlangen theologian, Christian von Hofmann. His doctrine of the Atonement was the most prominent though not the only instance of his heterodoxy, and hence was the first object of attack on the part of orthodox theologians.
Hofmann, indeed, only wished to teach old truth in a new form, but a glance at his system shows the serious extent of the neology in his teaching. A vein of modern Rationalism runs through his theology, but it is concealed, by means of an artificial dialectic, behind a supernaturalism rather Biblical than ecclesiastical. His theological system is given in his two chief works, Weissagung und Erfilllung and Der Schrift- beweis (1852-56), to which may be added his collected Schutz-
schriften, containing an exposition and defence of his system against ecclesiastical attacks.
Hofmann, exactly like Schleiermacher, bases his theology upon the inward experience of the facts of personal Chris tianity. This experience he attempts to develop into a system of organically connected statements, in which every individual fact is to find its definite and necessary place as an historical presupposition or inference. And the Schriftbeweis, or proof from Scripture, he holds to consist precisely in show
Jesus
? s
? ? ? 174 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
ing that Biblical history and doctrine as a whole finds its
proper place in the systematic development of the facts which
make us Christians ; it is not that certain dogmatic
tions are to be proved by individual texts of Scripture, but the Biblical history of revelation as a whole, from the creation to the consummation of the world, is to be explained from the point of view of the necessary premises of our experience of
and inferences from need not be said that the subjective conception of Christian experience thus acquires fundamental importance the interpretation and explanation of the history, and that arbitrary and violent expedients are not always avoided in the case of important points. At bottom this Schriftbeweis the supernatural istic counterpart of Hegel's Philosophy of History both pursue the same method of deducing history from a priori ideas, philosophical ideas the one case, theological in the other both connect historical events with transcendental relations the one, with the movement of the idea through the antithesis of its ele ments to the unity of the concept and of reality the other, with the movement of the Persons of the Trinity through antithetical modes of existence to the unity of love and blessedness.
The fellowship with God into which we know that we have been admitted through Christ has, Hofmann teaches, the divine Trinity as its eternal condition. For the self-deter mination of the divine love beyond itself, having for its object the gradually evolving man of God, i. e. , historical humanity, presupposes an eternal self-determination on the part of God within himself, having as its object the eternal man of God, or the Son of God (who accordingly not really God at all, or Person in the Trinitarian nature of God, but the pre- existent ideal man, something like the Pauline Christ). God's eternal will of love, or his inward divine relation to his Son,
accomplished in the history which transpires between him and mankind. This history has a threefold beginning one given to by God, one given to by itself, and one a fresh beginning, annulling the latter and completing the former, God having appointed his Son for this. Since the final end of the divine will the man Jesus, mankind necessarily began in a single man, Eve being taken therefore from her husband. The original state of mankind was a state of actual and true, though only incipient, holiness and blessedness, not excluding
Christianity,
proposi
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it
it
it. It
:
is
a
is
in is
: ;
;
in
;
? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. I 75
the possibility of self-determination in opposition to God. The source of the first sin, however, did not lie in man, but outside him, in the temptation of Satan, who was able to deceive the woman. This brought mankind into a state the reverse of life from God, under the necessity of death and the seductive influences of Satan. Still there existed the possibility of divine counter-influence, prophetically testified to in the revelation of God to Israel, and fully realised in the incarnation of the eternal Son. His entrance into the humanity
derived from Adam was for it the realisation of God's eternal will of love, since he was the beginner and originator of per fect fellowship with God for the same humanity which had in its sin made a beginning opposed to the holiness of God, and frustrating God's work of love. At the same time, how ever, his inward divine relation to the Father became involved in the most extreme antithesis possible to it without cancelling itself. For as having become a member of Adamite human ity, the Son was bound to an obedience to the Father which involved undergoing the consequences of God's anger inflicted upon the sinful race. But the sinfulness of the human race inherited from Adam could not possibly be shared by the Son, from the fact that his incarnation was a deed of holy self- determination, to the accomplishment of which nothing was necessary on man's part except obedient faith in the divine word of promise on the part of the woman destined to con ceive him. His human action could then only be the con tinuation, by means of a sinless human nature, of the holy self-determination by which he had become man.
The acquisition of righteousness for mankind by Jesus was the effect of his entire holy life, from his incarnation to his death. It began by his assuming human nature in a sinless state as his own, thus making a new beginning in opposition to the sin of Adam. It was continued in the harmony of all he did with the will of God, expressed in consequence of sin in the form of the law, which demanded obedience to the various ordinances of man's social life. It was consummated by enduring the enmity of men in his fidelity to the divine will, preserving his holiness to the end in suffering as well as in action. The death of Jesus was therefore not a
vicarious" atoning sacrifice to the divine punitive righteousness, but an occurrence " resulting from the historical position of affairs, and which became the deed of Jesus by virtue of his
? ? ? ? I 76 DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
voluntary submission to But just as this thing which hap pened to him was not the suffering of what sinful humanity would have had to suffer, so the thing which he accomplished was not what humanity ought to have done, but was the obedience of the divinely ordained Saviour to his own voca tion. The abandonment of the Son by the Father to the hostile power of men and the devil brought the history trans acting between God and the second beginner of mankind to a conclusion, which was at the same time the conclusion
the previous history of mankind conditioned by sin. For his maintenance of the office of mediator in opposition to the enmity born of sin lay likewise his deed of satisfaction for the sin of Adamite humanity, that the actual realisation of the relation to God which had been desired and brought about God, a relation for which sin no longer exists, and which holi ness alone. This whole act of God we call the redemption of mankind, irrespective of its effects upon individuals, because
sanctified and glorified human nature in the person of Christ. Its sanctification was its salvation from sin its glorification its salvation from death. This glorification was accomplished by the raising of Christ from the dead, by which he entered upon a new kind of human life, in which his human nature
was the perfect instrument of his unconditional fellowship with the Father. Christ's work of salvation was an expiation of sin, not the sense that the Triune God had claimed some thing as a recompense for the wrong done him, but the sense that for the benefit of the human race he displayed his
? love, which seeks not its own, but what another's. The salvation of the world not based upon the
Triune God having been appeased, but upon the Son having
eternally holy
that relation to the Father which only the Holy One was able to accomplish, but not sinful mankind for itself. Only this sense can his work be called vicarious. The result of this history, commencing with Christ's incarna tion and completed by his death and resurrection, that the relation of the Father to the Son henceforth also the relation of God to the humanity beginning anew in the Son, a relation
which henceforth not determined by the sin of the race of
Adam, but by the righteousness of the Son. But participa tion in this new relation to God open to us only when, virtue of the working of the Holy Ghost, which makes us certain of this change accomplished once for all, we are re
accomplished
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;
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? Ch. IV. ] ECLECTIC MEDIATING THEOLOGIANS. 177
solved to belong to the humanity begun afresh in Christ, and therefore to make our own, not only the forgiveness of its sins, but also its life unto God. It is the righteousness of the Son which renders mankind the object of the divine approval; and it is by acting up to the relation to God existing in his person that the individual man becomes certain of its existence, and its existence for him. What he thus becomes certain of is the beginning of a new humanity, though this only becomes such for him by his attaching himself to it as soon as he is certain of its existence.
The near kinship of this theory of salvation to that of Schleiermacher will be at once perceived. The fundamental principles are the same as those recurring in all rationalistic theology since Kant, only here they are, by a somewhat arti ficial dialectic, so interwoven with Biblical supernaturalism as to appear to be the result of the Schriftbeweis. We may even admit that they have points of support in Biblical teaching, although not exactly in accord with true Pauline doctrine. At any rate, we must admit the theologian's right to em phasise some sides of Biblical teaching neglected by ecclesias
tical theology, and to make use of them for his own rational
conception of the dogma. But Hofmann's opponents were quite right in asserting the essential difference between his theory of the Atonement and that of Anselm and Luther ; and Hofmann's wish to represent his teaching as essentially in accordance with the dogma of the Confessions can only be called a piece of strange self-deception. But this want of honesty towards himself and others, this concealment of the heresy of which he was really guilty, is so general a weakness among theologians, that we must not press it too much in
his Dogmatik (1858-9), though he is a step further removed from ecclesiastical dogma. He starts from man's self-con sciousness as involving the three fundamental facts of man's need of salvation, the divine bestowal of salvation, and the completion of salvation in the Church, these facts being directly given in experience. He blames Schleiermacher for emphasising the subjective side of the truth of salvation, the
facts of the religious consciousness, to the detriment of the objective side, the facts of God's personal bestowal of salva tion. (Though how the " facts of salvation," which are only
? relation to individuals.
?
The lines of Hofmann are followed by Daniel Schenkel in
G. T. N
? ? ? 178
DEVELOPMENT OF DOGMATIC THEOLOGY. [Bk. II.
historically known, can at the same time be directly given in the religious consciousness, Schenkel does not explain, and throughout his book we can trace the effects of this failure to distinguish between direct facts of the religious consciousness and their conditions, which are only indirectly inferred or historically knowable. ) The truth of the facts of salvation can be established in three ways : first, by their answering to a human need of salvation ; secondly, by their containing a fresh communication of himself by God to man ; thirdly, by their being the basis of a progressive develop ment of the Christian community with regard to salvation.
Above all Schenkel, not without reason, maintains that
theology requires a thorough revision of the idea of religion, which lies at the root of all its propositions.