No More Learning

While Frederick was engaged in fighting for his imperial rights in the
Lombard plains, Henry the Lion was building up a strong, well-ordered
state in the north-east of Germany. The conquest of the Wendish lands
beyond the Elbe, which had never hitherto been successfully achieved,
was now systematically undertaken. For the first time in history this
country became permanently subjected to German rule. Instead of the
haphazard plundering raids, useless burnings, and wholesale massacres
which characterised the border warfare of the past, Henry employed the
most up-to-date methods of military science; he had learnt at the sieges
of Milan and Crema how a siege should be conducted, and the strongholds
of the Slavs could not stand against the new forms of siege-engines and
battering-rams which he applied to their walls; organised campaigns
rapidly put an end to such resistance as they were able to make in the
open. They had no choice but to submit or to retire into the swamp and
forest land of the interior. There were of course outbreaks of rebellion.
In Henry's absence in the south the Slavs would strike a blow for their
lost independence, would take to their ships and ravage the coasts of Den-
mark; but the years 1160–1162 saw the last serious attempt to throw off
the German yoke. In the summer of 1160 Henry crossed the Elbe, while
his ally Waldemar advanced with Danish troops from the coast; the Slav
strongholds, Ilow, Mecklenburg, Schwerin, and Dobin were abandoned
and destroyed; the Slavs themselves retired inland as the German army
CH. XII.


## p. 398 (#444) ############################################

398
Subjection of the Wends
advanced. At Mecklenburg the sons of Niclot, the chief of the Obotrites,
attempted to resist, but they were easily defeated, and Niclot himself fell
in a skirmish with a foraging party. So ended the campaign of that year.
But the sons of the fallen chief, Pribislav and Vratislav, were yet to give
trouble. Of their father's possessions the fortress of Werla alone had been
restored to them; the rest Henry had bestowed upon his followers, the
most conspicuous of whom, Guncelin of Hagen, became Count of Schwerin,
and it was against him that the attack of 1161 was in the main directed.
Count Adolf with his Holsteiners penetrated into the swampy waste
whither Pribislav had withdrawn, while Henry and Guncelin attacked
Vratislav in his fortress of Werla. After an obstinate resistance the place
fell into Henry's hands, and with it Vratislav whom Henry retained a
captive at Brunswick. His brother held his own for another year. In
February 1162 he attacked Mecklenburg, captured and burnt the town,
massacred the garrison, enslaved the women and children. The prompt
action of Guncelin of Hagen alone prevented further calamities; marching
straight for Ilow, the place next threatened, he frustrated the attempts
of the Slav prince and compelled him to retreat. Vratislav was hanged
for complicity in the plans of his elder brother. Then Henry himself,
supported by many of the neighbouring princes, Waldemar, Albert the
Bear, and Adolf of Schauenburg, took the field. The previous tactics were
again adopted: the Danish king attacked by sailing up the river Peene,
Henry by marching across country against the fortress of Demmin. An
advance guard was sent forward under Adolf, Guncelin, and Christian
of Oldenburg. The necessary precautions were, however, neglected, and
a catastrophe followed. On the morning of 6 July, the camp was sur-
prised and, in spite of a brave defence, in which Count Adolf lost his life,
the Slavs were temporarily successful. But while the victors were scattered
through the camp in search of booty, the German troops rallied under
their leaders, made a counter-attack, and little by little regaining the
lost ground, finally turned the disorganised ranks of the enemy to flight.
Henry arrived in the evening to find the day which had begun so disas-
trously ended in a brilliant success. Having joined forces with Waldemar,
the duke followed up the victory and drove the Slavs, who had fired the
fortress of Demmin and retired inland, to surrender. Thus ended the last
serious campaign which Henry had to make on his eastern frontier. But
its success was overcast by a great blow, the death of Count Adolf of
Schauenburg. He it was who had been responsible for much of the
development in the Wendish country. Holstein under his organisation
had prospered as it had never done before; however, the young colonies
no longer needed his firm hand and his watchful care; they were now,
thanks to him, strong enough to continue their growth unaided.
Christianity too made rapid progress. The Church in Slavonia had
passed through many vicissitudes. The see of Oldenburg, founded by
Otto I in 968, was divided by Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, into


## p. 399 (#445) ############################################

Progress of Christianity among the Wends
399
רי
three parts, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg, and Ratzeburg (1052-1054); but,
shortly after, the three bishoprics became vacant and remained so for 84
years until they were re-established by Hartwig of Bremen in 1149. Their
existence nevertheless continued to be precarious, and it was only when
at the Diet of Goslar in 1154 Henry, in spite of the protests of Arch-
bishop Hartwig, was granted the right of investiture to the three bishoprics
and to any others which should be founded in the Wendish country
hereafter, that substantial headway could be made? . This imperial con-
cession moreover later received papal confirmation. That the administra-
tion of Church and State should be controlled by one hand was almost
essential to the success of a country in the earliest stages of its civilisation,
and henceforth the missionary work in Slavonia made steady progress.
Henry was content not merely with sanctioning appointments made by
the Chapter, but himself took the initiative; Gerold, for example, Vicelin's
successor at Oldenburg, was the duke's chaplain and formerly scholasticus
and a canon at Brunswick. The task of this new bishop was not an easy
one; he arrived at Oldenburg to find, instead of the flourishing town of
Vicelin's day, a deserted ruin; a half-destroyed chapel alone stood to mark
the once busy missionary centre. There can moreover have been little
real enthusiasm among the Slavs for the new religion. Life was difficult;
taxation was onerous; the new civilisation brought with it new burdens.
Henry was a hard task-master; obedience to him was all they understood.
“There may be a God in Heaven,” Niclot answered to Henry's exhorta-
tions, “he is your God. You be our God, and we are satisfied. You
worship Him, we will worship you. ” Nevertheless, in spite of all, progress
was made; the churches were rebuilt, and received generous endowment
from Henry's treasury.
Moreover there was peace in the land. Helmold, the simple parish
priest of Bosau, who chronicled the events that were passing in the country
around him, speaks with unbounded enthusiasm of the great duke and of
the beneficial results of his energy and enterprise. “He says peace, and
they obey; he commands war, and they say: 'we are ready. ” So he
writes at the conclusion of his Chronicle of the Slavs. And again, “All
the region of the Slavs from the Eider, which is the boundary of the
kingdom of the Danes, extending between the Baltic Sea and the Elbe
through long tracts of country to Schwerin, once bristling with snares and
almost a desert, is now, thanks to God, become one united Saxon colony,
and cities and towns are built there, churches and the number of Christ's
servants are multiplied. " These words contain no exaggeration. West-
phalian, Frisian, and Flemish colonists had now firmly established them-
1 This is not an isolated example of the grant of such a privilege: similar grants
were made to Count Thierry of Flanders in respect of the bishopric of Cambray and
to Duke Berthold of Zähringen in respect of the bishopric of Lausanne; the former
privilege was afterwards revoked in deference to the protest of the bishop concerned.
See Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, iv, 210.
CH. XII.


## p. 400 (#446) ############################################

400
Foundation and prosperity of Lübeck
selves in the newly-acquired territory; the country was administered and
kept at peace from strongholds such as Schwerin, Malchow, and Ilow,
fortressed and garrisoned by German troops. Even in distant Pomerania
a significant advance was made when in 1163 it became subject to Henry;
German influence began to penetrate deep, and the Cistercians and the
Premonstratensians successfully pushed forward the work of conversion.
Of the numerous activities of Henry the Lion perhaps his patronage
of commercial and municipal development had the most lasting results.
In this direction, it must be admitted, his policy was often carried out at
the expense of others. The new city of Lübeck, founded by Count Adolf
of Schauenburg in 1143, was already shewing signs of its future commercial
greatness and was rapidly absorbing the trade of the Baltic; the duke's
town of Bardowiek suffered in consequence. Henry demanded a half-share
in the profits of the market of the city; the demand not unnaturally was
refused, and the market of Lübeck was closed by the duke's order (1152).
A fire destroying the greater part of the city completed its ruin. At the
request of the citizens a new town was built for them in the neighbourhood,
called after its founder Löwenstadt. But the narrowness of its harbour,
which could admit only the smallest ships, hampered its trade, and the
town failed. Nevertheless it served its purpose, for Count Adolf was forced
to yield to the duke's will. The abandoned city was rebuilt under the
auspices of Henry, the burghers returned, and trade once more flourished
in the port of Lübeck'. Under Henry's patronage the town developed
with extraordinary rapidity; in 1160, by the removal thither of the seat
of the Bishop of Oldenburg, Lübeck acquired an ecclesiastical, in addition
to its commercial, importance. In Bavaria also Henry stimulated trade,
and it was to a trade dispute between the duke and Bishop Otto of Freising
that Bavaria owes the early prosperity of its modern capital. The rich
supplies of salt from the Reichenhall mines were carried along the road
from Salzburg to Augsburg and crossed the Isar at Vehringen, a little town
belonging to Bishop Otto, who drew a handsome revenue from the tolls.
By the building of a bridge at Munich, then an insignificant village, and
by the destruction of the old one, Henry not only diverted the trade
1 Henry's charter to Lübeck contained the grant of mint, toll, and market.
Rietschel in a paper on the town policy of Henry the Lion read before the International
Historical Congress at Berlin, 1908, tried to prove that Henry was the first to develop
the constitution of the Rath. His evidence is the charter of 1188 to Lübeck in which
Frederick concedes omnia iura que primus loci fundator Heinricus quondam dux Saxonie
eis concessit et privilegio suo firmavit. The charter, however, though partly based on
a genuine original, is a forgery of the years 1222–5. The Rath does not emerge until
the last fifteen years of the twelfth century, and then it makes its first appearance in
the Rhine district-between 1185-1198 at Basle, Strasbourg, Worms, Spires, and
Utrecht. The first evidence for it at Lübeck is in 1201. Cf. Hermann Bloch, Der
Freibrief Friedrichs I für Lübeck und der Ursprung der Rathverfassung in Deutschland.
(Zeitschrift des Vereins für Lübeckische Geschichte und Altertumskunde, Vol. xvi,
Lübeck, 1914. )


## p. 401 (#447) ############################################

Oppressive rule of Henry the Lion
401
through his territory and the revenues to his treasury, but raised the
little place to a city of the first importance. The bishop's remonstrances
went unheeded by the Emperor, who sanctioned Henry's arrangements at
the court at Magdeburg in 1158.
But Henry's rule threatened the independence of the nobility; for he
did not confine his almost sovereign power to the frontier and to the newly-
won Wendish lands, but exercised it in Saxony itself. The traditional
policy of the Billung dukes had been to interfere very little in the affairs
of the duchy except on the border and in their own personal posses-
sions. Henry, regardless of tradition, interfered everywhere, strained
the use of his jurisdiction to the utmost limits, and attempted even to
transform the countships into administrative offices under his immediate
control. He sought further to increase his power and possessions by
claiming the inheritance of counts who left no direct male heir. As early
as 1144 he had thus laid claim to the inheritance of the murdered Count
Rudolf of Stade, territory of the first importance to him, for it commanded
both banks of the mouth of the Elbe, but by so doing he involved himself
in a life-long feud with the count's brother, Hartwig, afterwards Arch-
bishop of Bremen; he laid claim to the lands of Christian of Oldenburg
despite the claims of the count's son who was a minor (1167); to those
of the Count of Asseburg despite the claims of the count's daughter (1170).
Had it not been for the imperial support, Henry could not have stood
against the opposition he was creating; but for the first twenty-five years
of the reign Emperor and duke were the best of friends. The success of
their respective activities depended largely on this mutual understanding;
Frederick, relieved of the burden, which had borne heavily on his pre-
decessors, of protecting the eastern frontier of his kingdom, of maintaining
the peace of Germany, could devote himself whole-heartedly to his Italian
policy; Henry with the free hand allowed him by the Emperor could in-
crease and consolidate his unrivalled position north of the Alps.
Nevertheless the Saxon princes were not prepared to stand idle when
their independence was at stake. Conspiracies were common, and when the
Emperor left for Italy in the autumn of 1166 the struggle began in earnest.
Many princes and bishops were united against him: Wichmann of Magde-
burg and Herman of Hildesheim; Louis, the Landgrave of Thuringia, and
Henry's old associate in the Slav campaigns, Christian of Oldenburg; and
there was of course Henry's keenest rival in East Saxony, the Ascanian,
Albert the Bear, and his four sons, each of whom was to rise to a power-
ful position after the death of their father four years later. Fighting at
first centred round Haldensleben, Goslar, and Bremen; with these attacks
Henry was well able to cope, but the prospect looked more serious when
the Archbishops of Magdeburg and Cologne joined in an offensive and
defensive alliance directed at his overthrow. The sudden death of Rainald
in Italy in 1167 and of Hartwig in the following year relieved the situation,
and the return of Frederick settled the matter in Henry's favour. For the
C. MED, H. VOL. V. CH, XII.
26


## p. 402 (#448) ############################################

402
Breach between Frederick and Duke Henry
moment there was peace; Albert the Bear, the leader of the opposition
among the East Saxon princes, died in 1170, so that Henry could safely
leave the charge of his affairs to his English wife Matilda, daughter of
Henry II, whom he had married in 1168 at Brunswick, and could set off
on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172).
On Henry's return to Germany there are no obvious signs of a change
of attitude in his relations with the Emperor. They meet frequently, and
apparently on cordial terms of friendship. There were nevertheless grounds
for friction. Old Welf Vi, since the loss of his son by the pestilence in
Italy (1167), thinking that in his advanced age he could make better use
of money than of land, resolved to sell his inheritance. He offered it first
to Henry who, though accepting the proposal readily enough, was tardy
in the matter of payment; Welf therefore approached his other nephew,
Frederick, who concluded the bargain forth with. Henry was thus deprived
of a rich portion of the estates of his family, lands on both sides of the
Alps, on which he had surely counted. This was a grievance but not the
only one that rankled in the heart of Henry. Frederick had attempted,
it was said, to get into his hands the disposal of Henry's inheritance in the
event of the latter's death in the Holy Land. Nor was the bitterness all on
one side; the Emperor too had cause to complain of his cousin. Henry had
been drawn into relations with foreign powers who were not in sympathy
with Frederick’s Italian policy-with the Eastern Emperor Manuel who
was aiding the Lombards, with Henry II of England, his father-in-law,
who had recognised Alexander III.
So the breach widens. The collapse of the great Welf power was at
hand. A campaign to Italy was arranged for the autumn of the year 1174,
and in this campaign Henry took no part. Frederick, whose Lombard
adversaries had grown in strength, had become more united, more stub-
bornly resolved to resist to the last, could ill afford to dispense with the
troops which Henry could bring into the field. It is unlikely that
he willingly left the duke in Germany even for so important a task
as the maintenance of peace; nor in the circumstances was Henry,
surrounded as he was by personal enemies, very likely to succeed in this.
The two met for the last time on terms of friendship at Ratisbon in May
1174. Their next meeting, if indeed it is historical, is the famous inter-
view at Chiavenna. This is altogether a very mysterious episode. The
chroniclers who refer to it are so confused in their knowledge that many
scholars are led to the conclusion that the whole thing is a myth, a legend
spread by ballad singers after Henry's death in 1195; and their contention
is so far supported in that we possess no account of it written near the time
it was supposed to have taken place. With the exception of Gilbert of
Mons, who probably wrote in 1196, and the Marbach Annals, which are
attributed to the year 1184, all our authorities belong to the first quarter
of the thirteenth century. Yet it is difficult to understand how such a
widely, though inaccurately, known story could have arisen entirely with-


## p. 403 (#449) ############################################

The meeting at Chiavenna
403
out foundation. It was after his army had suffered severe losses at the
siege of Alessandria that Frederick in the spring of 1176 sought a personal
interview with his cousin. They met at Chiavenna, and the Emperor
begged for the other's assistance; he even humbled himself before his proud
subject, for, it seems, he realised that he must make amends for something,
presumably his conduct while Henry was in Palestine. Henry, on the other
hand, felt himself in a position to dictate terms, and he demanded the
restoration of Goslar, which he had ceded to the Emperor as the price of
peace in 1168, as a fief; the terms were too heavy, and the two parted in
enmity. So runs the story and, in spite of the difficulties, we may accept
the substance of it. Moreover it has an important bearing on what
followed. Though the refusal of help and the subsequent trial cannot be
regarded as cause and effect, it is impossible to deny the influence of the
one on the other. The breach between the former friends was now almost,
if not quite, irreparable; the Emperor would no longer arbitrate in the
duke's quarrels as a friend, not even as an impartial judge, but as a man
determined on the duke's ruin; and it was a quarrel between the duke and
the Saxon princes which gave rise to the famous trial.
The quarrel centred round the bishopric of Halberstadt. Its Bishop,
Ulrich, as long ago as 1160 had been deprived of his see for the attitude
he had adopted in the papal schism; for he had recognised Alexander III.
His place had been filled by one Gero, a close friend of the duke. By the
terms of the agreement reached at Anagni and confirmed at Venice, Ulrich
was restored to his old see, and he immediately set about undoing all the
acts of the usurper; he claimed back the fiefs of his church which had been
granted to Henry; he dismissed from their benefices the clergy appointed
by Gero under the duke's patronage. Henry was engaged in a campaign
in Pomerania, and was besieging the fortress of Demmin, when the news
of these events reached him. Having hurriedly concluded a truce with the
Slavs, he hastened back to Saxony. The last move of the bishop was still
more threatening; on a hill in the near neighbourhood of Halberstadt
he built a fortress, obviously as a basis of operations against the duke.
Twice was the stronghold destroyed and twice rebuilt. A command from
the Emperor in Italy, bidding the princes to refrain from repairing the
obnoxious fortress, for the moment restored peace. But Henry's position
was becoming daily more hazardous; a portion of his army had suffered
a severe defeat and the loss of more than four hundred prisoners at the
hands of Bernard of Anhalt; then early in the year 1178 an offensive and
defensive alliance was concluded against him at Cassel between Ulrich and
the formidable Philip of Cologne. The duke's castles and lands in West-
phalia were attacked and plundered, and it was only with difficulty that
Archbishop Wichmann of Magdeburg succeeded in preventing further
hostilities till the Emperor's return. He returned towards the end of
October, and both parties laid their complaints before him at a diet held
at Spires on 11 November 1178.
CH. XII.
26-2


## p. 404 (#450) ############################################

404
Proceedings against Henry the Lion
We are now launched into a sea of uncertainty and doubt. Innumer-
able questions arise: What was the Emperor's attitude? What were the
grounds of complaint against the duke? What course did the proceedings
follow? According to what law was he judged? Where and when was the
case heard? All and each of these questions are capable of more than one
answer. The only incontrovertible authority is the document drawn up
at the Diet of Gelnhausen on 13 April 1180, which, while having as its
main object the partition of the Saxon duchy, gives an official account of
the course of the trial. This too is not free from criticism. The original
manuscript is in parts wholly illegible; we have to rely on a transcript
made in 1306; it is open to a variety of interpretations according to the
way in which it is punctuated. But still it tells us much that we wish
to know; it makes it clear that there were two distinct legal processes,
one according to customary law, landrecht, one according to feudal law,
lehnrecht. In the former there is a single summons', the Swabian princes
-Henry's tribal peers—are the judges? , the sentence is the ban; in the
latter there are three citations, the princes without differentiation of
tribe are the judges, the punishment is the loss of fiefs. The document
tells us further that it was the complaints of the princes which initiated
the proceedings; for Henry “had sorely oppressed the liberty of the
Church and of the princes of the Empire by seizing their possessions and
by threatening their rights.
He was summoned to Worms on 13 January 1179 to answer to the
charges but failed to appear, and a new hearing was arranged for 24 June
at Magdeburg. Here, as Henry was again absent, the ban was pronounced
against him according to customary law. Now new charges are brought
into court: Henry in spite of warnings has continued his aggressions
against the princes; a Saxon noble, Dietrich of Landsberg, declared that
at Henry's instigation the Lusatians had made an incursion into his
territory, and was prepared to prove his assertion by battle—a challenge
which Henry refused; Henry had shewn contempt of the imperial com-
mands. It is now “evident high treason,” and the suit according to
1 The rule in customary law was that three summonses should be issued to the
defendant with terms of fourteen days intervening. But could these three intervals
be made consecutive in one long term of six weeks? Suits by customary law were
commonly of a local character and were heard in local courts. The short terms were
therefore quite practicable. When however the suit was cognisable in the imperial
court, which was always moving about, frequent short summonses were difficult. One
peremptory citation after a six weeks' interval would be an obvious and natural eva-
sion of this inconvenience. Güterbock, Der Prozess Heinrichs des Löwen (1909), pp.
131 sq. , cites eight instances of this practice: Otto of Nordheim, Lothar of Supplin-
burg, Frederick of Swabia, Conrad of Salzburg, Otto of Wittelsbach, Frederick of
Isenburg, Ottokar of Bohemia, and Guy of Flanders. Haller, Der Sturz Heinrichs
des Löwen (1911), contests this view and believes there were three citations in both
suits, pp. 367 sq.
2 The tribe was determined by the situation of the family castle (in the case of
the Welfs, Altdorf in Swabia), i. e. by descent.


## p. 405 (#451) ############################################

Dismemberment of the duchies of Saxony and Bavaria 405
feudal law goes forward. A second hearing was fixed for 17 August at
Kaina, and a third for 13 January 1180 at Würzburg, where on the
ground of contumacy, the repeated neglect of the imperial summons
the sentence, the loss of his fiefs, fell. We are told that Henry made an
attempt to secure a reconciliation, perhaps the removal of the ban, after
the Diet of Magdeburg. A meeting between Henry and the Emperor
apparently took place at Haldensleben, where the price of peace was set
at 5000 marks;
Henry refused to pay so large a sum, and the negotiations
broke down. The law therefore took its course. At the Diet of Geln-
hausen, 13 April 1180, the duchy of Saxony was partitioned. Westphalia,
severed from the duchy, was granted with ducal powers to the Archbishop
Philip of Cologne; the remainder, the portion east of the Weser, with
the title of Duke of Saxony, was conferred upon the Ascanian prince,
Bernard of Anhalt, the younger son of Albert the Bear. But Henry in
the course of his career had accumulated a number of Church fiefs in his
hands; these now reverted to the bishops, leaving to the new duke but a
comparatively small portion of Henry's extensive territorial possessions
in east and middle Saxony. In the Bavarian capital, Ratisbon, a diet
was held on 24 June 1180. Its object was twofold: first, as a year and a
day had elapsed since the publication of the ban at Magdeburg, Henry's
complete outlawry, the oberacht, was pronounced, and a campaign to give
effect to the sentence was arranged to open on 25 July. Secondly,
Henry's Bavarian duchy and fiefs were declared forfeit. Three months
later (16 September), at Altenburg, Bavaria was subjected to a treatment
similar to that of Saxony. The March of Styria was completely detached
and raised to the position of an independent duchy under Ottokar, its
former margrave; the dukedom thus diminished in extent was conferred
upon Otto of Wittelsbach.
No single event in the Middle Ages so profoundly altered the map of
Germany as the fall of Henry the Lion. In place of the four or five large
compact duchies, the conspicuous feature of the Germany of the Saxon
and Salian Emperors, we have now some few duchies, relatively small, and
innumerable independent principalities, little and great, scattered broad-
cast over the country. The duke moreover no longer stands in a place
apart, unrivalled in his wealth, power, and magnificence; there are others
as powerful as or more powerful than he: the Margrave of Brandenburg,
the Landgrave of Thuringia, the Count-Palatine of the Rhine. The day
of the tribal duchy has passed away.
Henry was condemned but not subdued; all this time, while the long
and dreary trial was going forward, warfare between the ducal and the
anti-ducal party had continued unceasingly, and fortune had on the
whole favoured Henry. Halberstadt had been captured and burnt by the
duke's men, and its Bishop Ulrich made prisoner; the Archbishops of
Magdeburg and Cologne had laid siege to the duke's town of Haldens-
1 Arnold of Lübeck, 11, 10.
CH. XII.


## p. 406 (#452) ############################################

406
Submission and banishment of Henry
leben, but in spite of every effort they were forced after some months to
abandon the attempt to take it. A truce gave both parties a much-
needed rest during the early months of the next year, 1180; but in April
fighting began again, and still Henry was successful. Though he failed
to capture Goslar, to which he laid siege, he gained an important victory
over an army led by Louis of Thuringia and Bernard of Anhalt at
Weissensee on the Unstrut, pursued the enemy as far as Mühlhausen, and
returned triumphantly, with more than four hundred prisoners, among
them the Landgrave Louis himself, to Brunswick. At the duke's bidding,
the obedient Wends swept ravaging through the Lausitz. On 30 July
Bishop Ulrich of Halberstadt, the source of much of Henry's trouble, died,
and two days later came the news of a considerable victory in Westphalia.
There a number of discontented vassals rose against their feudal lord; a
strong army under Henry's old associates in the Slav campaigns, the
younger Adolf of Schauenburg, Bernard of Ratzeburg, and Guncelin of
Schwerin, joined battle with them at Halrefeld, and after hard fighting
utterly routed them.
But this was the last of Henry's triumphs. The Emperor himself had
taken the field in July; after capturing Lichtenburg, an important
stronghold of the duke, he held a diet at Werla whence he issued a decree
commanding Henry's vassals to join his standard. A large number of
desertions was the result. Henry moreover had failed in his attempts to
secure foreign aid; he had approached Denmark and England. But his
old ally Waldemar was now strong enough to rest on his own resources;
his dependence on Henry was irksome, and he was only too glad to stand
by and watch the discomfiture of his former master. Henry II of England,
though full of good intentions towards his son-in-law, was not prepared
single-handed to entangle himself in so large an enterprise as war with
the Emperor would entail. One after another Henry's supporters fell
away and surrendered their castles; one after another his strongholds
opened their gates to the Emperor. The burghers of Lübeck put up a
gallant fight, for they owed much of their prosperity to the duke's
paternal care. But Waldemar of Denmark had now openly declared
himself on Frederick's side; between the Danish fleet and the German
troops the town was so closely invested that further resistance was useless;
the citizens, not however before they had obtained the express permission
of their patron, surrendered their city. The fall of Lübeck crippled
Henry's resources. He attempted to negotiate, he attempted to make a
last stand at Stade; but the time had passed for negotiations, and the
town of Stade fell into the hands of Philip of Cologne; it remained only
for him to submit. He appeared at a diet held at Erfurt, bowed himself
before the Emperor, who characteristically raised him from the ground
and kissed him amid tears. He was granted the two cities of his patri-
mony, Brunswick and Lüneburg, but it was considered, and, as events
proved, with justice, unsafe to allow him to remain in Germany. He was


## p. 407 (#453) ############################################

The Diet of Mayence
407
a
therefore banished under oath not to return without Frederick's leave.
The terms were hard, and foreign powers viewed with alarm the total
collapse of the great Welf power. Henry II of England, Pope Alexander III,
Philip Augustus, and Philip, Count of Flanders, used their endeavours to
persuade the Emperor to a more lenient course; and their efforts were not
without success: the term of banishment was limited to three years
and
portion of his revenues was allotted to the exiled duke. So in the summer
of 1182 Henry with his family left Brunswick to spend the years of
banishment at the court of his father-in-law in Normandy and England.
For the general peace of the country it was no doubt better that
Henry should be out of Germany, but it is none the less true that his
overthrow and banishment caused a serious set-back to his work on the
eastern frontier. Duke Bernard had neither the ability nor the resources
necessary to carry it on effectively; he had little influence among the East
Saxon nobility, who quarrelled among themselves and threw the country
into anarchy. “In those days there was no king in Israel,” laments Arnold
of Lübeck, “and each man ruled in the manner of a tyrant. " Denmark
took the opportunity to re-assert its independence; Canute VI, who had
succeeded his father Waldemar in May 1182, soon gained ascendency in
Holstein and Mecklenburg; he defeated Bogislav of Pomerania and made
him his vassal; finally he refused his homage to Frederick.
But these disasters were confined to the north-east corner of Germany;
elsewhere the Emperor's power and prestige were greater than they had
ever been. Here the chronicler tells a different tale; "all the tumult of
war has been stilled," and the brilliant festival of Mayence at Whitsuntide
1184 bears testimony to the success of the Emperor's rule. In the broad
meadows on the banks of the Rhine a vast city of wooden palaces and
bright-coloured tents was erected to house the multitude of princes and
foreign envoys that came thither to witness the knighting of the two
elder sons of Frederick, King Henry and Duke Frederick of Swabia. For
three days the large company were entertained as the Emperor's guests
with festivities and tournaments. To Henry, thus ceremoniously knighted,
was entrusted the regency during the Emperor's absence (1184-5). Born
in 1165, he was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle when but four years old;
now at the age of nineteen he was called to a position of the highest
responsibility and difficulty; and if his youthful efforts at administration
were not entirely successful, it was because unaided he had to deal with
problems which might well have baffled more experienced rulers. There
was no Rainald of Cologne, no Christian of Mayence, no statesman-
bishop on whom he could rely for assistance. Philip of Cologne, the
most powerful man at the moment, was already adopting a hostile
attitude towards the crown, which was soon to be aggravated into open
hostility when the young king early in 1185 imposed a fine upon him for
breaking the peace in a feud with the burghers of Duisburg.
A dispute over the archbishopric at Trèves made matters worse.
CH. XII.


## p. 408 (#454) ############################################

408
Quarrel with Pope Urban III
Two candidates claimed to have been elected to the see in May 1183 —
Rudolf of Wied, provost of the Cathedral, and the Archdeacon Folmar.
Frederick summoned the electors to a diet at Constance, on the advice of
the princes ordered a fresh election, and subsequently invested the suc-
cessful candidate Rudolf with the regalia. Folmar, who had originally
received a majority of the votes, vigorously protested against the whole
proceeding, against Frederick’s interference, and most of all against the
election of his rival. He appealed to the Pope, and even used armed force
to keep Rudolf from entering upon his duties; in Germany his cause was
championed by Philip of Cologne, Rudolf's by King Henry who impetu-
ously took up arms against the supporters of Folmar. Pope Lucius III
hesitated to give a decision on the appeal; but his successor, Frederick's
old enemy Archbishop Humbert of Milan, as Pope Urban III, im-
mediately confirmed the appointment of the anti-imperialist candidate
and consecrated Folmar. Henry, by way of retaliation, was sent on a
plundering expedition into the papal patrimony. The Trèves election
dispute in this way brought the Emperor once more into hostility with
the Curia. Moreover other issues were involved: the still undecided
claim to the inheritance of the Countess Matilda, and the coronation of
his son.
To this last demand both Lucius and Urban were deaf. It
was not possible, they said, that two Emperors should rule the Empire
at one and the same time. Frederick therefore took the matter into his
own hands; at the feast which celebrated at Milan the nuptials of
Henry and Constance of Sicily he had his son crowned King of Italy at
the hands of Ulrich, the Patriarch of Aquileia, and associated him
with himself in the government of the Empire.
Philip, Archbishop of Cologne, formerly the zealous champion of the
imperial cause against Alexander III, had now, as we have seen, set him-
self at the head of the opposition to Frederick and his son in Germany.
Having, on the fall of Henry the Lion, acquired the duchy of Westphalia,
he had become a territorial prince with interests of his own to follow,
interests which clashed with those of the Empire. He had behind him,
moreover, a considerable party; many of the bishops, especially those of
his metropolitan diocese, sympathised with the attitude he had adopted
in the papal-imperial controversy, and more especially was this the case
when Urban III retaliated against the Emperor by an attack on the
latter's rights to the regalia and spolia, vexatious rights which they would
gladly see abolished. Many of the lay nobles, on the other hand, saw in
his policy the advancement of particularist as opposed to national or im-
perial interests; so we find enrolled among Philip's partisans Louis, the
Landgrave of Thuringia, and Adolf, Count of Holstein. For foreign
allies he could reckon of course on the Curia, perhaps on Denmark and
England. To the latter court he had paid a visit apparently with the
object of arranging a marriage between Prince Richard and a daughter
of the Emperor; it is not impossible that he used the occasion to come


## p. 409 (#455) ############################################

Rebellion of Archbishop Philip of Cologne
409
to an understanding with the banished Henry the Lion at the same time;
however, when the duke returned from exile about Michaelmas 1185, he
seems to have lived peaceably at Brunswick without taking any active
steps to support the great coalition which was gathering against the
Emperor.
The situation was serious; but Frederick was equal to the occasion.
He hurried back from Italy in the summer of 1186. Having tried with-
out success to settle matters at a personal interview with Philip, he
summoned a diet to Gelnhausen in December, himself addressed the
bishops in a long speech in which he expatiated on his grievances, especi-
ally regarding the Trèves election, and finally won them over to his way
of thinking. Conrad of Mayence, on behalf of the German clergy, made
known to the Pope the result of this assembly. Urban retorted with threats
of every kind, but he died suddenly while journeying from Verona to
Venice in the following autumn, 20 October 1187, stubborn but unsuc-
cessful. Philip, but now the head of a dangerous coalition, was gradually
being isolated from his previous allies till he stood almost alone. He was
already deprived of the support of the Pope and of the German bishops;
the value of his allies on the lower Rhine, the Count of Flanders and the
Duke of Brabant, was counteracted when at Toul Frederick won the
services of Count Baldwin of Hainault by the recognition of his claims
to the inheritance of Namur; finally the Emperor entered into a close
alliance with Philip Augustus against Henry II of England which disposed
of any hopes Philip of Cologne may have entertained of help from that
quarter. His refusal to present himself to answer to the charges brought
against him at the imperial court at Worms in August and at Strasbourg
in December 1187 alienated his German supporters; further resistance
would have been useless. Cardinal Henry of Albano, the zealous preacher
of the Third Crusade, exerted his influence in the interests of peace, and
finally Philip appeared before the Emperor at Mayence (March 1188),
cleared himself on oath of the charges raised against him, and was restored
to the good graces of Frederick.
With the death of Urban III all hindrances in the path of Frederick's
Church policy were withdrawn. Urban's successors were compliant to the
imperial will. Their energies were devoted to arousing Christendom to
action for the recovery of Jerusalem, which on 3 October 1187 had fallen
into the hands of Saladin. Gregory VIII in a busy pontificate of less
than two months restored peace and friendly relations with the Emperor;
Clement III deposed Folmar from the archbishopric of Trèves, and Henry
in his turn restored the papal lands which he had occupied in the course
of the struggle with Urban.
For Frederick, as for many great men in history, the East had a
singular fascination. After the battle of Legnano he is said to have
exclaimed: “Happier Alexander, who saw not Italy, happier I, had I been
drawn to Asia. ” It was appropriately on the fourth Sunday in Lent,
CH. XII.


## p. 410 (#456) ############################################

410
Preparations for the Third Crusade
named from the introit Laetare Hierusalem, that Frederick pledged himself
to recover the Holy City by taking the cross from the Cardinal-bishop of
Albano (Mayence, 27 March). His example was followed by his second
son Frederick, Duke of Swabia, by Leopold of Austria, and by large
numbers of other princes both lay and ecclesiastical. Frederick had
accompanied his uncle the Emperor Conrad III on the Second Crusade,
and had experienced the mismanagement of that ill-starred expedition.
He therefore took every precaution; he admitted into his army only
those who could maintain themselves at their own cost for a two years'
campaign. He wrote to the King of Hungary, to the Emperor of Con-
stantinople, to the Sultan of Iconium, demanding an unmolested passage
through their respective dominions. He wrote even to Saladin requiring
the restitution of the lands he had seized, and warning him in the event
of his refusal to prepare for war within a twelvemonth of the first
of November following. Saladin in a respectful but boastful letter
accepted the Emperor's challenge, and the latter hurried forward his pre-
parations for the expedition.
His son Henry, already crowned king and Emperor-elect, was to take
charge of affairs in the West during his absence; but Frederick was
anxious to remove as many difficulties as he could from the path of the
young and inexperienced ruler. Henry the Lion, who since his return
from banishment had remained tolerably peaceable at Brunswick, was
now shewing signs of restiveness; he was still, though in advanced years, ,
active and ambitious, too ambitious to rest quietly content with the
humble position which remained to him; there was not a little discord,
we are told, between him and his supplanter, Duke Bernard. At a diet
at Goslar in August 1188 he was given the choice between three alter-
native proposals: either he must content himself with a partial restitution
of his lands, or he must accompany the Emperor on the Crusade at the
latter's expense on the understanding that on his return he should be
completely restored to his own, or finally he must leave Germany with his
eldest son for a further period of three years. At first sight it seems
strange that Henry should choose the third alternative; but it was the only
one of the three which left him with a free hand. If he had accepted the
first offer he must renounce for ever the remainder of his former posses-
sions, if the second he saw little likelihood of Frederick's having either
the power or the inclination to make him the promised full restitution of
lands which had already been granted away to others. So at Easter 1189
he once more withdrew to the court of his father-in-law, there to scheme
and plot with his English kinsfolk for the recovery of his lost posses-
sions by force of arms.
There was another important matter which the Emperor wished to
see settled. His friendly relations with the French court drew him inevit.
ably into the political turmoil of the western border-countries—Flanders,
Champagne, Brabant, Namur, Hainault. The centre of interest is Baldwin,


## p. 411 (#457) ############################################

The Third Crusade
411
Count of Hainault, of whose doings we have a full account from his
Chancellor, Gilbert of Mons. He was heir to his childless brother-in-law,
Philip of Flanders; he was heir also to his blind, elderly, and also child-
less uncle Henry II, Count of Namur and Luxembourg. Such rich
expectations brought upon him the jealousy and hostility of his neighbours.
However he could look for support in the highest places; his sister had
married Philip Augustus, and Philip was on terms of friendship with
the Emperor. It was to the imperial court therefore that he looked for, and
from which he gained, a guarantee of his rights of succession to the count-
ship of Namur. Thus matters stood when to the surprise of everyone,
and not the least of himself, the aged Count of Namur became the father
of a daughter, Ermesinde, who before she was a year old was betrothed
to the Count of Champagne with the inheritance of Namur as her
promised dowry. Baldwin once more sought the help of Frederick, but
the final decision was postponed till the return of King Henry from Italy.
Then at Seligenstadt in May 1188 the Emperor not only confirmed him
in the succession, but raised the county into a margravate, thereby
exalting Baldwin to the rank of a prince of the Empire. Frederick's
policy was to create a strong outpost on the north-west frontier of his
dominions. Baldwin did not live to occupy this powerful position; but
it passed to his second son Philip, while his elder son united the counties
of Hainault and Flanders and was destined to become the first Latin
Emperor of Constantinople.
At the head of an army of some twenty thousand knights Frederick
left Ratisbon early in May 1189. The journey eastward was likely to prove
difficult, for Isaac Angelus, who was on anything but friendly terms with
Frederick since the conclusion of the German-Sicilian alliance, had
opened negotiations with Saladin. All kinds of obstructions were thrown
in the path of the imperial army. The crusaders had scarcely left Hun-
garian soil before they encountered hostility from the Bulgarians,
instigated by the perfidious Emperor of Constantinople; the ambassadors,
the Bishop of Münster and others, sent forward to the Greek capital as
an earnest of Frederick's good faith, were thrust into prison. Neverthe-
less fear of the German arms was stronger than hatred; the inhabitants
of Philippopolis and Hadrianople fled at their approach and left the cities
deserted; Isaac Angelus, dreading an attack on Constantinople, had to
submit. He agreed to provision Frederick's army, to transport it to Asia
Minor, and to provide hostages for his good conduct. Isaac had given
way none too soon; for Frederick, disgusted with his behaviour, had written
to his son in Germany with instructions to collect a fleet from the maritime
towns of Italy and to get the Pope's sanction to a crusade against the
Greeks. Timely submission alone prevented Barbarossa from anticipating
the work of the Fourth Crusade.
Without entering the Greek capital the German army moved south-
ward from Hadrianople and crossed from Gallipoli into Asia Minor. Here
CH, XII.


## p. 412 (#458) ############################################

412
Death of Frederick Barbarossa, 10 June 1190
too unexpected difficulties were encountered: the promises of the Sultan
of Iconium on which Frederick had reckoned were as valueless as those of
the Emperor of Constantinople; the line of march of the crusading army
was continually harassed by Turkish bands; supplies were cut off and
famine was added to the other difficulties which beset their path. Iconium
had to be captured before Sultan Qilij Arslān would fulfil his compact,
grant them a safe passage through his dominions, and provide them with
the necessary supplies. With Armenian guides they proceeded on their
way across the Taurus till they reached the banks of the Cilician river
Salef. There the great Kaiser met his end. How precisely, we cannot tell;
there are many versions of the story. Frederick, perhaps, chafing at the slow
progress of his army over the narrow bridge, rode impetuously into the
stream and was borne under by the swift waters, or, wearied by the tedious
march across the mountains, he may have wished to refresh himself in
the cool stream and found the current too strong for his aged limbs.
Certain it is that his body was drawn lifeless from the river.
The memory of Frederick Barbarossa was not extinguished when his
bones were laid to rest in the church of St Peter at Antioch. He has
lived on in the minds of his fellow-countrymen as the truest expression of
German patriotism. It is but a little more than a century ago that his
name was first linked with the well-known Kyffhäuser Saga; the hero of
that famous legend is his gifted, brilliant, yet far less patriotic grandson.
Rückert and Grimm', with a keener perception of the fitness of things,
make not Frederick II but Frederick Barbarossa sleep in the solitary cave
on the mountain side with his great red beard growing round the table
at which he sits; twice his beard has encircled the table; when it has done
so a third time he will awaken and fight a mighty battle, and the Day of
Judgment will dawn.
1 Rückert, Patriotische Gedichte, 1813; J. and W. Grimm, Deutsche Sagen, 1816,
p. 29. Cf. also Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, 1854, pp. 906 sq.


## p. 413 (#459) ############################################

413
CHAPTER XIII.
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA AND THE LOMBARD LEAGUE.
When the votes of the Electors called the young Duke of Swabia,
Frederick of Hohenstaufen, to the throne, men's minds turned to him in
anxiety yet in the fulness of hope. Germany had need of settled
government in order to reunite her inherent forces and to raise the fallen
dignity of the Empire to the high level once attained by Charles and
Otto the Great. The character of the young monarch who now undertook
to direct the destinies of the Empire was not unequal to the task, and the
manly ambition which glowed within him found in the example of those
great predecessors a spur and inspiration fraught with promise. His
person seemed a symbol of domestic peace to the Germans who had raised
him to his throne. His father had transmitted to him the Ghibelline
blood of the Hohenstaufen with all the other imperial traditions of the
Franconian house. On his mother's side he was related to the Welfs,
and thus seemed to form a reuniting link of friendship between the two
great parties so long at variance. He was a voice calling upon the
scattered forces of Germany to combine and work in harmony for
common interests.
Gifted with a good memory and a keen intelligence, Frederick
spoke his native language eloquently but was not at home in the
Latin tongue, although he read Latin authors with pleasure and took
a delight in those narratives of Roman history which brought before his
mind, yearning for greatness and fame, memories of that bygone Roman
Empire on the restoration of which his heart was set. Like all men of
a higher cast of character, he opened his ears to the spirit of his age and
yielded to the influences of the revived classical learning. His mind was
full of the revived conceptions of the Roman imperial law, of which the
Italian jurists saw in him the embodiment. They did not, however,
understand that the Empire transplanted into German soil was not the
Empire of old, and that in Frederick of Hohenstaufen they had before
them the most authentic representation of the good and evil of Germanic
power against which, as by an inevitable antithesis, the free Lombard
communes were to rise. Frederick was the successor of Charles the Great
rather than of Augustus, and his counterpart was the new Italy which
had taken the place of the ancient Rome.
The crown was hardly on his brow when he sent to Italy ambas-
sadors, who presented themselves to the Pope and were well received.
Eugenius III, in May 1152, had at once written to Frederick from
CH. XIII.


## p. 414 (#460) ############################################

414
Barbarossa's early relations with the Papacy
Segni congratulating him on his election and announcing the dispatch
of a legate who would acquaint him with his intentions. The Pope, in
expressing his confidence that the king would maintain the promises
made by Conrad III to himself and the Roman Church, hinted at an
early visit to Rome. With a bearing on this subject which lay so near
his heart, Eugenius wrote on 20 September 1152 to Wibald, Abbot of
Corvey (Stablo), informing him of the machinations set on foot in Rome
by the popular faction at the instigation of the heretic, Arnold of Brescia,
unknown to the nobles and leading personages of the city. About two
thousand of the common citizens had met secretly to arrange for the elec-
tion of one hundred senators for life and two consuls, and to vest the
supreme authority over them and over Rome in one man holding the
rank of Emperor. The Pope enjoined Wibald to inform Frederick of this
secretly in order that he might take steps to meet the occasion. Frederick
stood in need of no incitement from the Pope to turn his thoughts to
Italy, and in the very first days of his reign he had discussed the matter
in council with the princes. His ecclesiastical advisers would have liked
him to have given effect without further negotiations to the engagements
made between Conrad III and the Holy See, and then to have proceeded
to Rome to receive the crown and re-establish the impaired authority of
the Pope. But the lay princes were opposed to this immediate absence
from Germany, either because the position of the kingdom was still too
unstable or because they thought it expedient to wait for a fresh in-
vitation from the Pope. Frederick, although anxious to receive the
crown and feeling that it was important to do so quickly, saw the
necessity of first dealing with the affairs of Germany. In the case of
the election of Wichmann? to the archbishopric of Magdeburg the inter-
pretation of the Concordat of Worms was involved, and this introduced
a serious cause of disagreement with the Pope.
In spite of this incident, friendly relations were maintained between
the Pope and the king. It was a matter of pressing importance for
both that the coronation at Rome should not be long deferred. While
settling the affairs of Germany, Frederick kept his attention steadily
fixed on Italy, and in giving his decision in favour of the Saxon Henry
the Lion, whom he liked and wished to reconcile to the Empire, in the
dispute between that prince and the Duke of Bavaria, he aimed at
securing powerful co-operation in his expedition into Italy. Invitations
to enter upon this expedition were many and fervent. The rebel barons
of Apulia pictured to him the easiness of an enterprise against the
King of Sicily; many Italian cities asked his aid against other and more
powerful cities, especially against the powerful and haughty Milanese
whom they had not sufficient strength to oppose. Anastasius IV, who
had succeeded Eugenius III in July 1153, confirmed the proposals of his
predecessor, and went so far as to grant the pallium to Wichmann for
See supra, Chapter XII, pp. 392–3.


## p. 415 (#461) ############################################

Pope Hadrian IV
415
a
new era
the see of Magdeburg, while urging Frederick to come to Rome. The
moment had come, and the young restorer of the Empire set out in
October 1154 from the Tyrol for Italy. In November he encamped near
Piacenza, on the plains of Roncaglia, in order to hold, according to
custom, his first Italian diet. A few days afterwards, on 3 December
1154, Anastasius died at Rome, and with his successor
opened, in which the story of the House of Swabia up to its end was
inextricably bound up with that of the Papacy.
'The new Pontiff was known as Hadrian IV. He was born in England,
at Langley near St Albans, in poor circumstances, and his name was
Nicholas Breakspear. He had left his native country in youth and
wandered through various districts of France in search of instruction.
After a stay of some duration at Arles, his studies being now complete,
he was received into the monastery of Saint-Ruf in Provence, where
his good looks, well-weighed speeches, and prompt obedience made him
a favourite. There he was able to turn to account his intellectual gifts,
and made such advance in his studies and in the esteem of his fellow-
religious that he was raised to the rank of abbot. In this office, however,
he did not obtain the same sympathies as before, either because the
monks found the rule of a foreigner irksome, or that he had heaped up
resentments against himself by his unflinching severity. Thus disputes
arose between him and his monks which brought him to Rome to
Eugenius III. In this way the Pontiff learned to estimate his true worth
and, removing him from the abbacy, appointed him Cardinal-bishop of
Albano and then placed him at the head of the Norwegian missions.
By carrying the Gospel into these distant regions and there organising
the Church, he secured such a reputation at Rome and among the car-
dinals that they, on the day after the death of Anastasius (4 December
1154), soon after his return from his mission, elected him to the
Papacy.
A strong man, called upon to face difficult times, he entered on his
sacred office with a very lofty conception of the supreme mission for
which this office had been instituted on earth by God. The zeal and
piety which inspired him were combined with a capacity for public
affairs bordering on astuteness, while the suavity of his manner was
accompanied by a strength and tenacity of character which looked
straight forward, without swerving, to the end in view. He had scarcely
become Pope when an occasion arose for displaying his firmness. The
Romans, in the last days of the pontificate of Eugenius, had consented
to a sort of truce which had enabled the Pope to re-enter Rome and
establish himself in the Vatican within the precincts of the Leonine
city. But it was a truce which both parties viewed with suspicion.
Arnold of Brescia with his followers was still in Rome, and his presence
encouraged the popular faction to contend for communal liberty against
pontifical supremacy. This new Pope, a foreigner, confident of his
CH. XIII.


## p. 416 (#462) ############################################

416
Rome and Sicily
authority and hostile to the teaching of Arnold, could not be acceptable
to the Romans, whose discontent reached at last the pitch of violence.
One day when Cardinal Guido of Santa Pudenziana was returning
from the Vatican, he was attacked and seriously wounded by Arnold's
followers. Hadrian in return for this grave outrage unhesitatingly
launched an interdict against the city, declaring that it should not be
removed until Arnold and his party were banished from Rome.
Never before had this heavy sentence fallen upon the city, and the
unforeseen event spread terror in men's minds.