No More Learning

The length of Aria is about 2000 stadia, and the breadth of the plain
300 stadia. Its cities are Artacaëna, Alexandreia, and Achaïa, which are
called after the names of their founders.

The soil produces excellent wines, which may be kept for three
generations in unpitched vessels.

2. Margiana is like this country, but the plain is surrounded by
deserts. Antiochus Soter admired its fertility; he enclosed a circle of
1500 stadia with a wall, and founded a city, Antiocheia. The soil is
well adapted to vines. They say that a vine stem has been frequently
seen there which would require two men to girth it, and bunches of
grapes two cubits in size.




CHAPTER XI.


1. Some parts of Bactria lie along Aria to the north, but the greater
part stretches beyond (Aria) to the east. It is an extensive country,
and produces everything except oil.

The Greeks who occasioned its revolt became so powerful by means of the
fertility and advantages of the country, that they became masters of
Ariana and India, according to Apollodorus of Artamita. Their chiefs,
particularly Menander, (if he really crossed the Hypanis to the east and
reached Isamus,)[1012] conquered more nations than Alexander. These
conquests were achieved partly by Menander, partly by Demetrius, son of
Euthydemus, king of the Bactrians. They got possession not only of
Pattalene,[1013] but of the kingdoms of Saraostus, and Sigerdis, which
constitute the remainder of the coast. Apollodorus in short says that
Bactriana is the ornament of all Ariana. They extended their empire even
as far as the Seres and Phryni.

2. Their cities were Bactra, which they call also Zariaspa, (a river of
the same name flows through it, and empties itself into the Oxus,) and
Darapsa,[1014] and many others. Among these was Eucratidia, which had
its name from Eucratidas, the king. When the Greeks got possession of
the country, they divided it into satrapies; that of Aspionus and
Turiva[1015] the Parthians took from Eucratidas. They possessed Sogdiana
also, situated above Bactriana to the east, between the river Oxus
(which bounds Bactriana and Sogdiana) and the Iaxartes; the latter river
separates the Sogdii and the nomades.

3. Anciently the Sogdiani and Bactriani did not differ much from the
nomades in their mode of life and manners, yet the manners of the
Bactriani were a little more civilized. Onesicritus however does not
give the most favourable account of this people. Those who are disabled
by disease or old age are thrown alive to be devoured by dogs kept
expressly for this purpose, and whom in the language of the country they
call entombers. [1016] The places on the exterior of the walls of the
capital of the Bactrians are clean, but the interior is for the most
part full of human bones. Alexander abolished this custom. Something of
the same kind is related of the Caspii also, who, when their parents
have attained the age of 70 years, confine them, and let them die of
hunger. This custom, although Scythian in character, is more tolerable
than that of the Bactrians, and is similar to the domestic law of the
Cei;[1017] the custom however of the Bactrians is much more according to
Scythian manners. We may be justly at a loss [CAS. 517] to
conjecture,[1018] if Alexander found such customs prevailing there, what
were the customs which probably were observed by them in the time of the
first kings of Persia, and of the princes who preceded them.

4. Alexander, it is said, founded eight cities in Bactriana and
Sogdiana; some he razed, among which were Cariatæ in Bactriana, where
Callisthenes was seized and imprisoned; Maracanda in Sogdiana, and Cyra,
the last of the places founded by Cyrus, situated upon the river
Iaxartes, and the boundary of the Persian empire. This also, although it
was attached to Cyrus, he razed on account of its frequent revolts.

Alexander took also, it is said, by means of treachery, strong fortified
rocks; one of which belonged to Sisimithres in Bactriana, where Oxyartes
kept his daughter Roxana; another to Oxus in Sogdiana, or, according to
some writers, to Ariamazas. The stronghold of Sisimithres is described
by historians to have been fifteen stadia in height, and eighty stadia
in circuit. On the summit is a level ground, which is fertile and
capable of maintaining 500 men. Here Alexander was entertained with
sumptuous hospitality, and here he espoused Roxana the daughter of
Oxyartes. The height of the fortress in Sogdiana is double the height of
this. It was near these places that he destroyed the city of the
Branchidæ, whom Xerxes settled there, and who had voluntarily
accompanied him from their own country. They had delivered up to the
Persians the riches of the god at Didymi, and the treasure there
deposited. Alexander destroyed their city in abhorrence of their
treachery and sacrilege.

5. Aristobulus calls the river, which runs through Sogdiana,
Polytimetus, a name imposed by the Macedonians, as they imposed many
others, some of which were altogether new, others were deflections[1019]
from the native appellations. This river after watering the country
flows through a desert and sandy soil, and is absorbed in the sand, like
the Arius, which flows through the territory of the Arii.

It is said that on digging near the river Ochus a spring of oil was
discovered. It is probable, that as certain nitrous, astringent,
bituminous, and sulphurous fluids permeate the earth, greasy fluids may
be found, but the rarity of their occurrence makes their existence
almost doubtful.

The course of the Ochus, according to some writers, is through
Bactriana, according to others parallel to it. Some allege that, taking
a more southerly direction, it is distinct from the Oxus to its mouths,
but that they both discharge themselves (separately) into the Caspian in
Hyrcania. Others again say that it is distinct, at its commencement,
from the Oxus, but that it (afterwards) unites with the latter river,
having in many places a breadth of six or seven stadia.

The Iaxartes is distinct from the Oxus from its commencement to its
termination, and empties itself into the same sea. Their mouths,
according to Patrocles, are about 80 parasangs distant from each other.
The Persian parasang some say contains 60, others 30 or 40, stadia.

When I was sailing up the Nile, schœni of different measures were used
in passing from one city to another, so that the same number of schoeni
gave in some places a longer, in others a shorter, length to the voyage.
This mode of computation has been handed down from an early period, and
is continued to the present time.

6. In proceeding from Hyrcania towards the rising sun as far as
Sogdiana, the nations beyond (within? ) the Taurus were known first to
the Persians, and afterwards to the Macedonians and Parthians. The
nations lying in a straight line[1020] above these people are supposed
to be Scythian, from their resemblance to that nation. But we are not
acquainted with any expeditions which have been undertaken against them,
nor against the most northerly tribes of the nomades. Alexander proposed
to conduct his army against them, when he was in pursuit of Bessus and
Spitamenes, but when Bessus was taken prisoner, and Spitamenes put to
death by the Barbarians, he desisted from executing his intention.

It is not generally admitted, that persons have passed round by sea from
India to Hyrcania, but Patrocles asserts that it may be done.

7. It is said that the termination of Taurus, which is called Imaus,
approaches close to the Indian Sea, and neither advances towards nor
recedes from the East more than India itself. But on passing to the
northern side, the sea contracts (throughout the whole coast) the length
and breadth of India, so as to shorten on the East the portion of Asia
we are now [CAS. 519] describing, comprehended between the Taurus and
the Northern Ocean, which forms the Caspian Sea.

The greatest length of this portion, reckoned from the Hyrcanian Sea to
the (Eastern) Ocean opposite Imaus, is about 30,000 stadia,[1021] the
route being along the mountainous tract of Taurus; the breadth is less
than 10,000 stadia. [1022] We have said before, that[1023] from the bay
of Issus to the eastern sea along the coast of India is about 40,000
stadia, and to Issus from the western extremities at the pillars 30,000
stadia. The recess of the bay of Issus is little, if at all, more to the
east than Amisus; from Amisus to Hyrcania is about 10,000 stadia in a
line parallel to that which we have described as drawn from the bay of
Issus to India. There remains therefore for the portion now delineated
the above-mentioned length towards the east, namely, 30,000
stadia. [1024]

Again, since the breadth of the longest part of the habitable earth,
which has the shape of a chlamys, (or a military cloak,) is about 30,000
stadia, this distance would be near the meridian line drawn through the
Hyrcanian and the Persian Seas, for the length of the habitable earth is
70,000 stadia. If therefore from Hyrcania to Artemita[1025] in Babylonia
are 8000 stadia according to Apollodorus of Artemita, and thence to the
mouth of the Persian Sea 8000, and again 8000, or a little short of that
number, to the places on the same parallel with the extremities of
Æthiopia, there would remain, to complete the breadth as I have
described it, of the habitable earth, the number of stadia[1026] which I
have mentioned, reckoning from the recess of the Hyrcanian Sea to its
mouth. This segment of the earth being truncated towards the eastern
parts, its figure would resemble a cook’s knife, for the mountainous
range being prolonged in a straight line, answers to the edge, while the
shape of the coast from the mouth of the Hyrcanian Sea to Tamarus on the
other side terminates in a circular truncated line.

8. [CAS. 519] We must mention some of the extraordinary circumstances
which are related of those tribes which are perfectly barbarous, living
about Mount Caucasus, and the other mountainous districts.

What Euripides expresses in the following lines is said to be a custom
among them;

“they lament the birth of the new-born on account of the many
evils to which they are exposed; but the dead, and one at rest
from his troubles, is carried forth from his home with joy and
gratulation. ”

Other tribes do not put to death even the greatest offenders, but only
banish them from their territories together with their children; which
is contrary to the custom of the Derbices, who punish even slight
offences with death. The Derbices worship the earth. They neither
sacrifice, nor eat the female of any animal. Persons who attain the age
of above seventy years are put to death by them, and their nearest
relations eat their flesh. Old women are strangled, and then buried.
Those who die under seventy years of age are not eaten, but are only
buried.

The Siginni in general practise Persian customs. They have small horses
with shaggy hair, but which are not able to carry a rider. Four of these
horses are harnessed together, driven by women, who are trained to this
employment from childhood. The best driver marries whom she pleases.
Some, they say, make it their study to appear with heads as long as
possible, and with foreheads projecting over their chins.

The Tapyrii have a custom for the men to dress in black, and wear their
hair long, and the women to dress in white, and wear their hair short.
[They live between the Derbices and Hyrcani. ][1027] He who is esteemed
the bravest marries whom he likes.

The Caspii starve to death those who are above seventy years old, by
exposing them in a desert place. The exposed are observed at a distance;
if they are dragged from their resting-place by birds, they are then
pronounced happy; but if by wild beasts, or dogs, less fortunate; but if
by none of these, ill-fated.




CHAPTER XII.


1. Since the Taurus constitutes the northern parts of Asia, which are
called also the parts within the Taurus, I propose to speak first of
these.

They are situated either entirely, or chiefly, among the mountains.
Those to the east of the Caspian Gates admit of a shorter description on
account of the rude state of the people, nor is there much difference
whether they are referred to one climate[1028] or the other. All the
western countries furnish abundant matter for description. We must
therefore proceed to the places situated near the Caspian Gates.

Media lies towards the west, an extensive country, and formerly
powerful; it is situated in the middle of Taurus, which here has many
branches, and contains large valleys, as is the case in Armenia.

2. This mountain has its beginning in Caria and Lycia, but does not
exhibit there either considerable breadth or height. It first appears to
have a great altitude opposite the Chelidoneæ,[1029] which are islands
situated in front of the commencement of the Pamphylian coast. It
extends towards the east, and includes the long valleys of Cilicia. Then
on one side the Amanus[1030] is detached from it, and on the other the
Anti-Taurus. [1031] In the latter is situated Comana,[1032] belonging to
the Upper Cappadocia. It terminates in Cataonia, but Mount Amanus is
continued as far as the Euphrates, and Melitene,[1033] where Commagene
extends along Cappadocia. It receives the mountains beyond the
Euphrates, which are continuous with those before mentioned, except the
part which is intercepted by the river flowing through the middle of
them. [CAS. 521] Here its height and breadth become greater, and its
branches more numerous. The Taurus extends the farthest distance towards
the south, where it separates Armenia from Mesopotamia.

3. From the south flow both rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, which
encircle Mesopotamia, and approach close to each other at Babylonia, and
then discharge themselves into the sea on the coast of Persia. The
Euphrates is the larger river, and traverses a greater tract of country
with a tortuous course, it rises in the northern part of Taurus, and
flows toward the west through Armenia the Greater, as it is called, to
Armenia the Less, having the latter on the right and Acilisene on the
left hand. It then turns to the south, and at its bend touches the
boundaries of Cappadocia. It leaves this and Commagene on the right
hand; on the left Acilisene and Sophene,[1034] belonging to the Greater
Armenia. It proceeds onwards to Syria, and again makes another bend in
its way to Babylonia and the Persian Gulf.

The Tigris takes its course from the southern part of the same mountains
to Seleucia,[1035] approaches close to the Euphrates, with which it
forms Mesopotamia. It then empties itself into the same gulf.

The sources of the Tigris and of the Euphrates are distant from each
other about 2500 stadia.

4. Towards the north there are many forks which branch away from the
Taurus. One of these is called Anti-Taurus, for there the mountain had
this name, and includes Sophene in a valley situated between Anti-Taurus
and the Taurus.

Next to the Anti-Taurus on the other side of the Euphrates, along the
Lesser Armenia, there stretches towards the north a large mountain with
many branches, one of which is called Paryadres,[1036] another the
Moschic mountains, and others by other names. The Moschic mountains
comprehend the whole of Armenians as far as the Iberians and Albanians.
Other mountains again rise towards the east above the Caspian Sea, and
extend as far as Media the Greater, and the Atropatian-Media. They call
all these parts of the mountains Parachoathras, as well as those which
extend to the Caspian Gates, and those still farther above towards the
east, which are contiguous to Asia. The following are the names of the
mountains towards the north.

The southern mountains on the other side of the Euphrates, extending
towards the east from Cappadocia and Commagene,[1037] at their
commencement have the name of Taurus, which separates Sophene and the
rest of Armenia from Mesopotamia, but some writers call them the
Gordyæan mountains. [1038] Among these is Mount Masius,[1039] which is
situated above Nisibis,[1040] and Tigranocerta. [1041] It then becomes
more elevated, and is called Niphates. [1042] Somewhere in this part on
the southern side of the mountainous chain are the sources of the
Tigris. Then the ridge of mountains continuing to extend from the
Niphates forms the mountain Zagrius, which separates Media and
Babylonia. After the Zagrius follows above Babylonia the mountainous
range of the Elymæi and Parætaceni, and above Media that of the Cossæi.

In the middle of these branches are situated Media and Armenia, which
comprise many mountains, and many mountain plains, as well as plains and
large valleys. Numerous small tribes live around among the mountains,
who are for the most part robbers.

We thus place within the Taurus Armenia and Media, to which belong the
Caspian Gates.

5. In our opinion these nations may be considered as situated to the
north, since they are within the Taurus. But Eratosthenes, having
divided Asia into southern and northern portions, and what he calls
seals, (or sections,)[1043] designating some as northern, others as
southern, makes the Caspian Gates the boundary of both climates. He
might without any impropriety have represented the more southern parts
of the Caspian Gates as in southern Asia, among which are Media and
Armenia, and the parts more to the north than the Caspian Gates in
northern Asia, which might be the case according to different
descriptions of the country. But perhaps Eratosthenes did not attend to
the circumstance, that there [CAS. 523] is no part of Armenia nor of
Media towards the south on the other side of the Taurus.




CHAPTER XIII.


1. Media is divided into two parts, one of which is called the Greater
Media. Its capital is Ecbatana,[1044] a large city containing the royal
seat of the Median empire. This palace the Parthians continue to occupy
even at this time. Here their kings pass the summer, for the air of
Media is cool. Their winter residence is at Seleucia, on the Tigris,
near Babylon.

The other division is Atropatian Media. It had its name from Atropatus,
a chief who prevented this country, which is a part of Greater Media,
from being subjected to the dominion of the Macedonians. When he was
made king he established the independence of this country; his
successors continue to the present day, and have at different times
contracted marriages with the kings of Armenia, Syria, and Parthia.

2. Atropatian Media borders upon Armenia and Matiane[1045] towards the
east, towards the west on the Greater Media, and on both towards the
north; towards the south it is contiguous to the people living about the
recess of the Hyrcanian Sea, and to Matiane.

According to Apollonides its strength is not inconsiderable, since it
can furnish 10,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry.

It contains a lake called Spauta,[1046] (Kapauta,) in which salt
effloresces, and is consolidated. The salt occasions itching and pain,
but oil is a cure for both, and sweet water restores the colour of
clothes, which have the appearance of being burnt,[1047] when they have
been immersed in the lake by ignorant persons for the purpose of washing
them.

They have powerful neighbours in the Armenians and Parthians, by whom
they are frequently plundered; they resist however, and recover what has
been taken away, as they recovered Symbace[1048] from the Armenians, who
were defeated by the Romans, and they themselves became the friends of
Cæsar. They at the same time endeavour to conciliate the Parthians.

3. The summer palace is at Gazaka, situated in a plain; the winter
palace[1049] is in Vera, a strong fortress which Antony besieged in his
expedition against the Parthians. The last is distant from the Araxes,
which separates Armenia and Atropatene, 2400 stadia, according to
Dellius, the friend of Antony, who wrote an account of the expedition of
Antony against the Parthians, which he himself accompanied, and in which
he held a command.

The other parts of this country are fertile, but that towards the north
is mountainous, rugged, and cold, the abode of the mountain tribes of
Cadusii, Amardi, Tapyri, Curtii, and other similar nations, who are
migratory, and robbers. These people are scattered over the Zagrus and
Niphates. The Curtii in Persia, and Mardi, (for so they call the
Amardi,) and those in Armenia, and who bear the same name at present,
have the same kind of character.

4. The Cadusii have an army of foot soldiers not inferior in number to
that of the Ariani. They are very expert in throwing the javelin. In the
rocky places the soldiers engage in battle on foot, instead of on their
horses. The expedition of Antony was harassing to the army, not by the
nature of the country, but by the conduct of their guide, Artavasdes,
king of the Armenii, whom Antony rashly made his adviser, and master of
his intentions respecting the war, when at the same time that prince was
contriving a plan for his destruction. Antony punished Artavasdes, but
too late; the latter had been the cause of many calamities to the
Romans, in conjunction with another person; he made the march from the
Zeugma on the Euphrates to the borders of Atropatene to exceed 8000
stadia, or double the distance of the direct course, [by leading the
army] over mountains, and places where there were no roads, and by a
circuitous route.

5. [CAS. 524] The Greater Media anciently governed the whole of Asia,
after the overthrow of the Syrian empire: but afterwards, in the time of
Astyages, the Medes were deprived of this extensive sovereignty by Cyrus
and the Persians, yet they retained much of their ancient importance.
Ecbatana was the winter (royal? ) residence[1050] of the Persian kings,
as it was of the Macedonian princes, who overthrew the Persian empire,
and got possession of Syria. It still continues to serve the same
purpose, and affords security to the kings of Parthia.

6. Media is bounded on the east by Parthia, and by the mountains of the
Cossæi, a predatory tribe. They once furnished the Elymæi, whose allies
they were in the war against the Susii and Babylonians, with 13,000
archers. Nearchus says that there were four robber tribes; the Mardi,
who were contiguous to the Persians; the Uxii and Elymæi, who were on
the borders of the Persians and Susii; and the Cossæi, on those of the
Medes; that all of them exacted tribute from the kings; that the Cossæi
received presents, when the king, having passed his summer at Ecbatana
went down to Babylonia; that Alexander attacked them in the winter time,
and repressed their excessive insolence. Media is bounded on the east by
these nations, and by the Parætaceni, who are contiguous to the
Persians, and are mountaineers, and robbers; on the north by the
Cadusii, who live above the Hyrcanian Sea, and by other nations, whom we
have just enumerated; on the south by the Apolloniatis, which the
ancients called Sitacene, and by the Zagrus, along which lies
Massabatica, which belongs to Media, but according to others, to Elymæa;
on the west by the Atropatii, and by some tribes of the Armenians.

There are also Grecian cities in Media, founded by Macedonians, as
Laodiceia, Apameia, Heracleia near Rhagæ, and Rhaga itself, founded by
Nicator, who called it Europus, and the Parthians Arsacia, situated
about 500 stadia to the south of the Caspian Gates, according to
Apollodorus of Artemita.

7. The greater part of Media consists of high ground, and is cold; such
are the mountains above Ecbatana, and the places about Rhagæ and the
Caspian Gates, and the northern parts in general extending thence as far
as Matiane and Armenia.

The country below the Caspian Gates consists of flat grounds and
valleys. It is very fertile, and produces everything except the olive,
or if it grows anywhere it does not yield oil, and is dry. The country
is peculiarly adapted, as well as Armenia, for breeding horses. There is
a meadow tract called Hippobotus, which is traversed by travellers on
their way from Persia and Babylonia to the Caspian Gates. Here, it is
said, fifty thousand mares were pastured in the time of the Persians,
and were the king’s stud. The Nesæan horses, the best and largest in the
king’s province, were of this breed, according to some writers, but
according to others they came from Armenia. Their shape is peculiar, as
is that of the Parthian horses, compared with those of Greece and others
in our country.

The herbage which constitutes the chief food of the horses we call
peculiarly by the name of Medic, from its growing in Media in great
abundance. The country produces Silphium,[1051] from which is obtained
the Medic juice, much inferior to the Cyrenaic, but sometimes it excels
the latter, which may be accounted for by the difference of places, or
from a change the plant may undergo, or from the mode of extracting and
preparing the juice so as to continue good when laid by for use.

8. Such then is the nature of the country with respect to magnitude; its
length and breadth are nearly equal.
The greatest breadth
(length? )[1052] however seems to be that reckoned from the pass across
the Zagrus, which is called the Median Gate, to the Caspian Gates,
through the country of Sigriana, 4100 stadia.

The account of the tribute paid agrees with the extent and wealth of the
country. Cappadocia paid to the Persians yearly, in addition to a
tribute in silver, 1500 horses, 2000 mules, and 50,000 sheep, and the
Medes contributed nearly double this amount.

9. Many of their customs are the same as those of the Armenians, from
the similarity of the countries which they inhabit. The Medes however
were the first to communicate them to the Armenians, and still before
that time to the Persians, who were their masters, and successors in the
empire of Asia.

[CAS. 526] The Persian stole, as it is now called, the pursuit of
archery and horsemanship, the court paid to their kings, their attire,
and veneration fitting for gods paid by the subjects to the
prince,--these the Persians derived from the Medes. That this is the
fact appears chiefly from their dress. A tiara, a citaris, a hat,[1053]
tunics with sleeves reaching to the hands, and trowsers, are proper to
be worn in cold and northerly places, such as those in Media, but they
are not by any means adapted to inhabitants of the south. The Persians
had their principal settlements on the Gulf of Persia, being situated
more to the south than the Babylonians and the Susii. But after the
overthrow of the Medes they gained possession of some tracts of country
contiguous to Media. The custom however of the vanquished appeared to
the conquerors to be so noble, and appropriate to royal state, that
instead of nakedness or scanty clothing, they endured the use of the
feminine stole, and were entirely covered with dress to the feet.

10. Some writers say that Medeia, when with Jason she ruled in these
countries, introduced this kind of dress, and concealed her countenance
as often as she appeared in public in place of the king; that the
memorials of Jason are, the Jasonian heroa,[1054] held in great
reverence by the Barbarians, (besides a great mountain above the Caspian
Gates on the left hand, called Jasonium,) and that the memorials of
Medeia are the kind of dress, and the name of the country. Medus, her
son, is said to have been her successor in the kingdom, and the country
to have been called after his name. In agreement with this are the
Jasonia in Armenia, the name of the country, and many other
circumstances which we shall mention.

11. It is a Median custom to elect the bravest person as king, but this
does not generally prevail, being confined to the mountain tribes. The
custom for the kings to have many wives is more general, it is found
among all the mountaineers also, but they are not permitted to have less
than five. In the same manner the women think it honourable for husbands
to have as many wives as possible, and esteem it a misfortune if they
have less than five.

While the rest of Media is very fertile, the northern and mountainous
part is barren. The people subsist upon the produce of trees. They make
cakes of apples, sliced and dried, and bread of roasted almonds; they
express a wine from some kind of roots. They eat the flesh of wild
animals, and do not breed any tame animals. So much then respecting the
Medes. As to the laws and customs in common use throughout the whole of
Media, as they are the same as those of the Persians in consequence of
the establishment of the Persian empire, I shall speak of them when I
give an account of the latter nation.




CHAPTER XIV.


1. The southern parts of Armenia lie in front of the Taurus, which
separates Armenia from the whole of the country situated between the
Euphrates and the Tigris, and which is called Mesopotamia. The eastern
parts are contiguous to the Greater Media, and to Atropatene. To the
north are the range of the mountains of Parachoathras lying above the
Caspian Sea, the Albanians, Iberians, and the Caucasus. The Caucasus
encircles these nations, and approaches close to the Armenians, the
Moschic and Colchic mountains, and extends as far as the country of the
people called Tibareni. On the west are these nations and the mountains
Paryadres and Scydises, extending to the Lesser Armenia, and the country
on the side of the Euphrates, which divides Armenia from Cappadocia and
Commagene.

2. The Euphrates rises in the northern side of the Taurus, and flows at
first towards the west through Armenia, it then makes a bend to the
south, and intersects the Taurus between the Armenians, Cappadocians,
and Commageni. Then issuing outwards and entering Syria, it turns
towards the winter sunrise as far as Babylon, and forms Mesopotamia
with the Tigris. Both these rivers terminate in the Persian Gulf.

Such is the nature of the places around Armenia, almost all of them
mountainous and rugged, except a few tracts which verge towards Media.

To the above-mentioned Taurus, which commences again in the country on
the other side of the Euphrates, occupied [CAS. 527] by the Commageni,
and Meliteni formed by the Euphrates, belongs Mount Masius, which is
situated on the south above the Mygdones in Mesopotamia, in whose
territory is Nisibis; on the northern parts is Sophene, lying between
the Masius and Anti-Taurus. Anti-Taurus begins from the Euphrates and
the Taurus, and terminates at the eastern parts of Armenia, enclosing
within it Sophene. It has on the other side Acilisene, which lies
between [Anti-]Taurus and the bed of the Euphrates before it turns to
the south. The royal city of Sophene is Carcathiocerta. [1055]

Above Mount Masius far to the east along Gordyene is the Niphates, then
the Abus,[1056] from which flow both the Euphrates and the Araxes, the
former to the west, the latter to the east; then the Nibarus, which
extends as far as Media.

3. We have described the course of the Euphrates. The Araxes, after
running to the east as far as Atropatene, makes a bend towards the west
and north. It then first flows beside Azara, then by Artaxata,[1057] a
city of the Armenians; afterwards it passes through the plain of
Araxenus to discharge itself into the Caspian Sea.

4. There are many mountains in Armenia, and many mountain plains, in
which not even the vine grows. There are also many valleys, some are
moderately fertile, others are very productive, as the Araxenian plain,
through which the river Araxes flows to the extremities of Albania, and
empties itself into the Caspian Sea. Next is Sacasene, which borders
upon Albania, and the river Cyrus; then Gogarene. All this district
abounds with products of the soil, cultivated fruit trees and
evergreens. It bears also the olive.

There is Phauene, (Phanenæ, Phasiana? ) a province of Armenia, Comisene,
and Orchistene, which furnishes large bodies of cavalry.

Chorzene[1058] and Cambysene are the most northerly countries, and
particularly subject to falls of snow. They are contiguous to the
Caucasian mountains, to Iberia, and Colchis. Here, they say, on the
passes over mountains, it frequently happens that whole companies of
persons have been overwhelmed in violent snow-storms. Travellers are
provided against such dangerous accidents with poles, which they force
upwards to the surface of the snow, for the purpose of breathing, and of
signifying their situation to other travellers who may come that way, so
that they may receive assistance, be extricated, and so escape alive.

They say that hollow masses are consolidated in the snow, which contain
good water, enveloped as in a coat; that animals are bred in the snow,
which Apollonides call scoleces,[1059] and Theophanes, thripes, and that
these hollow masses contain good water, which is obtained by breaking
open their coats or coverings. The generation of these animals is
supposed to be similar to that of the gnats, (or mosquitos,) from
flames, and the sparks in mines.

5. According to historians, Armenia, which was formerly a small country,
was enlarged by Artaxias and Zariadris, who had been generals of
Antiochus the Great, and at last, after his overthrow, when they became
kings, (the former of Sophene, Acisene, (Amphissene? ) Odomantis, and
some other places, the latter of the country about Artaxata,) they
simultaneously aggrandized themselves, by taking away portions of the
territory of the surrounding nations: from the Medes they took the
Caspiana, Phaunitis, and Basoropeda; from the Iberians, the country at
the foot of the Paryadres, the Chorzene, and Gogarene, which is on the
other side of the Cyrus; from the Chalybes, and the Mosynœci, Carenitis
and Xerxene, which border upon the Lesser Armenia, or are even parts of
it; from the Cataones, Acilisene,[1060] and the country about the
Anti-Taurus; from the Syrians, Taronitis;[1061] hence they all speak the
same language.

6. The cities of Armenia are Artaxata, called also Artaxiasata, [CAS.
529] built by Hannibal for the king Artaxias, and Arxata, both situated
on the Araxes; Arxata on the confines of Atropatia, and Artaxata near
the Araxenian plain; it is well inhabited, and the seat of the kings of
the country. It lies upon a peninsular elbow of land; the river
encircles the walls except at the isthmus, which is enclosed by a ditch
and rampart.

Not far from the city are the treasure-storehouses of Tigranes and
Artavasdes, the strong fortresses Babyrsa, and Olane. There were others
also upon the Euphrates. Ador, (Addon? ) the governor of the fortress,
occasioned the revolt of Artageræ, but the generals of Cæsar retook it
after a long siege, and destroyed the walls.

7. There are many rivers in the country. The most celebrated are the
Phasis and Lycus; they empty themselves into the Euxine; (Eratosthenes
instead of the Lycus mentions the Thermodon, but erroneously;) the Cyrus
and the Araxes into the Caspian, and the Euphrates and the Tigris into
the Persian Gulf.

8. There are also large lakes in Armenia; one the Mantiane,[1062] which
word translated signifies Cyane, or Blue, the largest salt-water lake,
it is said, after the Palus Mæotis, extending as far as (Media-)
Atropatia. It has salt pans for the concretion of salt.

The next is Arsene,[1063] which is also called Thopitis. Its waters
contain nitre, and are used for cleaning and fulling clothes. It is
unfit by these qualities for drinking. The Tigris passes through this
lake[1064] after issuing from the mountainous country near the Niphates,
and by its rapidity keeps its stream unmixed with the water of the lake,
whence it has its name, for the Medes call an arrow, Tigris. This river
contains fish of various kinds, but the lake one kind only.

At the extremity of the lake the river falls into a deep cavity in the
earth. After pursuing a long course under-ground, it reappears in the
Chalonitis; thence it goes to Opis, and to the wall of Semiramis, as it
is called, leaving the Gordyæi[1065] and the whole of Mesopotamia on the
right hand. The Euphrates, on the contrary, has the same country on the
left. Having approached one another, and formed Mesopotamia, one
traverses Seleucia in its course to the Persian Gulf, the other Babylon,
as I have said in replying to Eratosthenes and Hipparchus.

9. There are mines of gold in the Hyspiratis,[1066] near Caballa.
Alexander sent Menon to the mines with a body of soldiers, but he was
strangled[1067] by the inhabitants of the country. There are other
mines, and also a mine of Sandyx as it is called, to which is given the
name of Armenian colour, it resembles the Calche. [1068]

This country is so well adapted, being nothing inferior in this respect
to Media, for breeding horses, that the race of Nesæan horses, which the
kings of Persia used, is found here also; the satrap of Armenia used to
send annually to the king of Persia 20,000 foals at the time of the
festival of the Mithracina. Artavasdes, when he accompanied Antony in
his invasion of Media, exhibited, besides other bodies of cavalry, 6000
horse covered with complete armour drawn up in array.

Not only do the Medes and Armenians, but the Albanians also, admire this
kind of cavalry, for the latter use horses covered with armour.

10. Of the riches and power of this country, this is no slight proof,
that when Pompey imposed upon Tigranes, the father of Artavasdes, the
payment of 6000 talents of silver, he immediately distributed the money
among the Roman army, to each soldier 50 drachmæ, 1000 to a centurion,
and a talent to a Hipparch and a Chiliarch.

11. Theophanes represents this as the size of the country; its breadth
to be 100 schœni, and its length double this number, reckoning the
schœnus at 40 stadia; but this computation exceeds the truth. It is
nearer the truth to take the [CAS. 530] length as he has given it, and
the breadth at one half, or a little more.

Such then is the nature of the country of Armenia, and its power.

12. There exists an ancient account of the origin of this nation to the
following effect. Armenus of Armenium, a Thessalian city, which lies
between Pheræ and Larisa on the lake Bœbe, accompanied Jason, as we have
already said, in his expedition into Armenia, and from Armenus the
country had its name, according to Cyrsilus the Pharsalian and Medius
the Larisæan, persons who had accompanied the army of Alexander. Some of
the followers of Armenus settled in Acilisene, which was formerly
subject to the Sopheni; others in the Syspiritis, and spread as far as
Calachene and Adiabene, beyond the borders of Armenia.

The dress of the Armenian people is said to be of Thessalian origin;
such are the long tunics, which in tragedies are called Thessalian; they
are fastened about the body with a girdle, and with a clasp on the
shoulder. The tragedians, for they required some additional decoration
of this kind, imitate the Thessalians in their attire. The Thessalians
in particular, from wearing a long dress, (probably because they inhabit
the most northerly and the coldest country in all Greece,) afforded the
most appropriate subject of imitation to actors for their theatrical
representations. The passion for riding and the care of horses
characterize the Thessalians, and are common to Armenians and Medes.

The Jasonia are evidence of the expedition of Jason: some of these
memorials the sovereigns of the country restored, as Parmenio restored
the temple of Jason at Abdera.

13. It is supposed that Armenus and his companions called the Araxes
by this name on account of its resemblance to the Peneius, for the
Peneius had the name of Araxes from bursting through Tempe, and rending
(ἀπαράξαι) Ossa from Olympus. The Araxes also in Armenia, descending
from the mountains, is said to have spread itself in ancient times,
and to have overflowed the plains, like a sea, having no outlet; that
Jason, in imitation of what is to be seen at Tempe, made the opening
through which the water at present precipitates itself into the Caspian
Sea; that upon this the Araxenian plain, through which the river flows
to the cataract, became uncovered. This story which is told of the
river Araxes contains some probability; that of Herodotus[1069] none
whatever. For he says that, after flowing out of the country of the
Matiani, it is divided into forty rivers, and separates the Scythians
from the Bactrians. Callisthenes has followed Herodotus.

14. Some tribes of Ænianes are mentioned, some of whom settled in Vitia,
others above the Armenians beyond the Abus and the Nibarus. These latter
are branches of Taurus; the Abus is near the road which leads to
Ecbatana by the temple of Baris (Zaris? ).

Some tribes of Thracians, surnamed Saraparæ, or decapitators, are said
to live above Armenia, near the Gouranii and Medes. They are a savage
people, intractable mountaineers, and scalp and decapitate strangers;
for such is the meaning of the term Saraparæ.

I have spoken of Medeia in the account of Media, and it is conjectured
from all the circumstances that the Medes and Armenians are allied in
some way to the Thessalians, descended from Jason and Medeia.

15. This is the ancient account, but the more recent, and extending from
the time of the Persians to our own age, may be given summarily, and in
part only (as follows); Persians and Macedonians gained possession of
Armenia, next those who were masters of Syria and Media. The last was
Orontes, a descendant of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persians: it was
then divided into two portions by Artaxias and Zariadris, generals of
Antiochus the Great, who made war against the Romans. These were
governors by permission of the king, but upon his overthrow they
attached themselves to the Romans, were declared independent, and had
the title of kings. Tigranes was a descendant of Artaxias, and had
Armenia, properly so called. This country was contiguous to Media, to
the Albani, and to the Iberes, and extended as far as Colchis, and
Cappadocia upon the Euxine.

Artanes the Sophenian was the descendant of Zariadris, and had the
southern parts of Armenia, which verge rather to the west. He was
defeated by Tigranes, who became master of the whole country. He had
experienced many vicissitudes of fortune. At first he had served as a
[CAS. 532] hostage among the Parthians; then by their means he returned
to his country, in compensation for which service they obtained seventy
valleys in Armenia. When he acquired power, he recovered these valleys,
and devastated the country of the Parthians, the territory about Ninus,
and that about Arbela. [1070] He subjected to his authority the
Atropatenians, and the Gordyæans; by force of arms he obtained
possession also of the rest of Mesopotamia, and, after crossing the
Euphrates, of Syria and Phœnicia. Having attained this height of
prosperity, he even founded near Iberia,[1071] between this country and
the Zeugma on the Euphrates, a city, which he named Tigranocerta, and
collected inhabitants out of twelve Grecian cities, which he had
depopulated. But Lucullus, who had commanded in the war against
Mithridates, surprised him, thus engaged, and dismissed the inhabitants
to their respective homes. The buildings which were half finished he
demolished, and left a small village remaining. He drove Tigranes both
out of Syria and Phœnicia.

Artavasdes, his successor, prospered as long as he continued a friend of
the Romans. But having betrayed Antony to the Parthians in the war with
that people, he suffered punishment for his treachery. He was carried in
chains to Alexandria, by order of Antony, led in procession through the
city, and kept in prison for a time. On the breaking out of the Actiac
war he was then put to death. Many kings reigned after Artavasdes, who
were dependent upon Cæsar and the Romans. The country is still governed
in the same manner.

16. Both the Medes and Armenians have adopted all the sacred rites of
the Persians, but the Armenians pay particular reverence to Anaïtis, and
have built temples to her honour in several places, especially in
Acilisene. They dedicate there to her service male and female slaves; in
this there is nothing remarkable, but it is surprising that persons of
the highest rank in the nation consecrate their virgin daughters to the
goddess. It is customary for these women, after being prostituted a
long period at the temple of Anaïtis, to be disposed of in marriage, no
one disdaining a connexion with such persons. Herodotus mentions
something similar respecting the Lydian women, all of whom prostitute
themselves. But they treat their paramours with much kindness, they
entertain them hospitably, and frequently make a return of more presents
than they receive, being amply supplied with means derived from their
wealthy connexions. They do not admit into their dwellings accidental
strangers, but prefer those of a rank equal to their own.




BOOK XII.

CAPPADOCIA.

SUMMARY.


The Twelfth Book contains the remainder of Pontus, viz.
Cappadocia, Galatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Phrygia, and Mæonia: the
cities, Sinope in Pontus, Heracleia, and Amaseia, and likewise
Isauria, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with the islands lying
along the coast; the mountains and rivers.




CHAPTER I.


1. [1072]Cappadocia consists of many parts, and has experienced frequent
changes.

The nations speaking the same language are chiefly those who are bounded
on the south by the Cilician Taurus,[1073] as it is called; on the east
by Armenia, Colchis, and by the intervening nations who speak different
languages; on the north by the Euxine, as far as the mouth of the
Halys;[1074] on the west by the Paphlagonians, and by the Galatians, who
migrated into Phrygia, and spread themselves as far as Lycaonia, and the
Cilicians, who occupy Cilicia Tracheia (Cilicia the mountainous). [1075]

2. Among the nations that speak the same language, the ancients placed
the Cataonians by themselves, contra-distinguishing them from the
Cappadocians, whom they considered as a different people. In the
enumeration of the nations they placed Cataonia after Cappadocia, then
the Euphrates, and the nations on the other side of that river, so as to
include even Melitene in Cataonia, although Melitene lies between
Cataonia and the Euphrates, approaches close to Commagene, and
constitutes a tenth portion of Cappadocia, according to the division of
the country into ten provinces. For the kings in our times who preceded
Archelaus[1076] usually divided the kingdom of Cappadocia in this
manner.

Cataonia is a tenth portion of Cappadocia. In our time each province had
its own governor, and since no difference appears in the language of the
Cataonians compared with that of the other Cappadocians, nor any
difference in their customs, it is surprising how entirely the
characteristic marks of a foreign nation have disappeared, yet they were
distinct nations; Ariarathes, the first who bore the title of king of
the Cappadocians, annexed the Cataonians to Cappadocia.

3. This country composes the isthmus, as it were, of a large peninsula
formed by two seas; by the bay of Issus, extending to Cilicia Tracheia,
and by the Euxine lying between Sinope and the coast of the Tibareni.

The isthmus cuts off what we call the peninsula; the whole tract lying
to the west of the Cappadocians, to which Herodotus[1077] gives the name
of the country within the Halys. This is the country the whole of which
was the kingdom of Crœsus. Herodotus calls him king of the nations on
this side the river Halys. But writers of the present time give the name
of Asia, which is the appellation of the whole continent, to the country
within the Taurus.

This Asia comprises, first, the nations on the east, Paphlagonians,
Phrygians, and Lycaonians; then Bithynians, Mysians, and the Epictetus;
besides these, Troas, and Hellespontia; next to these, and situated on
the sea, are the Æolians and Ionians, who are Greeks; the inhabitants of
the remaining portions are Carians and Lycians, and in the inland parts
are Lydians.

We shall speak hereafter of the other nations.

4. The Macedonians obtained possession of Cappadocia after it had been
divided by the Persians into two satrapies, and permitted, partly with
and partly without the consent of the people, the satrapies to be
altered to two kingdoms, one of which they called Cappadocia Proper, and
Cappadocia [CAS. 534] near the Taurus, or Cappadocia the Great; the
other they called Pontus, but according to other writers, Cappadocia on
Pontus.

We are ignorant at present how Cappadocia the Great was at first
distributed; upon the death of Archelaus the king, Cæsar and the senate
decreed that it should be a Roman province. But when the country was
divided in the time of Archelaus and of preceding kings into ten
provinces, they reckoned five near the Taurus, Melitene, Cataonia,
Cilicia, Tyanītis, and Garsaurītis; the remaining five were Laviansene,
Sargarausene, Saravene, Chamanene, Morimene. The Romans afterwards
assigned to the predecessors of Archelaus an eleventh province formed
out of Cilicia, consisting of the country about Castabala and
Cybistra,[1078] extending to Derbe, belonging to Antipater, the robber.
Cilicia Trachea about Elæussa was assigned to Archelaus, and all the
country which served as the haunts of pirates.




CHAPTER II.


1. Melitene resembles Commagene, for the whole of it is planted with
fruit-trees, and is the only part of all Cappadocia which is planted in
this manner. It produces oil, and the wine Monarites, which vies with
the wines of Greece. It is situated opposite to Sophene, having the
river Euphrates flowing between it and Commagene, which borders upon it.
In the country on the other side of the river is Tomisa, a considerable
fortress of the Cappadocians. It was sold to the prince of Sophene for a
hundred talents. Lucullus presented it afterwards as a reward of valour
to the Cappadocian prince for his services in the war against
Mithridates.

2. Cataonia is a plain, wide and hollow,[1079] and produces everything
except evergreen trees. It is surrounded by mountains, and among others
by the Amanus on the side towards the south, a mass separated from the
Cilician Taurus, and also by the Anti-Taurus,[1080] a mass rent off in a
contrary direction. The Amanus extends from Cataonia to Cilicia, and
the Syrian sea towards the west and south. In this intervening space it
comprises the whole of the gulf of Issus, and the plains of the
Cilicians which lie towards the Taurus. But the Anti-Taurus inclines to
the north, and a little also to the east, and then terminates in the
interior of the country.

3.