, which contain the De Legi-
an asterisk is prefixed have descended to us in a
bus, Academica, De Finibus, Leipz.
an asterisk is prefixed have descended to us in a
bus, Academica, De Finibus, Leipz.
William Smith - 1844 - Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - a
Their original pur- tion lowered; but Rome was the only theatre on
pose was fully accomplished. Although the return which he desired to perform a part. From the
of Cicero was glorious, so glorious that he and moment that he quitted the metropolis, his letters
others may for a moment have dreamed that he are filled with expressions of regret for what he
was once more all that he had ever been, yet he had left behind, and of disgust with the occupa-
himself and those around him soon became sensible tions in which he was engaged; every friend and
that his position was entirely changed, that his acquaintance is solicited and importuned in turn to
spirit was broken, and his self-respect destroyed. use every exertion to prevent the period of his ab-
After a few fecble ineffectual struggles, he was sence from being extended beyond the regular and
"forced quietly to yield to a power which he no ordinary space of a single year. It must be con-
longer dared to resist, and was unable to modify or fessed that, in addition to the vexatious interrup-
guide. Nor were his masters content with simple tion of all his pursuits and pleasures, the condition
acquiescence in their transactions; they demanded of the East was by no means encouraging to a man
positive deinonstrations on their behalf. To this of peace. The Parthians, emboldened by their
degradation he was weak enough to submit, con- signal triumph over Crassus, had invaded Syria ;
senting to praise in his writings those proceedings their cavalry was scouring the country up to the
which he had once openly and loudly condemned very walls of Antioch, and it was generally be
(ad Att. iv. 5), uttering sentiments in public to lieved that they intended to force the passes of
tally inconsistent with his principles (ad Att. iv. 6), mount Amanus, and to burst into Asia through Cili-
professing friendship for those whom he hated and cia, which was defended by two weak legions only,
despised (ad Fam. i. 9), and defending in the se- a force utterly inadequate to meet the emergency.
nate and at the bar men who had not only distin- Happily, the apprehensions thus excited were not
guished themselves as his bitter foes, but on whom realized : the Parthians received a check from
he had previously lavished every term of abuse Cassius which compelled them in the mean time to
which an imagination fertile in invective could sug- retire beyond the Euphrates, and Cicero was left
gest. (Ad Fam. vii. 1, v. 8. )
at liberty to make the circuit of his province, and
Such was the course of his life for five years to follow out that system impartiality, modera-
(B. C. 57–52), a period during the whole of which tion, and self-control which he was resolved should
he kept up warm social intercourse with the mem- regulate not only his own conduct but that of every
bers of the triumvirate, especially Pompey, who member of his retinue. And nobly did he redeem
remained constantly at Rome, and received all out the pledge which he had voluntarily given to his
ward marks of high consideration. A large por- friend Atticus on this head-strictly did he realise
tion of his time was occupied by the business of in practice the precepts which he had so well laid
pleading; but being latterly in a great measure down in former years for the guidance of his bro-
released from all concern or anxiety regarding pub ther. Nothing could be more pure and upright
lic affairs, he lived much in the country, and found than his administration in every department; and
leisure to compose his two great political works, his staff, who at first murmured loudly at a style
the De Republica and the De Legibus.
of procedure which most grievously curtailed their
After the death of Crassus (B. c. 53) he was ad- emoluments, were at length shamed into silence.
mitted a member of the college of augurs, and to The astonished Greeks, finding themselves listened
wards the end of B. c. 52, at the very moment to with kindness, and justice dispensed with an
when his presence might have been of importance even hand, breathed nothing but love and grati-
in preventing an open rupture between Pompey tude, wbile the confidence thus inspired enabled
and Caesar, he was withdrawn altogether from Cicero to keep the publicans in good-humour by
Italy, and a new field opened up for the exercise settling to their satisfaction many complicated dis-
of his talents, an office having been thrust upon putes, and redressing many grievances which had
him which he had hitherto earnestly avoided. In sprung out of the wretched and oppressive arrange
order to put a stop in some degree to the bribery, ments for the collection of the revenue.
Not con-
intrigues, and corruption of every description, for tent with the fame thus acquired in cultivating the
which the Roman magistrates had become so noto- arts of peace, Cicero began to thirst after military
rious in their anxiety to procure some wealthy renown, and, turning to account the preparations
government, a law was enacted during the third made against the Parthians, undertook an expedi-
consulship of Pompey (B. C. 52) ordaining, that no tion against the lawless robber tribes who, dwell-
consul or praetor should be permitted to hold a ing among the mountain fastnesses of the Syrian
province until five years should have elapsed from frontier, were wont to descend whenever an oppor-
the expiration of his office, and that in the mean- tunity offered and plunder the surrounding dis-
time governors should be selected by lot from those tricts. The operations, which were carried on
persons of consular and praetorian rank who had chiefly by his brother Quintus, who was an expe-
never held any foreign command. To this number rienced soldier and one of his legati, were attended
Cicero belonged : his name was thrown into the with complete success. The barbarians, taken by
urn, and fortune assigned to him Cilicia, to which surprise, could neither escape nor offer any effectual
were annexed Pisidia, Pamphylia, some districts resistance; various clans were forced to submit;
(of Cappadocia) to the north of mount Taurus, and many villages of the more obstinate were destroyed;
the island of Cyprus. His feelings and conduct on Pindenissus, a strong hill fort of the Eleutherocilices,
this occasion present a most striking contrast to was stormed on the Saturnalia (B. C. 51), after a
those exhibited by his countrymen under like cir- protracted siege ; many prisoners and much plun-
Never was an honourable and lucra- der were secured; the general was saluted as im-
tive appointment bestowed on one less willing to perator by his troops ; a despatch was transmitted
*
a
cumstances.
## p. 716 (#736) ############################################
716
CICERO.
CICERO.
to the senate, in which these achievements were return to Rome and act as a mediator, a proposal
detailed with great pomp; every engine was set to to which Cicero, who appears, if we can trust his
work to procure a flattering decrce and supplica- own account, to have comported himself for the
tions in honour of the victory; and Cicero had now moment with considerable boldness and dignity,
the weakness to set his whole heart upon a triumph refused to accede, unless he were permitted io use
-a vision which he long cherished with a degree his own discretion and enjoy full freedom of speech
of childish obstinacy which must have exposed -a stipulation which at once put an end to the
him to the mingled pity and derision of all who conference. At last, after many lingering delays
were spectators of his folly. The following spring and often renewed procrastination, influenced not
(B. C. 50) he again made a progress through the so much by any overpowering sense of rectitude or
different towns of his province, and as soon as the consistency as by his sensitiveness to public opi-
year of his command was concluded, having re- nion, to the " sermo hominum” whose censure he
ceived no orders to the contrary, delegated his au- dreaded far more than the reproaches of his own
thority to his quaestor, C. Caelius, and quitted conscience, and impressed also with a strong belief
Laodicea on the 30th of July (B. c. 50), having that Caesar must be overwhelmed by the enemies
arrived in that city on the 31st of the same month who were closing around him, he finally decided
in the preceding year. Returning homewards by to pass over to Greece, and embarked at Brundi-
Ephesus and Athens, he reached Brundisium in sium on the 7th of June (B. C. 49). For the space
the last week of November, and arrived in the of nearly a year we know little of his movements;
neighbourhood of Rome on the fourth of January one or two notes only have been preserved, which,
(B. C. 49), at the very moment when the civil combined with an anecdote given by Macrobius
strife, which had been smouldering so long, burst (Sat. ii. 3), prove that, during his residence in the
forth into a blaze of war, but did not enter the camp of Pompcy he was in bad health, low spirits,
city because he still cherished sanguine hopes of embarrassed by pecuniary difficulties, in the habit
being allowed a triumph.
of inveighing against everything he heard and saw
From the middle of December (B. C. 50) to the around him, and of giving way to the deepest des-
end of June (B. C. 49) he wrote almost daily to pondency. After the battle of Pharsalia (August
Atticus. The letters which form this series exhibit 9, B. c. 48), at which he was not present, Cato,
a most painful and humiliating spectacle of doubt, who had a fleet and a strong body of troops at
vacillation, and timidity, together with the utter Dyrrachium, offered them to Cicero as the person
absence of all singleness of purpose, and an utter best entitled by his rank to assume the command;
want of firmness, either moral or physical. At and upon his refusing to have any further concern
first, although from habit, prejudice, and conviction with warlike operations, young Pompey and some
disposed to follow Pompey, he seriously debated others of the nobility drew their swords, and, de-
whether he would not be justified in submitting nouncing him as a traitor, were with difficulty
quietly to Caesar, but soon afterwards accepted restrained from slaying him on the spot. It is
from the former the post of inspector of the Cam- impossible to tell whether this narrative, which
panian coast, and the task of preparing for its de- rests upon the authority of Plutarch, is altogether
fence, duties which he soon abandoned in disgust. correct; but it is certain that Cicero regarded the
Having quitted the vicinity of Rome on the 17th victory of Caesar as absolutely conclusive, and felt
of January, he spent the greater portion of the persuaded that farther resistance was bopeless.
two following months at Formiae in a state of While, therefore, some of his companions in arms
miserable restlessness and hesitation ; murmuring at retired to Achaia, there to watch the progress of
the inactivity of the consuls ; railing at the policy events, and others passed over to Africa and Spain
of Pompey, which he pronounced to be a tissue of determined to renew the struggle, Cicero chose
blunders; oscillating first to one side and then to rather to throw himself at once upon the mercy of
the other, according to the passing rumours of the the conqueror, and, retracing his steps, landed at
hour; and keeping up an active correspondence all Brundisium about the end of November. Here
the while with the leaders of both parties, to an he narrowly escaped being put to death by the
extent which caused the circulation of reports little legions which arrived from Pharsalia under the
favourable to his honour. Nor were the suspicions orders of M. Antonius, who, although disposed to
thus excited altogether without foundation, for it treat the fugitive with kindness, was with the
is perfectly evident that he more than once was on greatest difficulty prevailed upon to allow him to
the point of becoming a deserter, and in one epistle continue in Italy, having received positive instruc-
(ad Att
. viii. 1) he explicitly confesses, that he had tions to exclude all the retainers of Pompey except
embarked in the aristocratical cause sorely against such as had received special permission to return.
his will, and that he would at once join the crowd At Brundisium Cicero remained for ten months
who were flocking back to Rome, were it not for until the pleasure of the conqueror could be known,
the incumbrance of his lictors, thus clinging to the who was busily engaged with the wars which
last with pitiable tenacity to the faint and fading sprung up in Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. During
prospect of a military pageant, which must in his the whole of this time his mind was in a most
case have been a mockery. His distress was if agitated and unhappy condition. He was
possible augmented when Pompey, accompanied stantly tormented with unavailing remorse on ac-
by a large number of senators, abandoned Italy ; count of the folly of his past conduct in baving
for now arose the question fraught with perplexity, identified himself with the Pompeians when he
whether he could or ought to stay behind, or was might have remained unmolested at home; he was
bound to join his friends; and this is debated over filled with apprehensions as to the manner in which
and over again in a thousand different shapes, his in- he might be treated by Caesar, whom he had so
teliect being all the while obscured by irresolution often offended and so lately deceived ; he moreover
and fear. These tortures were raised to a climax by was visited by secret shame and compunction for
a personal interview with Caesar, who urged him to having at once given up his associates upon the
con-
## p. 717 (#737) ############################################
CICERO.
717
CICERO.
>
1
first turn of fortunc; above all, he was haunted | with the intention of being absent until the new
by the foreboding that they might after all prove consuls should have entered upon office, from whose
victorious, in which event his fate would have been vigour and patriotism he anticipated a happy
desperate; and the cup of bitterness was filled by change. While in the neighbourhood of Rhegium
the unnatural treachery of his brother and nephew, (August 2, B. C. 44), whither he had been driven
who were seeking to recommend themselves to from the Sicilian coast by a contrary wind, he was
those in power by casting the foulest calumnies persuaded to return in consequence of intelligence
and vilest aspersions upon their relative, whom that matters were likely to be arranged amicably
they represented as having seduced them from their between Antony and the senate. How bitterly
duty. This load of misery was, however, light- this anticipation was disappointed is sufficiently
ened by a letter received on the 12th of August proved by the tone and contents of the first two
(B. C. 47) from Caesar, in which he promised to Philippics; but the jealousy which had sprung up
forget the past, and be the same as he had ever in Antony towards Octavianus soon induced the
been-a promise which he amply redeemed, for on former to quit the city, while the latter, commen-
his arrival in Italy in September, he greeted Cicero cing that career of dissimulation which he main-
with frank cordiality, and treated him ever after tained throughout a long and most prosperous life,
with the utmost respect and kindness.
affected the warmest attachment to the senate,
Cicero was now at liberty to follow his own and especially to the person of their leader, who
pursuits without interruption, and, accordingly, was completely duped by these professions. From
until the death of Caesar, devoted himself with the beginning of the year B. C. 43 until the end of
exclusive assiduity to literary labours, finding con- April, Cicero was in the height of his glory ;
solation in study, but not contentment, for public within this space the last twelve Philippics were all
display and popular applause had long been almost delivered and listened to with rapturous applause ;
necessary to his existence; and now that the se- his activity was unceasing, at one moment en-
nate, the forum, and the courts of law were silent, couraging the senate, at another stimulating the
or, at all events, no longer presented an arena for people, he hurried from place to place the admired
free and open discussion, the calm delights of spe- of all, the very hero of the scene; and when at
culative research, for which he was wont to sigh length he announced the result of the battles under
amid the din and hurry of incessant business, the walls of Mutina, he was escorted by crowds to
seemed monotonous and dull. Posterity, however, the Capitol, thence to the Rostra, and thence to
has good cause to rejoice that he was driven to his own house, with enthusiasm not less eager than
seek this relief from distracting recollections ; for, was displayed when he had detected and crushed
during the years B. C. 46, 45, and 44, nearly the the associates of Catiline. But when the fatal news
whole of his most important works on rhetoric arrived of the union of Lepidus with Antony (29th
and philosophy, with the exception of the two May), quickly followed by the defection of Octa-
political treatises named above, were arranged and vianus, and when the latter, marching upon Rome
published. In addition to the pain produced at the head of an armed force, compelled the comitia
by wounded vanity, mixed with more honourable to elect him consul at the age of 19, it was but too
sorrow arising from the degradation of his coun- evident that all was lost. The league between the
try, he was harassed by a succession of domestic three usurpers was finally concluded on the 27th
annoyances and griefs. Towards the close of of November, and the lists of the proscribed finally
B. c. 46, in consequence, it would appear, of some arranged, among whom Cicero and sixteen others
disputes connected with pecuniary transactions, he were marked for immediate destruction, and agents
divorced his wife Terentia, to whom he had been forth with despatched to perpetrate the murders
united for upwards of thirty years, and soon after before the victims should take alarm. Although
married a young and wealthy maiden, Publilia, his much care bad been taken to conceal these pro-
ward, but, as might have been anticipated, found ceedings, Cicero was warned of his danger while
little comfort in this new alliance, which was spee- | at his Tusculan villa, instantly set forth for the
dily dissolved. But his great and overpowering coast with the purpose of escaping by sea, and
affliction was the death of his beloved daughter, actually embarked at Antium, but was driven by
Tullia (early in B. C. 45), towards whom he che stress of weather to Circeii, from whence he coasted
rished the fondest attachment. Now, as formerly, along to Formiae, where he landed at his villa,
philosophy afforded no support in the hour of trial; diseased in body and sick at heart, resolving no
grief for a time seems to have been so violent as longer to fly from his fate. The soldiers sent in
almost to affect his intellects, and it was long be- quest of him were now known to be close at hand,
fore he recovered sufficient tranquillity to derive upon which his attendants forced him to enter a
any enjoyment from society or engage with zest in litter, and hurried him through the woods towards
his ordinary occupations. He withdrew to the the shore, distant about a mile from the house. As
small wooded island of Astura, on the coast near they were pressing onwards, they were overtaken
Antium, where, hiding himself in the thickest by their pursners, and were preparing to defend
groves, he could give way to melancholy thoughts their master with their lives, but Cicero command-
without restraint; gradually he so far recovered as ed them to desist, and stretching forward called
to be able to draw up a treatise on Consolation, in upon his executioners to strike. They instantly
imitation of a piece by Crantor on the same topic, cut off his head and hands, which were conveyed
and found relief in devising a variety of plans for to Rome, and, by the orders of Antony, nailed to
a monument in honour of the deceased.
the Rostra.
The tumalts excited by Antony after the mur- A glance at the various events which form the
der of Caesar (B. C. 44) having compelled the lead subject of the above narrative will sufficiently de-
ing conspirators to disperse in different directions, monstrate, that Cicero was totally destitute of the
Cicero, feeling that his own position was not free qualifications which alone could have fitted him to
froin danger, set out upon a journey to Greece sustain the character of a great independent states-
## p. 718 (#738) ############################################
718
CICERO.
CICERO.
man amidst those scenes of turbulence and revolu- | which he extended his forgiveness to his unworthy
tionary violence in which his lot was cast. So nephew and to his brother Quintus, after they had
long as he was contented in his struggle upwards been guilty of the basest and most unnatural
to play a subordinate part, his progress was niarked treachery and ingratitude ; his devotion through
by extraordinary, well-merited, and most honour life to his daughter Tullia, and his despair upon
able success. But when he attempted to secure the her death, have already called forth some remarks,
highest place, he was rudely thrust down by and when his son, as he advanced in years, did
bolder, more adventurous, and more commanding not fulfil the hopes and expectations of his father,
spirits ; when he sought to act as a mediator, be he was notwithstanding treated with the utmost
became the tool of each of the rivals in turn; and forbearance and liberality. One passage only in
when, after much and protracted hesitation, he had the private life of Cicero is obscured by a shade of
finally espoused the interests of one, he threw an doubt. The simple fact, that when he became
air of gloom and distrust over the cause by timid embarrassed by pecuniary difficulties he divorced
despondency and too evident repentance. His the mother of his children, to whom he had been
want of firmness in the hour of trial amounted to united for upwards of thirty years, and soon after
cowardice; his numerous and glaring inconsistencies married a rich heiress, his own ward, appears at
destroyed all confidence in his discretion and judg- first sight suspicious, if not positively discreditable.
ment; his irresolution not unfrequently assumed But it must be remembered that we are altogether
the aspect of awkward duplicity, and his restless ignorant of the circumstances connected with this
craving vanity exposed him constantly to the snares transaction. From a series of obscure hints con-
of insidious flattery, while it covered him with tained in letters to Atticus, we infer that Terentia
ridicule and contempt. Even his boasted patriotism had been extravagant during the absence of her
was of a very doubtful, we might say of a spurious husband in the camp of Pompey, and that she had
stamp, for his love of country was so mixed up with made some arrangements with regard to her will
petty feelings of personal importance, and his which he looked upon as unfair and almost dis-
hatred of tyranny so inseparably connected in his , honest; in addition to which, we know from other
mind with his own loss of power and consideration, sources that she was a woman of imperious and
that we can hardly persuade ourselves that the unyielding temper. On the other hand, the con-
former was the disinterested impulse of a noble nexion with Publilia could not have been contem-
heart so much as the prompting of selfishness and plated at the period of the divorce, for we find that
vain glory, or that the latter proceeded from a his friends were busily employed for some time in
generous devotion to the rights and liberties of his looking out for a suitable match, and that, among
fellow-citizens so much as from the bitter con- others, a daughter of Pompey was suggested.
sciousness of being individually depressed and Moreover, if the new alliance had been dictated
overshadowed by the superior weight and emi- by motives of a purely mercenary nature, more
nence of another. It is rain to undertake the de- anxiety would have been manifested to retain the
fence of his conduct by ingenious and elaborate advantages which it procured, while on the contra-
reasonings. The whole case is placed clearly be rary we find that it was dissolved very quickly in
fore our eyes, and all the common sources of fallacy consequence of the bride having incautiously tes-
and unjust judgment in regard to public men are tified satisfaction at the death of Tullia, of whose
removed. We are not called upon to weigh and influence she may have been jealous, and that
scrutinize the evidence of partial or hostile wit- Cicero steadily refused to listen to any overtures,
nesses, whose testimony may be coloured or per- although a reconciliation was earnestly desired on
verted by the keenness of party spirit. Cicero is the part of the lady.
his own accuser, and is convicted by his own de (Our great authority for the life of Cicero is his
positions. The strange confessions contained in own writings, and especially his letters and ora-
his correspondence call for a sentence more severe tions. The inost important passages will be found
than we have ventured to pronounce, presenting a collected in Meierotto, " Ciceronis Vita ex ipsius
most marvellous, memorable, and instructive spec- scriptis excerpta," Berolin. 1783, and in the “ Ono-
tacle of the greatest intellectual strength linked masticon Tullianum,” which forms an appendix to
indissolubly to the greatest moral weakness. Orelli's Cicero, Zurich, 1826-1838. Much that
Upon his social and domestic relations we can is curious and valuable may be collected from the
dwell with unmixed pleasure. In the midst of al- biographies of the orator and his contemporaries by
most universal profligacy he remained uncontami- Plutarch, whose statements, however, must always
nated ; surrounded by corruption, not even malice be received with caution. Something may be
ever ventured to impeach his integrity. To his gleaned from Velleius Paterculus also, and from the
dependents he was indulgent and warm-hearted, books of Appian and of Dion Cassius which belong
to his friends affectionate and true, ever ready to to this period. These and other ancient testimo
assist them in the hour of need with counsel, in- nies have been diligently arranged in chronological
fluence, or purse; somewhat touchy, perhaps, and order in the Historia M. Tullii Ciceronis,” by F.
loud in expressing resentment when offended, but Fabricius. Of modern works that of Middleton
easily appeased, and free from all rancour. In his has attained great celebrity, although it must be
intercourse with his contemporaries he rose com- regarded as a blind and extravagant panegyric ;
pletely above that paltry jealousy by which literary some good strictures on his occasional inaccuracies
men are so often disgraced, fully and freely ac- and constant partiality will be found in Tunstall's
knowledging the merits of his most formidable “ Epistola ad Middletonum," Cantab. 1741, and in
rivals - Hortensius and Licinius Calvus, for the Colley Cibber's "Character and Conduct of Cicero,"
former of whom he cherished the warmest regard. London, 1747 ; but by far the most complete and
Towards the members of his own family he uni- critical examination of all points relating to Cicero
formly displayed the deepest attachment. Nothing and his times, down to the end of B. c. 56, is con-
could be more amiable than the readiness with tained in the fifth volume of Drumann's “Gesch-
## p. 719 (#739) ############################################
CICERO.
719
CICERO.
ichte Roms," a work not yet brought to a conclu-
De Natura Deorum libri III.
sion. )
De Divinatione libri II.
E. Theology.
IJ. WRITINGS OF CICERO.
De Fato.
* Dc Auguriis Auguralia.
The works of Cicero are so numerous and diver- The Editio Princeps of the collected philoso
sificd, that it is necessary for the sake of distinct-phical works of Cicero was printed at Rome in
ness to separate them into classes, and accordingly 1471, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, 2 vols. folio,
they may be conveniently arranged under five and is a work of excessive rarity. The first vo-
heads :- 1. Philosophical works. 2. Speeches. 3. lume contains De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione,
Correspondence. 4. Poems. 5. Historical and De Officiis, Paradoxa, Laelius, Cato Major, Versus
Miscellaneous works. The last may appear too duodecim Sapientium; the second volume, Quaes-
vague and comprehensive, but nothing of impor- tiones Tusculanae, De Finibus, De Fato, Q. Cicero
tance belonging to this section has been preserved. de Petitione Consulatus, Fragments of the Horten-
sius, Timaeus, Academicae Quaestiones, De Legibus.
1. PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS.
We have belonging to the same period, De
Several of the topics handled in this department
Officüs, De Amicitia, De Senectute, Somnium
are so intimately connected and shade into each 2 vols. folio, without place or date, but known to
Scipionis, Paradoxa, Tusculanae Quaestiones, in
other by such fine and almost imperceptible grada- have been published at Paris about 1471, by Gering,
tions, that the boundaries by which they are
Crantz, and Friburger.
separated cannot in all cases be sbarply defined,
and consequently some of the subdivisions may De Fato, De Legibus, Hortensius, (Modestus,) De
Also, the De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione,
appear arbitrary or inaccurate ; for practical pur- Disciplina Militari, appeared in 1 vol. 4to. , 1471,
poses, however, the following distribution will be
found sufficiently precise :-
at Venice, from the press of Vindelin de Spira.
A. Philosophy of Taste or Rhetoric, B. Political whole philosophical works of Cicero, was com-
An excellent edition, intended to embrace the
Philosophy. c. Philosophy of Morals. D. Specu- menced by J. A. Goerenz, and carried to the extent
lative Philosophy. E. Theology.
In the table given below, those works to which of three yolumes, 8vo.
, which contain the De Legi-
an asterisk is prefixed have descended to us in a
bus, Academica, De Finibus, Leipz. 1809–1813.
very imperfect and mutilated condition, enough, philosophic writings in detail, we must consider very
Before entering upon an examination of Cicero's
however, still remaining to convey a clear concep briefly the inducements which first prompted Cicero
tion of the general plan, tone, and spirit; of those
to which a double asterisk is prefixed, only a few the extent to which his original views were subse-
to devote his attention to the study of philosophy,
fragments, or even a few words, survive ; those
printed in Italics are totally lost; those included quently altered and enlarged, the circumstances
under which his various treatises were composed,
within brackets are believed to be spurious :-
the end which they were intended to accomplish,
Rhetoricorum s. De Inventione the degree of importance to be attached to these
Rhetorica libri II.
works, the form in which they are presented to the
De Partitione Oratoria
reader, and the opinions really entertained by the
De Oratore libri III.
author himself.
Brutus 8. De Claris Oratoribus. Cicero dedicated his attention to philosophy in the
A. Philosophy
Orator s.
De Optimo Genere first instance not merely as a branch of general educa-
of Taste. dicendi.
tion, but as that particular branch which was likely
De Optimo Genere Oratorum. to prove peculiarly serviceable to him in attaining
Topica.
the great object of his youthful aspirations—orato-
Communes Loci.
rical fame. (See Parador. praef. , De Off: prooem. )
[Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium He must have discerned from a very early period
libri IV. ]
that the subtle and astute, though often sophistical,
De Republica libri VI. arguments advanced by rival sects in supporting
De Legibus libri (V1. ? )
their own tenets and assailing the positions of their
B. Po'itical
• De Jure Civili.
adversaries, and the habitual quickness of objection
Philosophy.
Epistola ad Caesarem de Ordi- and readiness of reply which distinguished the
nanda Republica.
oral controversies of the more skilful disputants
could be turned to admirable account in the wordy
De Officiis libri III.
combats of the courts; and hence the method pursued
* * De Virtutibus.
by the later Academy of probing the weak points
C. Philosophy
Cato Major s.
De Senectute.
and detecting the fallacies of all systems in succes-
Laelius s.
De Amicitia.
of Morals.
sion, possessed the strongest attractions for one
** De Gloria libri II.
who to insure success must be able to regard each
** De Consolatione s. De Luctu
cause submitted to his judgment under many dif-
minuendo.
ferent aspects, and be prepared to anticipate and
• Academicorum libri IV. repel exceptions, of whatever nature, proceeding
De Finibus libri V.
from whatever quarter. We have already seen,
Tusculanarum Disputationum in the biographical portion of this article, that
libri V.
Cicero allowed no opportunity to escape of gaining
D, Speculutive
Paradoxa Stoicorum sex. an intimate acquaintance with the doctrines of the
Philosophy. . Hortensius s. De Philoso- most popular sects, without resigning himself ex-
phia.
clusively to one; and he was fully sensible that he
Timaeus ex Platone.
owed much of the signal success which attended
Protagoras ex Platone. his efforts, after his return from Greece, to this
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CICERO.
CICERO.
a
training in philosophy, which he emphatically de- we desire to form a fair judgment, never forget
nominates the fountain-head of all perfect elo- that the design proposed was to communicate in a
quence, the mother of all good deeds and good correct and precise but familiar and attractive form
words. ” (Brut. 93. ) During his residence at the results at which others had arrived, not to ex-
Athens and at Rhodes he appears to have imbibed pound new conceptions—to present a sharp and
a deep and earnest attachment for the pursuit striking outline of the majestic structures reared
which he henceforward viewed as something better by the labours of successive schools, not to claim
and nobler than a mere instrument for acquiring distinction as the architect of a new cdifice. The
dialectic skill. Accordingly, every moment that execution of this project demanded extensive re-
could be snatched from his multifarious avocations search, a skilful selection of the best portions of
was employed with exemplary zeal in accumulat- the best authors, the accurate adjustment and har-
ing stores of philosophic lore, which were carefully monious combination of these loose fragments, a
treasured up in his memory. But the incessant choice of familiar examples and apt illustrations
demands of business long prevented him from ar- to shed light on much that would necessarily ap-
ranging and displaying the wealth thus acquired; pear dark and incomprehensible to the inexperi-
and had not the disorders of the times compelled enced, and, most difficult of all, the creation of
him upon two occasions to retire for a brief space terms and phraseology capable of expressing with
from public life, he would probably never have clearness and exactitude a class of ideas altogether
communicated to the world the fruits of his scien- new. If then we find upon examination that this
tific researches.
The first of the two periods difficult undertaking, requiring the union of talents
alluded to above was when after his recall from the most opposite, of unwearying application, deli-
exile he found himself virtually deprived of all po- cate discrimination, refined taste, practical skill in
litical influence, and consequently, although busily composition, and an absolute command over a stub-
engaged in discharging the duties of a pleader, born and inflexible dialect, has been executed with
found leisure to compose his De Oratore, De Repub- consummate ability, we have no right to complain
lica, and De Legibus. The second period reached that many of the topics are handled somewhat
from his return to Italy after the battle of Pharsalia superficially, that there is an absence of all origi-
until the autumn after the death of Caesar, during nality of thought, and that no effort is made to
the greater portion of which he lived in retirement enlarge the boundaries of the science. Nor have
and produced the rest of his philosophical works, we any reason to regret the resolution thus formed
some of them being published even subsequent to and consistently carried out. We are put in pos-
his re-appearance on the stage of public affairs. session of a prodigious mass of most curious and
But, although these were all finished and sent interesting information bearing upon the history of
abroad between the end of B. C. 46 and the middle philosophy, conveyed in the richest and most win-
of B. C. 44, it would be absurd to suppose that the ning language. Antiquity produced no works
varied information required for such a task could which could rival these as manuals of instruction ;
have been brought together and distributed into a as such they were employed until the downfal of
series of elaborate treatises in the course of sixteen the Roman empire; they stood their ground and
or eighteen months. It seems much more proba- kept alive a taste for literature during the middle
ble, as indicated above, that the materials were ages; they were still zealously studied for a long
gradually collected during a long course of reading period after the revival of learning; they even
and inquiry, and carefully digested by reflection now command respect from the purity of the moral
and frequent discussion, so that when a convenient principles which they inculcate, and serve as mo-
season bad arrived, the design already traced out dels of perfect style and diction. We arrive at the
was completed in all its details
. Thus we find in conclusion, that Cicero is fully entitled to the praise
the dialogue upon Laws (i. 20) a reference to the of having accomplished with brilliant success all
debates which had taken place among the wise on that he engaged to perform. In philosophy he
the nature of the Supreme Good, the doubts and must be regarded as the prince of popular com-
difficulties with which the question was still en- pilers, but nothing more. It is certain that he
cumbered, and the importance of arriving at some could not have put forth his powers in a manner
correct decision ; after which the speaker proceeds better calculated to promote the interests and ex-
briefly to express the same sentiments which nine tend the influence of his favourite pursuit.
years afterwards were expanded and formally The greater number of these essays, in imita-
maintained in the De Finibus. (Comp. Acad. i. 3. ) tion of the writings of many of the Greek phi-
In order to understand clearly the nature of losophers, are thrown into dialogue--a form ex-
these works and the end which they were intended tremely well suited for the purposes of instruction,
to serve, we must bear in mind the important fact, since it affords facility for familiar explanation and
that they were almost the first specimens of this for the introduction of those elucidations and di-
kind of literature erer presented to the Romans in gressions so necessary to communicate clearness
their own language. With the exception of the and animation to abstract propositions, which, if
poems of Lucretius and some other publications on simply enunciated in a purely scientific shape,
the doctrines of Epicurus by an Amafinius and a must unavoidably appear to the learner dull and
Rabirius, so obscure that Cicero seems to have spiritless. In a dialogue, also, the teacher is not
thought them not worth the trouble of perusal, compelled to disclose his own opinions, but may
there was absolutely nothing. Hence Cicero was give full scope to his ingenuity and eloquence in
led to form the scheme of drawing up a series of expounding and contrasting the views of others.
elementary treatises which should furnish his coun- The execution is, upon the whole, no less happy
trymen with an easy introduction to the knowledge than the design. One cannot fail to be impressed
of the tenets professed by the leading sects of with the dexterity exhibited in contriving the
Greece on the most important branches of politics, machinery of the different conversations, the tact
murals, metaphysics, and theology. We must, if with which the most appropriate personages are se
## p. 721 (#741) ############################################
CICERO.
721
CICERO.
Jected, the scrupulous accuracy with which their cally and developed in formal precepts, had hitherto
respective characters are distinguished and pre- attracted but little attention in Rome except among
served throughout, and the air of calm dignity the select few who were capable of comprehending
which pervades each scparate piece. At the same the instructions of foreign professors delivered in a
time, we must confess, that there is throughout a foreign tongue; for the Latin rhetoricians were
want of that life and reality which lends such a long regarded, and perhaps justly, as ignorant pre
|
charm to the dialogues of Plato. We fecl that tenders, who brought such discredit on the study by
most of the colloquies reported by the Athenian their presumptuous quackery, that so late as B. C.
might actually have been held; but there is a stiff- 92, L. Crassus, who was not likely to be an unjust
ness and formality about the actors of Cicero, and or illiberal judge in such matters, when censor was
a tendency to lecture rather than to converse, which desirous of expelling the whole crew from the city.
materially injures the dramatic effect, and in fact Thus Cicero had the honour of opening up to the
in some degree neutralizes the benefit to be derived masses of his countrymen a new field of inquiry
from this method of imparting knowledge. He and mental exercise, and of importing for general
has also rather abused the opportunities presented national use one of the most attractive productions
for excursions into the attractive regions which lie of Athenian genius and industry.
out of the direct path, and so much space is some- The Editio Princeps of the collected rhetorical
times occupied by enthusinstic declamations, that works of Cicero was printed at Venice by Alexan-
the main subject is for a time thrown out of sight drinus and Asulanus, fol. 1485, containing the De
and forgotten.
Oratore, the Orator, the Topica, the Partitiones
The speculative opinions entertained by Cicero Oratoriae, and the De Optimo Genere Oratorum,
himself are of little importance, except as a mere and was reprinted at Venice in 1488 and 1495,
matter of curiosity, and cannot be ascertained both in fol. The first complete edition, including,
with certainty. In all controversies the chief in addition to the above, the Brutus, the Rhetorici
arguments of the contending parties are drawn out ad Herennium, and the De Inventione, was pub-
with the strictest impartiality, marshalled in strong lished at Venice by Aldus in 1514, 4to. , edited in
relief orer against each other, and the decision then part by Naugerius. Of modern editions the most
left to the reader. The habit of stating and com notable are the following: that by Schütz, which
paring a multitude of conflicting theories, each of contains the whole, Lips. 1804, 3 vols. 8vo. ; the
which could number a long array of great names “Opera Rhetorica Minora. " by Wetzel, Lignitz,
among its supporters, would naturally confirm that 1807, containing all with the exceptions of the De
disposition to deny the certainty of human know- Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator; and the
ledge which must have been imbibed in early life Orator, Brutus, Topica, De Optimo Genere Ora.
by the pupil of Philo of Larissa ; while the multi- torum, with the notes of Beier and Orelli, Zurich,
tude of beautiful and profound reflections scattered 1830, 8vo.
over the writings of the Greek sages would lead an
1. Rietoricorum s. De Inventione Rhetorica
unbiassed mind, honest in its search after truth, to
Libri II.
select what was best in each without binding him-
self exclusively to one.
This appears to have been the earliest of the
(Those who desire to follow out this subject may efforts of Cicero in prose composition. It was in-
consult Brucker, Historia Critica Philosophiae, vol. tended to exhibit in a compendious systematic form
ii. pp. 1–70; Gaultier de Sibert, Eramen de la all that was most valuable and worthy of note in
Philosophie de Ciceron, in the Mémoires de l'Aca- the works of the Greek rhetoricians. Aristotle
démie des Inscriptions, vols. xlii. and xliii. ; Ritter, had already performed this task in so far as his own
Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. iv. pp. 76—168; predecessors were concerned ; and hence his writ-
G. Waldin, De Philosoph. Cic. Platonica, Jena, ings, together with those of his disciples and of the
1753; J. G. Zierlein, De Philosoph. Cic. Hal. 1770; followers of Isocrates, would supply all the neces-
J. C. Brieglieb, Progr. de Philosoph. Cic. Cob. sary materials for selection and combination. Ac-
1784; M. Fremling, Philosoph. Cic. Lund. 1795; cording to the original plan, this treatise was to
H. C. F. Hulsemann, DcIndole Philosoph. Cic. Luneb. have embraced the whole subject ; but there is no
1799; D. F. Gedicke, Historia Philosoph. antiquae reason to fix upon the exact number of four books
ez Cic. Scriptis, Berol. 1815; J. A. C. Van Heusde, as the extent contemplated, and it certainly nerer
M. Tull. Cic. Donnátwv, Traj. ad Rhen. 1836; was completed. The author, after finishing the
R. Kühner, M. Tull. Cic. in Philosophiam ejusque two which have descended to us, seems to have
Parles Merita, Hamburg, 1825. The last men- thrown them aside, and speaks of them at a later
tioned work contains a great quantity of informa- period perhaps too slightingly (de Orat. i. 2) as
tion, distinctly conveyed, and within a moderate a crude and imperfect performance. After a short
compass. )
preface regarding the origin, rise, progress, use and
abuse of eloquence, we find an enumeration and
A. PHILOSOPHY OF TASTE, OR RHETORIC.
classification of the different branches of the sub-
The rhetorical works of Cicero may be consi-ject. The whole art must be considered under
dered as a sort of triple compound formed by com- five distinct heads :-1. Its general character and
bining the information derived from the lectures the position which it occupies among the sciences
and disquisitions of the teachers under whom he (genus). 2. The duty which it is called upon to
studied, and from the writings of the Greeks, es- perforni (officium). 3. The end which it seeks to
pecially Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Isocrates, attain (finis). 4. The subject matter of a speech
with his own speculative researches into the nature (materia). 5. The constituent elements of which
and theory of the art, corrected in his later years à speech is made up ( partes rhetoricae). After
by the results of extensive experience. Rhetoric, remarking cursorily, with regard to the genus, that
considered as a science depending upon abstract the art of rhetoric is a branch of civil knowledge
principles which might be investigated philosophi- | (civilis scicntiae), that its officium is, to use all the
3 A
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CICERO.
CICERO.
case.
methods most suitable for persuasion by oratory, | justified by previous provocation ; (4) comparatio,
and its finis to achieve this persuasion, Cicero con- when the deed is justified by pleading a praise-
fines himself for the present to the materia and worthy motive.
partes. Now the materia, subject matter, or form The constitution of the case being determined,
of a speech, may belong to one of three classes, ac- we must next examine whether the case be simple
cording to the nature of the audience. (Comp. (simplex) or compound (conjuncta), that is, whether
Partit. Orut. 3. ) 1.
pose was fully accomplished. Although the return which he desired to perform a part. From the
of Cicero was glorious, so glorious that he and moment that he quitted the metropolis, his letters
others may for a moment have dreamed that he are filled with expressions of regret for what he
was once more all that he had ever been, yet he had left behind, and of disgust with the occupa-
himself and those around him soon became sensible tions in which he was engaged; every friend and
that his position was entirely changed, that his acquaintance is solicited and importuned in turn to
spirit was broken, and his self-respect destroyed. use every exertion to prevent the period of his ab-
After a few fecble ineffectual struggles, he was sence from being extended beyond the regular and
"forced quietly to yield to a power which he no ordinary space of a single year. It must be con-
longer dared to resist, and was unable to modify or fessed that, in addition to the vexatious interrup-
guide. Nor were his masters content with simple tion of all his pursuits and pleasures, the condition
acquiescence in their transactions; they demanded of the East was by no means encouraging to a man
positive deinonstrations on their behalf. To this of peace. The Parthians, emboldened by their
degradation he was weak enough to submit, con- signal triumph over Crassus, had invaded Syria ;
senting to praise in his writings those proceedings their cavalry was scouring the country up to the
which he had once openly and loudly condemned very walls of Antioch, and it was generally be
(ad Att. iv. 5), uttering sentiments in public to lieved that they intended to force the passes of
tally inconsistent with his principles (ad Att. iv. 6), mount Amanus, and to burst into Asia through Cili-
professing friendship for those whom he hated and cia, which was defended by two weak legions only,
despised (ad Fam. i. 9), and defending in the se- a force utterly inadequate to meet the emergency.
nate and at the bar men who had not only distin- Happily, the apprehensions thus excited were not
guished themselves as his bitter foes, but on whom realized : the Parthians received a check from
he had previously lavished every term of abuse Cassius which compelled them in the mean time to
which an imagination fertile in invective could sug- retire beyond the Euphrates, and Cicero was left
gest. (Ad Fam. vii. 1, v. 8. )
at liberty to make the circuit of his province, and
Such was the course of his life for five years to follow out that system impartiality, modera-
(B. C. 57–52), a period during the whole of which tion, and self-control which he was resolved should
he kept up warm social intercourse with the mem- regulate not only his own conduct but that of every
bers of the triumvirate, especially Pompey, who member of his retinue. And nobly did he redeem
remained constantly at Rome, and received all out the pledge which he had voluntarily given to his
ward marks of high consideration. A large por- friend Atticus on this head-strictly did he realise
tion of his time was occupied by the business of in practice the precepts which he had so well laid
pleading; but being latterly in a great measure down in former years for the guidance of his bro-
released from all concern or anxiety regarding pub ther. Nothing could be more pure and upright
lic affairs, he lived much in the country, and found than his administration in every department; and
leisure to compose his two great political works, his staff, who at first murmured loudly at a style
the De Republica and the De Legibus.
of procedure which most grievously curtailed their
After the death of Crassus (B. c. 53) he was ad- emoluments, were at length shamed into silence.
mitted a member of the college of augurs, and to The astonished Greeks, finding themselves listened
wards the end of B. c. 52, at the very moment to with kindness, and justice dispensed with an
when his presence might have been of importance even hand, breathed nothing but love and grati-
in preventing an open rupture between Pompey tude, wbile the confidence thus inspired enabled
and Caesar, he was withdrawn altogether from Cicero to keep the publicans in good-humour by
Italy, and a new field opened up for the exercise settling to their satisfaction many complicated dis-
of his talents, an office having been thrust upon putes, and redressing many grievances which had
him which he had hitherto earnestly avoided. In sprung out of the wretched and oppressive arrange
order to put a stop in some degree to the bribery, ments for the collection of the revenue.
Not con-
intrigues, and corruption of every description, for tent with the fame thus acquired in cultivating the
which the Roman magistrates had become so noto- arts of peace, Cicero began to thirst after military
rious in their anxiety to procure some wealthy renown, and, turning to account the preparations
government, a law was enacted during the third made against the Parthians, undertook an expedi-
consulship of Pompey (B. C. 52) ordaining, that no tion against the lawless robber tribes who, dwell-
consul or praetor should be permitted to hold a ing among the mountain fastnesses of the Syrian
province until five years should have elapsed from frontier, were wont to descend whenever an oppor-
the expiration of his office, and that in the mean- tunity offered and plunder the surrounding dis-
time governors should be selected by lot from those tricts. The operations, which were carried on
persons of consular and praetorian rank who had chiefly by his brother Quintus, who was an expe-
never held any foreign command. To this number rienced soldier and one of his legati, were attended
Cicero belonged : his name was thrown into the with complete success. The barbarians, taken by
urn, and fortune assigned to him Cilicia, to which surprise, could neither escape nor offer any effectual
were annexed Pisidia, Pamphylia, some districts resistance; various clans were forced to submit;
(of Cappadocia) to the north of mount Taurus, and many villages of the more obstinate were destroyed;
the island of Cyprus. His feelings and conduct on Pindenissus, a strong hill fort of the Eleutherocilices,
this occasion present a most striking contrast to was stormed on the Saturnalia (B. C. 51), after a
those exhibited by his countrymen under like cir- protracted siege ; many prisoners and much plun-
Never was an honourable and lucra- der were secured; the general was saluted as im-
tive appointment bestowed on one less willing to perator by his troops ; a despatch was transmitted
*
a
cumstances.
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CICERO.
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to the senate, in which these achievements were return to Rome and act as a mediator, a proposal
detailed with great pomp; every engine was set to to which Cicero, who appears, if we can trust his
work to procure a flattering decrce and supplica- own account, to have comported himself for the
tions in honour of the victory; and Cicero had now moment with considerable boldness and dignity,
the weakness to set his whole heart upon a triumph refused to accede, unless he were permitted io use
-a vision which he long cherished with a degree his own discretion and enjoy full freedom of speech
of childish obstinacy which must have exposed -a stipulation which at once put an end to the
him to the mingled pity and derision of all who conference. At last, after many lingering delays
were spectators of his folly. The following spring and often renewed procrastination, influenced not
(B. C. 50) he again made a progress through the so much by any overpowering sense of rectitude or
different towns of his province, and as soon as the consistency as by his sensitiveness to public opi-
year of his command was concluded, having re- nion, to the " sermo hominum” whose censure he
ceived no orders to the contrary, delegated his au- dreaded far more than the reproaches of his own
thority to his quaestor, C. Caelius, and quitted conscience, and impressed also with a strong belief
Laodicea on the 30th of July (B. c. 50), having that Caesar must be overwhelmed by the enemies
arrived in that city on the 31st of the same month who were closing around him, he finally decided
in the preceding year. Returning homewards by to pass over to Greece, and embarked at Brundi-
Ephesus and Athens, he reached Brundisium in sium on the 7th of June (B. C. 49). For the space
the last week of November, and arrived in the of nearly a year we know little of his movements;
neighbourhood of Rome on the fourth of January one or two notes only have been preserved, which,
(B. C. 49), at the very moment when the civil combined with an anecdote given by Macrobius
strife, which had been smouldering so long, burst (Sat. ii. 3), prove that, during his residence in the
forth into a blaze of war, but did not enter the camp of Pompcy he was in bad health, low spirits,
city because he still cherished sanguine hopes of embarrassed by pecuniary difficulties, in the habit
being allowed a triumph.
of inveighing against everything he heard and saw
From the middle of December (B. C. 50) to the around him, and of giving way to the deepest des-
end of June (B. C. 49) he wrote almost daily to pondency. After the battle of Pharsalia (August
Atticus. The letters which form this series exhibit 9, B. c. 48), at which he was not present, Cato,
a most painful and humiliating spectacle of doubt, who had a fleet and a strong body of troops at
vacillation, and timidity, together with the utter Dyrrachium, offered them to Cicero as the person
absence of all singleness of purpose, and an utter best entitled by his rank to assume the command;
want of firmness, either moral or physical. At and upon his refusing to have any further concern
first, although from habit, prejudice, and conviction with warlike operations, young Pompey and some
disposed to follow Pompey, he seriously debated others of the nobility drew their swords, and, de-
whether he would not be justified in submitting nouncing him as a traitor, were with difficulty
quietly to Caesar, but soon afterwards accepted restrained from slaying him on the spot. It is
from the former the post of inspector of the Cam- impossible to tell whether this narrative, which
panian coast, and the task of preparing for its de- rests upon the authority of Plutarch, is altogether
fence, duties which he soon abandoned in disgust. correct; but it is certain that Cicero regarded the
Having quitted the vicinity of Rome on the 17th victory of Caesar as absolutely conclusive, and felt
of January, he spent the greater portion of the persuaded that farther resistance was bopeless.
two following months at Formiae in a state of While, therefore, some of his companions in arms
miserable restlessness and hesitation ; murmuring at retired to Achaia, there to watch the progress of
the inactivity of the consuls ; railing at the policy events, and others passed over to Africa and Spain
of Pompey, which he pronounced to be a tissue of determined to renew the struggle, Cicero chose
blunders; oscillating first to one side and then to rather to throw himself at once upon the mercy of
the other, according to the passing rumours of the the conqueror, and, retracing his steps, landed at
hour; and keeping up an active correspondence all Brundisium about the end of November. Here
the while with the leaders of both parties, to an he narrowly escaped being put to death by the
extent which caused the circulation of reports little legions which arrived from Pharsalia under the
favourable to his honour. Nor were the suspicions orders of M. Antonius, who, although disposed to
thus excited altogether without foundation, for it treat the fugitive with kindness, was with the
is perfectly evident that he more than once was on greatest difficulty prevailed upon to allow him to
the point of becoming a deserter, and in one epistle continue in Italy, having received positive instruc-
(ad Att
. viii. 1) he explicitly confesses, that he had tions to exclude all the retainers of Pompey except
embarked in the aristocratical cause sorely against such as had received special permission to return.
his will, and that he would at once join the crowd At Brundisium Cicero remained for ten months
who were flocking back to Rome, were it not for until the pleasure of the conqueror could be known,
the incumbrance of his lictors, thus clinging to the who was busily engaged with the wars which
last with pitiable tenacity to the faint and fading sprung up in Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. During
prospect of a military pageant, which must in his the whole of this time his mind was in a most
case have been a mockery. His distress was if agitated and unhappy condition. He was
possible augmented when Pompey, accompanied stantly tormented with unavailing remorse on ac-
by a large number of senators, abandoned Italy ; count of the folly of his past conduct in baving
for now arose the question fraught with perplexity, identified himself with the Pompeians when he
whether he could or ought to stay behind, or was might have remained unmolested at home; he was
bound to join his friends; and this is debated over filled with apprehensions as to the manner in which
and over again in a thousand different shapes, his in- he might be treated by Caesar, whom he had so
teliect being all the while obscured by irresolution often offended and so lately deceived ; he moreover
and fear. These tortures were raised to a climax by was visited by secret shame and compunction for
a personal interview with Caesar, who urged him to having at once given up his associates upon the
con-
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CICERO.
>
1
first turn of fortunc; above all, he was haunted | with the intention of being absent until the new
by the foreboding that they might after all prove consuls should have entered upon office, from whose
victorious, in which event his fate would have been vigour and patriotism he anticipated a happy
desperate; and the cup of bitterness was filled by change. While in the neighbourhood of Rhegium
the unnatural treachery of his brother and nephew, (August 2, B. C. 44), whither he had been driven
who were seeking to recommend themselves to from the Sicilian coast by a contrary wind, he was
those in power by casting the foulest calumnies persuaded to return in consequence of intelligence
and vilest aspersions upon their relative, whom that matters were likely to be arranged amicably
they represented as having seduced them from their between Antony and the senate. How bitterly
duty. This load of misery was, however, light- this anticipation was disappointed is sufficiently
ened by a letter received on the 12th of August proved by the tone and contents of the first two
(B. C. 47) from Caesar, in which he promised to Philippics; but the jealousy which had sprung up
forget the past, and be the same as he had ever in Antony towards Octavianus soon induced the
been-a promise which he amply redeemed, for on former to quit the city, while the latter, commen-
his arrival in Italy in September, he greeted Cicero cing that career of dissimulation which he main-
with frank cordiality, and treated him ever after tained throughout a long and most prosperous life,
with the utmost respect and kindness.
affected the warmest attachment to the senate,
Cicero was now at liberty to follow his own and especially to the person of their leader, who
pursuits without interruption, and, accordingly, was completely duped by these professions. From
until the death of Caesar, devoted himself with the beginning of the year B. C. 43 until the end of
exclusive assiduity to literary labours, finding con- April, Cicero was in the height of his glory ;
solation in study, but not contentment, for public within this space the last twelve Philippics were all
display and popular applause had long been almost delivered and listened to with rapturous applause ;
necessary to his existence; and now that the se- his activity was unceasing, at one moment en-
nate, the forum, and the courts of law were silent, couraging the senate, at another stimulating the
or, at all events, no longer presented an arena for people, he hurried from place to place the admired
free and open discussion, the calm delights of spe- of all, the very hero of the scene; and when at
culative research, for which he was wont to sigh length he announced the result of the battles under
amid the din and hurry of incessant business, the walls of Mutina, he was escorted by crowds to
seemed monotonous and dull. Posterity, however, the Capitol, thence to the Rostra, and thence to
has good cause to rejoice that he was driven to his own house, with enthusiasm not less eager than
seek this relief from distracting recollections ; for, was displayed when he had detected and crushed
during the years B. C. 46, 45, and 44, nearly the the associates of Catiline. But when the fatal news
whole of his most important works on rhetoric arrived of the union of Lepidus with Antony (29th
and philosophy, with the exception of the two May), quickly followed by the defection of Octa-
political treatises named above, were arranged and vianus, and when the latter, marching upon Rome
published. In addition to the pain produced at the head of an armed force, compelled the comitia
by wounded vanity, mixed with more honourable to elect him consul at the age of 19, it was but too
sorrow arising from the degradation of his coun- evident that all was lost. The league between the
try, he was harassed by a succession of domestic three usurpers was finally concluded on the 27th
annoyances and griefs. Towards the close of of November, and the lists of the proscribed finally
B. c. 46, in consequence, it would appear, of some arranged, among whom Cicero and sixteen others
disputes connected with pecuniary transactions, he were marked for immediate destruction, and agents
divorced his wife Terentia, to whom he had been forth with despatched to perpetrate the murders
united for upwards of thirty years, and soon after before the victims should take alarm. Although
married a young and wealthy maiden, Publilia, his much care bad been taken to conceal these pro-
ward, but, as might have been anticipated, found ceedings, Cicero was warned of his danger while
little comfort in this new alliance, which was spee- | at his Tusculan villa, instantly set forth for the
dily dissolved. But his great and overpowering coast with the purpose of escaping by sea, and
affliction was the death of his beloved daughter, actually embarked at Antium, but was driven by
Tullia (early in B. C. 45), towards whom he che stress of weather to Circeii, from whence he coasted
rished the fondest attachment. Now, as formerly, along to Formiae, where he landed at his villa,
philosophy afforded no support in the hour of trial; diseased in body and sick at heart, resolving no
grief for a time seems to have been so violent as longer to fly from his fate. The soldiers sent in
almost to affect his intellects, and it was long be- quest of him were now known to be close at hand,
fore he recovered sufficient tranquillity to derive upon which his attendants forced him to enter a
any enjoyment from society or engage with zest in litter, and hurried him through the woods towards
his ordinary occupations. He withdrew to the the shore, distant about a mile from the house. As
small wooded island of Astura, on the coast near they were pressing onwards, they were overtaken
Antium, where, hiding himself in the thickest by their pursners, and were preparing to defend
groves, he could give way to melancholy thoughts their master with their lives, but Cicero command-
without restraint; gradually he so far recovered as ed them to desist, and stretching forward called
to be able to draw up a treatise on Consolation, in upon his executioners to strike. They instantly
imitation of a piece by Crantor on the same topic, cut off his head and hands, which were conveyed
and found relief in devising a variety of plans for to Rome, and, by the orders of Antony, nailed to
a monument in honour of the deceased.
the Rostra.
The tumalts excited by Antony after the mur- A glance at the various events which form the
der of Caesar (B. C. 44) having compelled the lead subject of the above narrative will sufficiently de-
ing conspirators to disperse in different directions, monstrate, that Cicero was totally destitute of the
Cicero, feeling that his own position was not free qualifications which alone could have fitted him to
froin danger, set out upon a journey to Greece sustain the character of a great independent states-
## p. 718 (#738) ############################################
718
CICERO.
CICERO.
man amidst those scenes of turbulence and revolu- | which he extended his forgiveness to his unworthy
tionary violence in which his lot was cast. So nephew and to his brother Quintus, after they had
long as he was contented in his struggle upwards been guilty of the basest and most unnatural
to play a subordinate part, his progress was niarked treachery and ingratitude ; his devotion through
by extraordinary, well-merited, and most honour life to his daughter Tullia, and his despair upon
able success. But when he attempted to secure the her death, have already called forth some remarks,
highest place, he was rudely thrust down by and when his son, as he advanced in years, did
bolder, more adventurous, and more commanding not fulfil the hopes and expectations of his father,
spirits ; when he sought to act as a mediator, be he was notwithstanding treated with the utmost
became the tool of each of the rivals in turn; and forbearance and liberality. One passage only in
when, after much and protracted hesitation, he had the private life of Cicero is obscured by a shade of
finally espoused the interests of one, he threw an doubt. The simple fact, that when he became
air of gloom and distrust over the cause by timid embarrassed by pecuniary difficulties he divorced
despondency and too evident repentance. His the mother of his children, to whom he had been
want of firmness in the hour of trial amounted to united for upwards of thirty years, and soon after
cowardice; his numerous and glaring inconsistencies married a rich heiress, his own ward, appears at
destroyed all confidence in his discretion and judg- first sight suspicious, if not positively discreditable.
ment; his irresolution not unfrequently assumed But it must be remembered that we are altogether
the aspect of awkward duplicity, and his restless ignorant of the circumstances connected with this
craving vanity exposed him constantly to the snares transaction. From a series of obscure hints con-
of insidious flattery, while it covered him with tained in letters to Atticus, we infer that Terentia
ridicule and contempt. Even his boasted patriotism had been extravagant during the absence of her
was of a very doubtful, we might say of a spurious husband in the camp of Pompey, and that she had
stamp, for his love of country was so mixed up with made some arrangements with regard to her will
petty feelings of personal importance, and his which he looked upon as unfair and almost dis-
hatred of tyranny so inseparably connected in his , honest; in addition to which, we know from other
mind with his own loss of power and consideration, sources that she was a woman of imperious and
that we can hardly persuade ourselves that the unyielding temper. On the other hand, the con-
former was the disinterested impulse of a noble nexion with Publilia could not have been contem-
heart so much as the prompting of selfishness and plated at the period of the divorce, for we find that
vain glory, or that the latter proceeded from a his friends were busily employed for some time in
generous devotion to the rights and liberties of his looking out for a suitable match, and that, among
fellow-citizens so much as from the bitter con- others, a daughter of Pompey was suggested.
sciousness of being individually depressed and Moreover, if the new alliance had been dictated
overshadowed by the superior weight and emi- by motives of a purely mercenary nature, more
nence of another. It is rain to undertake the de- anxiety would have been manifested to retain the
fence of his conduct by ingenious and elaborate advantages which it procured, while on the contra-
reasonings. The whole case is placed clearly be rary we find that it was dissolved very quickly in
fore our eyes, and all the common sources of fallacy consequence of the bride having incautiously tes-
and unjust judgment in regard to public men are tified satisfaction at the death of Tullia, of whose
removed. We are not called upon to weigh and influence she may have been jealous, and that
scrutinize the evidence of partial or hostile wit- Cicero steadily refused to listen to any overtures,
nesses, whose testimony may be coloured or per- although a reconciliation was earnestly desired on
verted by the keenness of party spirit. Cicero is the part of the lady.
his own accuser, and is convicted by his own de (Our great authority for the life of Cicero is his
positions. The strange confessions contained in own writings, and especially his letters and ora-
his correspondence call for a sentence more severe tions. The inost important passages will be found
than we have ventured to pronounce, presenting a collected in Meierotto, " Ciceronis Vita ex ipsius
most marvellous, memorable, and instructive spec- scriptis excerpta," Berolin. 1783, and in the “ Ono-
tacle of the greatest intellectual strength linked masticon Tullianum,” which forms an appendix to
indissolubly to the greatest moral weakness. Orelli's Cicero, Zurich, 1826-1838. Much that
Upon his social and domestic relations we can is curious and valuable may be collected from the
dwell with unmixed pleasure. In the midst of al- biographies of the orator and his contemporaries by
most universal profligacy he remained uncontami- Plutarch, whose statements, however, must always
nated ; surrounded by corruption, not even malice be received with caution. Something may be
ever ventured to impeach his integrity. To his gleaned from Velleius Paterculus also, and from the
dependents he was indulgent and warm-hearted, books of Appian and of Dion Cassius which belong
to his friends affectionate and true, ever ready to to this period. These and other ancient testimo
assist them in the hour of need with counsel, in- nies have been diligently arranged in chronological
fluence, or purse; somewhat touchy, perhaps, and order in the Historia M. Tullii Ciceronis,” by F.
loud in expressing resentment when offended, but Fabricius. Of modern works that of Middleton
easily appeased, and free from all rancour. In his has attained great celebrity, although it must be
intercourse with his contemporaries he rose com- regarded as a blind and extravagant panegyric ;
pletely above that paltry jealousy by which literary some good strictures on his occasional inaccuracies
men are so often disgraced, fully and freely ac- and constant partiality will be found in Tunstall's
knowledging the merits of his most formidable “ Epistola ad Middletonum," Cantab. 1741, and in
rivals - Hortensius and Licinius Calvus, for the Colley Cibber's "Character and Conduct of Cicero,"
former of whom he cherished the warmest regard. London, 1747 ; but by far the most complete and
Towards the members of his own family he uni- critical examination of all points relating to Cicero
formly displayed the deepest attachment. Nothing and his times, down to the end of B. c. 56, is con-
could be more amiable than the readiness with tained in the fifth volume of Drumann's “Gesch-
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CICERO.
719
CICERO.
ichte Roms," a work not yet brought to a conclu-
De Natura Deorum libri III.
sion. )
De Divinatione libri II.
E. Theology.
IJ. WRITINGS OF CICERO.
De Fato.
* Dc Auguriis Auguralia.
The works of Cicero are so numerous and diver- The Editio Princeps of the collected philoso
sificd, that it is necessary for the sake of distinct-phical works of Cicero was printed at Rome in
ness to separate them into classes, and accordingly 1471, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, 2 vols. folio,
they may be conveniently arranged under five and is a work of excessive rarity. The first vo-
heads :- 1. Philosophical works. 2. Speeches. 3. lume contains De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione,
Correspondence. 4. Poems. 5. Historical and De Officiis, Paradoxa, Laelius, Cato Major, Versus
Miscellaneous works. The last may appear too duodecim Sapientium; the second volume, Quaes-
vague and comprehensive, but nothing of impor- tiones Tusculanae, De Finibus, De Fato, Q. Cicero
tance belonging to this section has been preserved. de Petitione Consulatus, Fragments of the Horten-
sius, Timaeus, Academicae Quaestiones, De Legibus.
1. PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS.
We have belonging to the same period, De
Several of the topics handled in this department
Officüs, De Amicitia, De Senectute, Somnium
are so intimately connected and shade into each 2 vols. folio, without place or date, but known to
Scipionis, Paradoxa, Tusculanae Quaestiones, in
other by such fine and almost imperceptible grada- have been published at Paris about 1471, by Gering,
tions, that the boundaries by which they are
Crantz, and Friburger.
separated cannot in all cases be sbarply defined,
and consequently some of the subdivisions may De Fato, De Legibus, Hortensius, (Modestus,) De
Also, the De Natura Deorum, De Divinatione,
appear arbitrary or inaccurate ; for practical pur- Disciplina Militari, appeared in 1 vol. 4to. , 1471,
poses, however, the following distribution will be
found sufficiently precise :-
at Venice, from the press of Vindelin de Spira.
A. Philosophy of Taste or Rhetoric, B. Political whole philosophical works of Cicero, was com-
An excellent edition, intended to embrace the
Philosophy. c. Philosophy of Morals. D. Specu- menced by J. A. Goerenz, and carried to the extent
lative Philosophy. E. Theology.
In the table given below, those works to which of three yolumes, 8vo.
, which contain the De Legi-
an asterisk is prefixed have descended to us in a
bus, Academica, De Finibus, Leipz. 1809–1813.
very imperfect and mutilated condition, enough, philosophic writings in detail, we must consider very
Before entering upon an examination of Cicero's
however, still remaining to convey a clear concep briefly the inducements which first prompted Cicero
tion of the general plan, tone, and spirit; of those
to which a double asterisk is prefixed, only a few the extent to which his original views were subse-
to devote his attention to the study of philosophy,
fragments, or even a few words, survive ; those
printed in Italics are totally lost; those included quently altered and enlarged, the circumstances
under which his various treatises were composed,
within brackets are believed to be spurious :-
the end which they were intended to accomplish,
Rhetoricorum s. De Inventione the degree of importance to be attached to these
Rhetorica libri II.
works, the form in which they are presented to the
De Partitione Oratoria
reader, and the opinions really entertained by the
De Oratore libri III.
author himself.
Brutus 8. De Claris Oratoribus. Cicero dedicated his attention to philosophy in the
A. Philosophy
Orator s.
De Optimo Genere first instance not merely as a branch of general educa-
of Taste. dicendi.
tion, but as that particular branch which was likely
De Optimo Genere Oratorum. to prove peculiarly serviceable to him in attaining
Topica.
the great object of his youthful aspirations—orato-
Communes Loci.
rical fame. (See Parador. praef. , De Off: prooem. )
[Rhetoricorum ad C. Herennium He must have discerned from a very early period
libri IV. ]
that the subtle and astute, though often sophistical,
De Republica libri VI. arguments advanced by rival sects in supporting
De Legibus libri (V1. ? )
their own tenets and assailing the positions of their
B. Po'itical
• De Jure Civili.
adversaries, and the habitual quickness of objection
Philosophy.
Epistola ad Caesarem de Ordi- and readiness of reply which distinguished the
nanda Republica.
oral controversies of the more skilful disputants
could be turned to admirable account in the wordy
De Officiis libri III.
combats of the courts; and hence the method pursued
* * De Virtutibus.
by the later Academy of probing the weak points
C. Philosophy
Cato Major s.
De Senectute.
and detecting the fallacies of all systems in succes-
Laelius s.
De Amicitia.
of Morals.
sion, possessed the strongest attractions for one
** De Gloria libri II.
who to insure success must be able to regard each
** De Consolatione s. De Luctu
cause submitted to his judgment under many dif-
minuendo.
ferent aspects, and be prepared to anticipate and
• Academicorum libri IV. repel exceptions, of whatever nature, proceeding
De Finibus libri V.
from whatever quarter. We have already seen,
Tusculanarum Disputationum in the biographical portion of this article, that
libri V.
Cicero allowed no opportunity to escape of gaining
D, Speculutive
Paradoxa Stoicorum sex. an intimate acquaintance with the doctrines of the
Philosophy. . Hortensius s. De Philoso- most popular sects, without resigning himself ex-
phia.
clusively to one; and he was fully sensible that he
Timaeus ex Platone.
owed much of the signal success which attended
Protagoras ex Platone. his efforts, after his return from Greece, to this
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7:20
CICERO.
CICERO.
a
training in philosophy, which he emphatically de- we desire to form a fair judgment, never forget
nominates the fountain-head of all perfect elo- that the design proposed was to communicate in a
quence, the mother of all good deeds and good correct and precise but familiar and attractive form
words. ” (Brut. 93. ) During his residence at the results at which others had arrived, not to ex-
Athens and at Rhodes he appears to have imbibed pound new conceptions—to present a sharp and
a deep and earnest attachment for the pursuit striking outline of the majestic structures reared
which he henceforward viewed as something better by the labours of successive schools, not to claim
and nobler than a mere instrument for acquiring distinction as the architect of a new cdifice. The
dialectic skill. Accordingly, every moment that execution of this project demanded extensive re-
could be snatched from his multifarious avocations search, a skilful selection of the best portions of
was employed with exemplary zeal in accumulat- the best authors, the accurate adjustment and har-
ing stores of philosophic lore, which were carefully monious combination of these loose fragments, a
treasured up in his memory. But the incessant choice of familiar examples and apt illustrations
demands of business long prevented him from ar- to shed light on much that would necessarily ap-
ranging and displaying the wealth thus acquired; pear dark and incomprehensible to the inexperi-
and had not the disorders of the times compelled enced, and, most difficult of all, the creation of
him upon two occasions to retire for a brief space terms and phraseology capable of expressing with
from public life, he would probably never have clearness and exactitude a class of ideas altogether
communicated to the world the fruits of his scien- new. If then we find upon examination that this
tific researches.
The first of the two periods difficult undertaking, requiring the union of talents
alluded to above was when after his recall from the most opposite, of unwearying application, deli-
exile he found himself virtually deprived of all po- cate discrimination, refined taste, practical skill in
litical influence, and consequently, although busily composition, and an absolute command over a stub-
engaged in discharging the duties of a pleader, born and inflexible dialect, has been executed with
found leisure to compose his De Oratore, De Repub- consummate ability, we have no right to complain
lica, and De Legibus. The second period reached that many of the topics are handled somewhat
from his return to Italy after the battle of Pharsalia superficially, that there is an absence of all origi-
until the autumn after the death of Caesar, during nality of thought, and that no effort is made to
the greater portion of which he lived in retirement enlarge the boundaries of the science. Nor have
and produced the rest of his philosophical works, we any reason to regret the resolution thus formed
some of them being published even subsequent to and consistently carried out. We are put in pos-
his re-appearance on the stage of public affairs. session of a prodigious mass of most curious and
But, although these were all finished and sent interesting information bearing upon the history of
abroad between the end of B. C. 46 and the middle philosophy, conveyed in the richest and most win-
of B. C. 44, it would be absurd to suppose that the ning language. Antiquity produced no works
varied information required for such a task could which could rival these as manuals of instruction ;
have been brought together and distributed into a as such they were employed until the downfal of
series of elaborate treatises in the course of sixteen the Roman empire; they stood their ground and
or eighteen months. It seems much more proba- kept alive a taste for literature during the middle
ble, as indicated above, that the materials were ages; they were still zealously studied for a long
gradually collected during a long course of reading period after the revival of learning; they even
and inquiry, and carefully digested by reflection now command respect from the purity of the moral
and frequent discussion, so that when a convenient principles which they inculcate, and serve as mo-
season bad arrived, the design already traced out dels of perfect style and diction. We arrive at the
was completed in all its details
. Thus we find in conclusion, that Cicero is fully entitled to the praise
the dialogue upon Laws (i. 20) a reference to the of having accomplished with brilliant success all
debates which had taken place among the wise on that he engaged to perform. In philosophy he
the nature of the Supreme Good, the doubts and must be regarded as the prince of popular com-
difficulties with which the question was still en- pilers, but nothing more. It is certain that he
cumbered, and the importance of arriving at some could not have put forth his powers in a manner
correct decision ; after which the speaker proceeds better calculated to promote the interests and ex-
briefly to express the same sentiments which nine tend the influence of his favourite pursuit.
years afterwards were expanded and formally The greater number of these essays, in imita-
maintained in the De Finibus. (Comp. Acad. i. 3. ) tion of the writings of many of the Greek phi-
In order to understand clearly the nature of losophers, are thrown into dialogue--a form ex-
these works and the end which they were intended tremely well suited for the purposes of instruction,
to serve, we must bear in mind the important fact, since it affords facility for familiar explanation and
that they were almost the first specimens of this for the introduction of those elucidations and di-
kind of literature erer presented to the Romans in gressions so necessary to communicate clearness
their own language. With the exception of the and animation to abstract propositions, which, if
poems of Lucretius and some other publications on simply enunciated in a purely scientific shape,
the doctrines of Epicurus by an Amafinius and a must unavoidably appear to the learner dull and
Rabirius, so obscure that Cicero seems to have spiritless. In a dialogue, also, the teacher is not
thought them not worth the trouble of perusal, compelled to disclose his own opinions, but may
there was absolutely nothing. Hence Cicero was give full scope to his ingenuity and eloquence in
led to form the scheme of drawing up a series of expounding and contrasting the views of others.
elementary treatises which should furnish his coun- The execution is, upon the whole, no less happy
trymen with an easy introduction to the knowledge than the design. One cannot fail to be impressed
of the tenets professed by the leading sects of with the dexterity exhibited in contriving the
Greece on the most important branches of politics, machinery of the different conversations, the tact
murals, metaphysics, and theology. We must, if with which the most appropriate personages are se
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CICERO.
721
CICERO.
Jected, the scrupulous accuracy with which their cally and developed in formal precepts, had hitherto
respective characters are distinguished and pre- attracted but little attention in Rome except among
served throughout, and the air of calm dignity the select few who were capable of comprehending
which pervades each scparate piece. At the same the instructions of foreign professors delivered in a
time, we must confess, that there is throughout a foreign tongue; for the Latin rhetoricians were
want of that life and reality which lends such a long regarded, and perhaps justly, as ignorant pre
|
charm to the dialogues of Plato. We fecl that tenders, who brought such discredit on the study by
most of the colloquies reported by the Athenian their presumptuous quackery, that so late as B. C.
might actually have been held; but there is a stiff- 92, L. Crassus, who was not likely to be an unjust
ness and formality about the actors of Cicero, and or illiberal judge in such matters, when censor was
a tendency to lecture rather than to converse, which desirous of expelling the whole crew from the city.
materially injures the dramatic effect, and in fact Thus Cicero had the honour of opening up to the
in some degree neutralizes the benefit to be derived masses of his countrymen a new field of inquiry
from this method of imparting knowledge. He and mental exercise, and of importing for general
has also rather abused the opportunities presented national use one of the most attractive productions
for excursions into the attractive regions which lie of Athenian genius and industry.
out of the direct path, and so much space is some- The Editio Princeps of the collected rhetorical
times occupied by enthusinstic declamations, that works of Cicero was printed at Venice by Alexan-
the main subject is for a time thrown out of sight drinus and Asulanus, fol. 1485, containing the De
and forgotten.
Oratore, the Orator, the Topica, the Partitiones
The speculative opinions entertained by Cicero Oratoriae, and the De Optimo Genere Oratorum,
himself are of little importance, except as a mere and was reprinted at Venice in 1488 and 1495,
matter of curiosity, and cannot be ascertained both in fol. The first complete edition, including,
with certainty. In all controversies the chief in addition to the above, the Brutus, the Rhetorici
arguments of the contending parties are drawn out ad Herennium, and the De Inventione, was pub-
with the strictest impartiality, marshalled in strong lished at Venice by Aldus in 1514, 4to. , edited in
relief orer against each other, and the decision then part by Naugerius. Of modern editions the most
left to the reader. The habit of stating and com notable are the following: that by Schütz, which
paring a multitude of conflicting theories, each of contains the whole, Lips. 1804, 3 vols. 8vo. ; the
which could number a long array of great names “Opera Rhetorica Minora. " by Wetzel, Lignitz,
among its supporters, would naturally confirm that 1807, containing all with the exceptions of the De
disposition to deny the certainty of human know- Oratore, the Brutus, and the Orator; and the
ledge which must have been imbibed in early life Orator, Brutus, Topica, De Optimo Genere Ora.
by the pupil of Philo of Larissa ; while the multi- torum, with the notes of Beier and Orelli, Zurich,
tude of beautiful and profound reflections scattered 1830, 8vo.
over the writings of the Greek sages would lead an
1. Rietoricorum s. De Inventione Rhetorica
unbiassed mind, honest in its search after truth, to
Libri II.
select what was best in each without binding him-
self exclusively to one.
This appears to have been the earliest of the
(Those who desire to follow out this subject may efforts of Cicero in prose composition. It was in-
consult Brucker, Historia Critica Philosophiae, vol. tended to exhibit in a compendious systematic form
ii. pp. 1–70; Gaultier de Sibert, Eramen de la all that was most valuable and worthy of note in
Philosophie de Ciceron, in the Mémoires de l'Aca- the works of the Greek rhetoricians. Aristotle
démie des Inscriptions, vols. xlii. and xliii. ; Ritter, had already performed this task in so far as his own
Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. iv. pp. 76—168; predecessors were concerned ; and hence his writ-
G. Waldin, De Philosoph. Cic. Platonica, Jena, ings, together with those of his disciples and of the
1753; J. G. Zierlein, De Philosoph. Cic. Hal. 1770; followers of Isocrates, would supply all the neces-
J. C. Brieglieb, Progr. de Philosoph. Cic. Cob. sary materials for selection and combination. Ac-
1784; M. Fremling, Philosoph. Cic. Lund. 1795; cording to the original plan, this treatise was to
H. C. F. Hulsemann, DcIndole Philosoph. Cic. Luneb. have embraced the whole subject ; but there is no
1799; D. F. Gedicke, Historia Philosoph. antiquae reason to fix upon the exact number of four books
ez Cic. Scriptis, Berol. 1815; J. A. C. Van Heusde, as the extent contemplated, and it certainly nerer
M. Tull. Cic. Donnátwv, Traj. ad Rhen. 1836; was completed. The author, after finishing the
R. Kühner, M. Tull. Cic. in Philosophiam ejusque two which have descended to us, seems to have
Parles Merita, Hamburg, 1825. The last men- thrown them aside, and speaks of them at a later
tioned work contains a great quantity of informa- period perhaps too slightingly (de Orat. i. 2) as
tion, distinctly conveyed, and within a moderate a crude and imperfect performance. After a short
compass. )
preface regarding the origin, rise, progress, use and
abuse of eloquence, we find an enumeration and
A. PHILOSOPHY OF TASTE, OR RHETORIC.
classification of the different branches of the sub-
The rhetorical works of Cicero may be consi-ject. The whole art must be considered under
dered as a sort of triple compound formed by com- five distinct heads :-1. Its general character and
bining the information derived from the lectures the position which it occupies among the sciences
and disquisitions of the teachers under whom he (genus). 2. The duty which it is called upon to
studied, and from the writings of the Greeks, es- perforni (officium). 3. The end which it seeks to
pecially Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Isocrates, attain (finis). 4. The subject matter of a speech
with his own speculative researches into the nature (materia). 5. The constituent elements of which
and theory of the art, corrected in his later years à speech is made up ( partes rhetoricae). After
by the results of extensive experience. Rhetoric, remarking cursorily, with regard to the genus, that
considered as a science depending upon abstract the art of rhetoric is a branch of civil knowledge
principles which might be investigated philosophi- | (civilis scicntiae), that its officium is, to use all the
3 A
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722
CICERO.
CICERO.
case.
methods most suitable for persuasion by oratory, | justified by previous provocation ; (4) comparatio,
and its finis to achieve this persuasion, Cicero con- when the deed is justified by pleading a praise-
fines himself for the present to the materia and worthy motive.
partes. Now the materia, subject matter, or form The constitution of the case being determined,
of a speech, may belong to one of three classes, ac- we must next examine whether the case be simple
cording to the nature of the audience. (Comp. (simplex) or compound (conjuncta), that is, whether
Partit. Orut. 3. ) 1.
