The
interior
of Africa pre-
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Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
139.
)--II.
Nepos, a commander
who had served under Pompey, and was named by him
consul, A. U. C. 694, a period when Pompey was l>e-
ginning to dread the power and ambition of Cassar.
Afranius, however, performed nothing remarkable at
this particular time, having a distaste for public allairs.
Fourteen years later, when Pompey and Cicsar had
come to an open rupture, Afranius was in Spain, as the
lieutenant of the former, along with Petreius, who held
a similar appointment. Cesar entered the country at
this period, and the two lieutenants, uniting their for-
ces, awaited his approach in an advantageous position
near Ilerda (the modern Lcrida). Cajsar was defeat-
ed in the first action, and two days afterward saw
himself blockaded, as it were, in his very camp, by the
sudden rise of the two rivers between which it was
situate. His genius, however, triumphed over every
obstacle, and he eventually compelled the two lieu-
tenants of Pompey to submit without a second encoun-
ter. They disbanded their troops and returned to It-
aly, after having promised never to bear arms against
Cffisar for the future. Afranius, however, either for-
fetful of his word, or having in some way released
imself from the obligation he had assumed, took part
with Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia, being intrust-
ed with the command of the right wing, although his
capitulation in Spain had laid him open to the charge
of having betrayed the interests of his chief. After the
battle of Thapsus, Afranius and Faustus Sylla moved
along the coast of Africa, with a small body of troops,
in the design of passing over to Spain, and joining the
remains of Pompey's party in that quarter. They were
encountered, however, by Sittius, one of the partisans
of Cffisar, who defeated and made them prisoners. It
was the intention of Sittius to have saved their lives,
but they were both massacred by his soldiers. (Cits. ,
Bell. Civ. , 1, 38. --Ctc. ep. ad Alt. , 1, 18-- Plut. , Vu.
Fomp. --Sueton. , Vtt. Cas. , 3i. --Florus, 4, 2. )-- III.
Potitus, a plebeian, in the reign of Caligula, who, in a
spirit of foolish flattery, bound himself by an oath that
he would depart from existence in case the emperor
recovered from a dangerous malady under which he
was labouring. Caligula was restored to health, and
Potitus compelled to fulfil his oath. (Dio Cass. , 59,
8. --Compare the remarks of Keimar, ad loc, on the
belief prevalent throughout the ancient world that the
life of an individual could be prolonged if another
? ? rould lay down his own in its stead. )
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? >
I
AFRICA.
originally applied by the Romans to the country aroum
Cottage, the first part of the continent with which
thy became acquainted, anil the appellation a said to
hive been derived from a small Carthaginian district
on the northern coast, called frigi. (Ritter, Erdkun-
ie, \, p. 955, 24 ed. ) Hence, even when the name
M become applied to the whole continent, there still
feaained, in Roman geography, the district of Africa
hvpet, oa the Mediterranean coast, corresponding to
tAeaoJern kingdom of Tunis, with part of that of Tnp-
cii. The term Libya, on the other hand, though used
by the Greeks to designate the entire country, became
limited with the Romans to a part merely; and thus
we have with the latter, the region of Libya, extending
along the coast from the Greater Syrtis to Egypt, and
stretching inland to the deserts. --The knowledge
v. iii. . 'u Herodotus possessed of this continent was far
Iran extensive. He considered Africa as terminating
north of the equinoctial line; and, even in these nar-
row limits. Egypt alone, ranking it as a part of Africa
infect, ie clearly described. Jf we exclude Egypt, the
acquaintance possessed by the historian relative to the
other parts of the continent, and which is founded on
the information imparted by others, follows merely
three lines of direction: one proceeds along the Nile,
and reaches probably the limit of modern discoveries
in that quarter; another, leaving the temple and Oasis
of Ammon, loses itself in the great desert; while a
thud advances along the Mediterranean coast as far as
the environs of Carthage. (Malle-Brun, 1, p. 26,
Bnssel* ed. ) The natives of Africa are divided by
Herodotus into two races, the Africans, or, to adopt
(he Greek phraseology, I^ibyans, and the . 'Ethiopians;
one possessing the northern, the other the southern
{art (4, 197). By these appear to be meant the
Moors, and the Nejrroes, or the darker-coloured nations
of the interior. "The common boundary of the Afri-
cans and Ethiopians in ancient times may be placed
at the southern border of the Great Desert. Hanno
found the . Ethiopians in possession of the western
coast, about the parallel of 19? ; and Pliny (5, 31)
places them at five journeys beyond Cenie. At pres-
ent the negroes are not found higher up than the Sen-
egal river, or about 17? , and that only in the inland
pats. (Renncll, Geography of Herodottu, p. 427,
t*nn. ) Nothing, however, can be more indeterminate
than the terms . Ethiopia and /Ethiopian; and it is
certain that many distinct races were included under
the latter denomination. (VuJ. . Ethiopia. ) The whole
of Africa, except where it is joined to Asia, was known
by the ancients in general to be surrounded by the sea;
but of Hs general figure and extension towards the south
they had no accurate knowledge. There is strong rea-
son, however, to believe, that, at an era anterior to the
earliest records of history, the circumnavigation of Af-
rica was accomplished by the Phoenicians in the ser-
vice of Necho, king of Egypt- Herodotus, to whom
we ire indebted for the knowledge of this interesting
fact, speaking of the peninsular figure of the continent
of . Uhra. says (4, 42): "This discovery was first
made by Necho, king of Egypt, as far as we are able
to judge. When he had desisted from opening the
canal that leads from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he
seat certain Phoenicians in ships, with orders to pass
by the Columns of Hercules into the sea that lies to
the north of Africa, and then to return to Egypt.
? ? Tbe*e Phoenicians thereupon set sail from the Red
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? AFRICA.
AFRICA.
the way to India to those whom the monarch should
charge with this commission. Euergetes assented, and
Eudoxus was one of those directed to go on this er-
rand. He sailed with a cargo of various articles calcu-
lated for presents, and brought back in exchange aro-
matics and precious stones. He was disappointed,
however, in the expectations of profit which he had en-
tertained, since the king appropriated all the return-
cargo to himself. After the death of Euergetes, Cleo-
patra, his widow, assumed the reins of government, and
sent Eudoxus on a second voyage to India with a rich-
er supply of merchandise than before. On his return,
he was carried by the winds to the coast of . 'Ethiopia,
where, landing at several points, he conciliated the na-
tives by distributing among them com, wine, and dried
figs, things of which until then they had been ignorant.
He received in exchange water and guides. He noted
down also some words of their language; and found,
moreover, in this quarter, theextremity of a ship's prow,
carved in the shape of a horse's head. This fragment,
he was told, had belonged to a shipwrecked vessel that
came from the west. Having reached Egypt, he found
the son of Cleopatra on the throne, and he was again
despoiled of the fruits of his voyage, being charged
with having converted many things to his own use.
As regards the fragment of the shipwrecked vessel
brought home with him, he exposed it in the market-
place for the examination of pilots and masters of ves-
sels, who informed him that it must have belonged to
a ship from Gades (Cadiz). The grounds of their be-
lief were as follows: the traders of Gades, according
to them, had large vessels; but the less wealthy, small-
er ones, which they called horses, from the ornament
on their prows, and which they used in lishing along
the coasts of Mauritania as far as the river Lixus.
Some shipmasters even recognized the fragment as hav-
ing belonged to a certain vessel of this class, which,
with many others, had attempted to advance beyond
the Lixus, and had never after been heard of. From
these statements Eudoxus conceived the possibility of
circumnavigating Africa. He returned home, disposed
of all his effects, and put to sea again with the money
thus obtained, intending to attempt the enterprise in
question. Having visited Dicearchia, Massilia, and
other commercial cities, he everywhere announced his
project, and collected funds and adventurers. He was
at length enabled to equip one large and two small ves-
sels, well-stored with provisions and merchandise, man-
ned chiefly by volunteers, and carrying, moreover, a
pompous train of artisans, physicians, and young slaves
skilled in music. Having set sail, he wascarried on his
way at first by favourable breezes from the west. The
crews, however, became fatigued, and he was compell-
ed, though reluctantly, to keep nearer the shore, and
soon experienced the disaster which he had dreaded,
his ship grounding on a sandbank. As the vessel did
not immediately go to pieces, he was enabled to save
the cargo and great part of her timbers. With the
latter he constructed another vessel of the size of one
of fifty oars. Resuming his route, he came to a part
inhabited by nations who spoke the same language, as
he thought, with those on the eastern coast whom he
had visited in his second voyage from India, and of
whose tongue he had noted down some words. Hence
he inferred that these were a part of the great /Ethio-
pian race. The smallness of his vessels, however, in-
duced him at length to return, and he remarked on his
? ? way back a deserted island, well supplied with wood
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? aJqnteioiarasthe Carthaginian navigator had done,
-lit us now turn our attention, fora moment, to the
intniorofthe country. "We have already alluded in
ffncral terms to the knowledge possessed by Herodo-
lu of Africa. To what ? we have stated on this sub-
jot nay be added the following curious narrative
? kith we receive front the historian himself (2, 32).
"I was also informed," Bays Herodotus, '? by some
Cyreneans, that in a journey they took to the oracle of
Ammon, they had conferred with Etearehus, king of
the Ammonians; and that, among other things, dis-
coursing with him concerning the sources of the Nile,
as of a thins altogether unknown, Etearchus acquaint-
ed them, that certain Nasamoncs, a nation of Libya in-
habiting tfce Syrtis, and a tract of land of no great ex-
tent eastward of the Syrtis, came into his country, and,
beingasked by him if they had learned anything touch-
la; the Libyan deserts, answered that some petulant
tjunj men, sons to diners persons of great power
among them, had, after many extravagant actions, re-
? olTcJ to send five of their number to the coast of
Libya, to see if they could make any farther discov-
eries than others had done. The young men chosen
by their companions to make this expedition, having
famished themselves with -water and other necessary
provisions, first passed through the inhabited country;
<<nd when they had likewise traversed that region which
abounds in wild beasts, they entered the deserts, ma-
king their way towards the west. A fter they had trav-
elled many days through the sands, they at length saw
tome trees growing in a plain, and they approached,
mdbeean to gather the fruit which was on them ; and
while tkey were gathering, several little men, less than
men of middle size, came up, and, having seized them,
carried them away. The Nasamones did not at all
understand what they said, neither did they understand
the speech of the Nasamones. However, they conduct-
ed them over vast morasses to acity built on a great river
running from the west to the east, and abounding in
crocodiles; where the Nasamones found all the inhab-
itants black, and of no larger size than their guides.
To this relation Etearchus added, as the Cyreneans
assured me, that the Nasamones returned safe to their
own country, and that the men to whom they had thus
come were all enchanters. " (Compare the remarks
under the article Nasamones. ) Rennell (Geogr. of
Herod. , p. 432) observes, that it is extremely probable
that the river seen by the Nasamones was that which,
according to the present state of our geography, is
known to pass by Tombuctoo, and thence eastward
through the centre of Africa (in effect, the river com-
monly known by the name of Niger). What is called
the inhabited country in this narrative, he makes the
same with the modern Fe-zzan, in which also he finds
the sandy and desert region traversed by the Nasa-
mones. It appears certain to him, as well as to Larcher,
that the city in question was the modem Tombuctoo.
Malte-Brun^ however (1, p. 28, Brussels e/l. ), thinks it
impossible that Tombuctoo can be the place alluded
to, since it is separated from the country of the Nasa-
raones by so many deserts, rivers, and mountains. --In
the days of Strabo, the knowledge possessed by the
ancients of Africa was little, if at all, improved. The
Mediterranean coast and the banks of the Nile were
the only ports frequented by the Greeks. Their opin-
ion respecting the continent itself was that it formed
a trapezium, or else that the coast from the Columns
of Hercoles to Pelasium might be considered as the
base of a right-angled triangle (Strabo, 17, p. 825, ed.
? ? dumb), of which the Nile formed the perpendicular
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? AFRICA.
AFRICA.
? to give rise, one thing is sufficiently evident, that the
Romans knew only a third part of Africa. Pliny,
moreover, gives us an account of two Roman expedi-
tions into the interior of Africa. The first is that of
Suetonius PauUnus. (Plin. , 5, 1. ) This officer, hav-
ing set out from the river Lixus with some Roman
troops, arrived in ten days at Mount Atlas, passed over
some miles of the chain, and met, in a desert of black
sand, with a river called Ger. This appears to have
been the Gyr of Segelmessa. The second expedition
was that of Cornelius Balbus. "Wo have subdued,"
says Pliny (5, 5), "the nation of the Phazanii, together
with their cities Alcle and Cillaba: and likewise Cyd-
amus. From these a chain of mountains, called the
Black by reason of their colour, extends in a direction
from east to west. Then come deserts, and afterward
Matclgs, a town of the Garamantcs, the celebrated
fountain of Debris, whose waters are hot from midday
to midnight, and cold from midnight to midday; and
also Garama, the capital of the nation. All these
countries have been subjugated by the Roman arms,
and over them did Cornelius Balbus triumph. " Pliny
then enumerates a large crowd of cities and tribes,
whose names were said to have adorned' the triumph.
Maitc-Brun, after a fair discussion of this subject, is
of opinion that Balbus must have penetrated as far as
Bornou and Dongala, which appear to coincide with
the Boin and Daunagi of Pliny. The black mountains
were probably those of Tibesti. (lHalle-Brun, 1, p.
85, Brussels ed. )--Marinus of Tyre, who came before
Ptolemy, pretended to have read the itinerary of a Ro-
man expedition under Septimius Flaccus and Julius
Matcrnus. (Plot. , 1, 8, seqq. ) These officers set
out from Leptis Magna for Garama, the capital of the
Garamantes, which they found to be 5400 stadia from
the former city. Septimius, after this, marched di-
rectly south for the space of three months, and came
to a country called Agyzimba, inhabited by negroes.
Marinus, after some reasoning, fixes the position of
the country at 24? south of the equator. A strict
application of the laws of historical criticism will con-
sign to the regions of fable this Roman expedition, un-
known even to the Romans themselves. How can we
possibly admit, that a general executed a march more
astonishing than even that of Alexander, and that no
contemporary writer has preserved the least mention
of it! At what epoch, or under what reign, are we
to place this event! How, moreover, could an army,
in three months, traverse a space equal to eleven hun-
dred French leagues \ (Malle-Brun, 1, p. 128, Brus-
sels ed. )--The form of Africa was totally changed by
Ptolemy. We have seen that Strabo and Pliny re-
garded this part of the world as an island, terminating
within the equinoctial line. The Atlantic Ocean was
thought to join the Indian Sea under the torrid zone,
the heats of wjiich were regarded as the most powerful
barrier to the circumnavigation of Africa. Ptolemy,
who did not admit the communication of the Atlantic
with the Erythrean or Indian Sea, thought, on the
contrary, that the western coast of Africa, after having
formed a gulf of moderate depth, which he calls Hes-
perkus ('EoTtptKoc), extended indefinitely between
south and west, while he believed that the eastern
coast, after Cape Prasum, proceeded to join the coast
of Asia below Catigara. (Ptol. . 7, 3. ) This opinion,
which made the Atlantic and Indian Oceans only large
basins, separated the one from the other, had been
? ? supported by Hipparchus.
The interior of Africa pre-
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? AGAMEMNON.
KM the shape of any animal, or even the form of the
human visage; how to produce pomegranates without
<<wk figs of two colours, &c. (SckoU, Hut. Lit.
Gr. . vA. 4, p. 305, and S, 269. -- Biographic Vvxcer-
Kfc,tol. 1, p. 274. >--II. The surname of the Scipios,
(ran their victories in Africa over the Carthaginians.
(1'iiScipio. )--III. , IV. , V. (Vtd. Supplement. )
AOACLYTOS). Vtd. Supplement.
AGILUS. Vid. Supplement.
ABAKEDK. Vid. Supplement.
ASJLXKDEB and TKOPHONIOS, two architects and
brothers, who built the temple of Apollo at Delphi,
when erected for the fourth time. (Bockk, ad Find. ,
Fngn. . vot 3, p. 67O. ) According to Plutarch, they
were informed by the god, when asking him for a rec-
ompense, that they would receive one on the seventh
day from that time, and were ordered to spend the in-
tervening period in festive indulgence. They did HO,
and on the seventh night were found dead in their beds.
if Int. , CoHioL ad Ap. Op. , ed. Rd>>kc, vol. 6, p. 413,
if,:) Cicero relates the same story, but makes the
two brothers ask Apollo for that which was best for
man (? ? quod csset optimum homini," where Plutarch
merely has airciv fitaOov), and also gives the prescri-
bed time as three days. ( CV . Tusc. ijueut. , 1, 47. )
A very different version, however, is found in Pausa-
nias. This writer informs us, that Agamcdes and Tro-
phonius were the sons of Erginus, monarch of Orchom-
enas. or rather that Trophonius was the son of Apol-
lo, and Agamedea of the king. When they had at-
tained to manhood, they became very skilful in build-
ing temple* for the gods, and palaces for kings.
Among other labours, they constructed a temple for
Apollo at Delphi, and a. treasury for Hyrieus. (Vid.
tit/rims. ) In the wall of this building they placed a
? tone in such a manner that they couid take it out
whenever they pleased; and, in consequence of this,
they carried away from time to tune portions of the
deposited treasure. Agamedes was at last caught in
a trap placed BO as to secure the robber, whereupon
bis brother cat off his head in order to prevent discov-
er;. After this, Trophonius was swallowed up in an
opening of the earth, in the grove of Lebedea. The
whole story appears to wear a figurative character.
Ercrinns u the protector of labour (epyivor, Ipyov);
Trophonius is the "nouriaher" (rpeijiu, rpoQo? ); and
Agamedes is the " very prudent one" (uyav and /tf/dof).
Trophonius, even after he has descended to the lower
world, makes bis voice to be heard from those profound
depth'- He rules over the powers of the abyss, be-
come* Jupiter-Trophonius, and gives counsel to those
who have the courage to descend into the cave at Le-
bedea. He is Hades, the wise and good deity, as
Plato calls him (P/uedan, <J 68). He is therefore, also,
the supreme intelligence that rules in the lower world,
which serves as a guide to the souls of the departed,
and accompanies them in their migrations. In the
name Hyrieus, moreover, we see "a keeper of bees,"
a ? ? bee-master" ('Tptcvc, from fpav, vpiov, "a bee-
hive"), and the bee was connected with the mysteries
of Ceres, and also the transmigration of souls. There
is, moreover, a strong analogy between the story as
here told, and that related of the Egyptian monarch
Khampsinitus. Both fables appear to be allegorical
illustrations, connected with agriculture. (Creuzer,
SymJnltk, vol. 2, p. 381. --Guigniaut, vol. 2, p. 330 )
AGAMEMNON, king of Mycene and commander of
the Grecian forces against Troy. He was brother to
? ? Jtfenelaus, and was, according to most authorities, the
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? AGA
AGA
ing to this point of the case, Atreus, who, as eldest
son, had succeeded Pelops, left on his deathbed Aga-
memnon and Menelaus, still under age, to the guard-
ianship of his brother Thyestes, who resigned the king-
lorn to his nephews when they had reached maturity.
The variations introduced into this story, therefore,
would seem to be the work of later poets, especially
of the Tragic writers, from whom the grammarians
and scholiasts borrowed. (Heyne, ad II. , 2, v. 106. --
Suppl. el Emend. -- vol. 4, p. 685. ) With respect
to the extent of Agamemnon's sway, we arc informed
by Homer (II. , 2, 108) that he ruled over many isl-"
ands and over all Argos (noAXyeri vqootoi Kai 'Apye'i
iravri). By Argos appears to be here meant, not the
city of that name, for that was under the sway of Dio-
mede, but a large portion of the Peloponnesus, in-
cluding particularly the cities of Mycense and Tiryns.
(Heyne, Exeurs. , 1, ad H. , 2. ) The islands to which
the poet alludes can hardly be those of the Sinus Ar-
golicus, which are few in number and small. Homer
himself says, that Agamemnon possessed the most
powerful fleet, and from this it would appear that he
held many islands under his sway, though we are un-
acquainted with their names. (Heyne, I. c. --Thucyd. ,
1, 6. )--Thus much for Agamemnon, on the supposi-
t. on that such an individual once actually existed. If
we follow, however, the theory advocated by Hermann
and others, and make not only the Trojan war itself to
have boen originally a mere allegory, but the names
of the leading personages to be also allegorical, and
indicative of their respective stations or characters,
Agamemnon becomes the "permanent," or "general
leader of the host" (uyu and fii/ivu), the termination
uv strengthening the idea implied by the two compo-
nent words from which the appellation is derived, and
denoting collection or aggregation. The name Aga-
memnon is als>> connected with the early religion of
Greece, for we find mention made of a Zeic 'Aya/tiu-
vuv. (Mcurs. , Miscell. Lacon. , 1,4. --Eustath. ad II. ,
2, p. 168. -- Consult Hermann und Creuzer, Briefe
iibcr Horn, und Hes. , p. 20, and Creuzer, Symbolik,
vol. 2, p. 450. )
Aoamemnonius, an epithet applied to Orestes, a son
of Agamemnon. (Virg. , Mn. , 4, v. 471. )
Aganippe, a celebrated fountain of Bceotia, on
Mount Helicon. The grove of the Muses stood on
the summit of the mountain, and a little below was
Aganippe. The source Hippocrenc was some dis-
tance above. These two springs supplied the small
rivers Olmius and Permessus, which, after uniting their
waters, flowed into the Copaic lake near Haliartus.
(Slrabo, 407 and 411. ) Pausanias (9, 31) calls the
former I-minus. Aganippe was sacred to the Muses,
who from it were called Aganippides. Ovid (Fait. , 5,
7) has the expression u fantes Aganippidos Hippo-
crenes," whence some arc led to imagine that he makes
Aganippe and Hippocrene the same. This, however,
is incorrect: the epithet Aganippis, as used by the
poet, being equivalent here merely to "Musis sacra. "
--II. A nymph of the fountain.
Agapenor, the son of Anccua, and grandson of Ly-
curgus, who led the Arcadian forces in the expedition
against Troy, and, after the fall of that city, was car-
ried by a storm, on his return home, to the island of
Cyprus, where he founded the city of Paphos.
Aoapetus. Vid. Supplement.
Agar, a town of Africa Propria, in the district of
? ? Byzacium, and probably not far from Zclla.
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? r
A GA
Hadm in his edition of the minor Greek geographers.
(SiUl. Hut. Lit. Gr. , vol. 3, p. 391. )--II. A native
rf Samoa, whose TIcfKTttca is cited by Plutarch in his
Pmllek He is otherwise entirely unknown, and
iitnce some have supposed Inm to be identical with
Ajaihitchides of Cnidus, and the HepaiKu to be merely
a section of the work on Asia by this writer. (SeltaU.
Hoi. Lilt. Gr. , I. c. )
A. vniMu-Hrs, I. an Athenian artist, mentioned by
Yitninui (lib. 7. jtra:f. ), and said by him to have in-
Ttmed scene-painting. He was contemporary with
. Eschylus, and prepared the scenery and decorations
fot his theatre. Sillig (Z>ic/. Art. , >>. r. ) maintains,
that the words of Vitruvius, in the passage just referred
to. namely, " tcertam fecit,'''' merely mean, that Aga-
tharchns constructed a stage for . 'Eschylus. since, ac-
cording to Aristotle (foe/. , 4), Sophocles first brought
in the decorations of scenery (aicrrvaypafyia}. But the
language of Vitruvius, taken in connection with what
follows, evidently refers to perspective and sccne-
Daintin? . and Bentley also understands them in this
? east. "(Diss. Phal.
who had served under Pompey, and was named by him
consul, A. U. C. 694, a period when Pompey was l>e-
ginning to dread the power and ambition of Cassar.
Afranius, however, performed nothing remarkable at
this particular time, having a distaste for public allairs.
Fourteen years later, when Pompey and Cicsar had
come to an open rupture, Afranius was in Spain, as the
lieutenant of the former, along with Petreius, who held
a similar appointment. Cesar entered the country at
this period, and the two lieutenants, uniting their for-
ces, awaited his approach in an advantageous position
near Ilerda (the modern Lcrida). Cajsar was defeat-
ed in the first action, and two days afterward saw
himself blockaded, as it were, in his very camp, by the
sudden rise of the two rivers between which it was
situate. His genius, however, triumphed over every
obstacle, and he eventually compelled the two lieu-
tenants of Pompey to submit without a second encoun-
ter. They disbanded their troops and returned to It-
aly, after having promised never to bear arms against
Cffisar for the future. Afranius, however, either for-
fetful of his word, or having in some way released
imself from the obligation he had assumed, took part
with Pompey in the battle of Pharsalia, being intrust-
ed with the command of the right wing, although his
capitulation in Spain had laid him open to the charge
of having betrayed the interests of his chief. After the
battle of Thapsus, Afranius and Faustus Sylla moved
along the coast of Africa, with a small body of troops,
in the design of passing over to Spain, and joining the
remains of Pompey's party in that quarter. They were
encountered, however, by Sittius, one of the partisans
of Cffisar, who defeated and made them prisoners. It
was the intention of Sittius to have saved their lives,
but they were both massacred by his soldiers. (Cits. ,
Bell. Civ. , 1, 38. --Ctc. ep. ad Alt. , 1, 18-- Plut. , Vu.
Fomp. --Sueton. , Vtt. Cas. , 3i. --Florus, 4, 2. )-- III.
Potitus, a plebeian, in the reign of Caligula, who, in a
spirit of foolish flattery, bound himself by an oath that
he would depart from existence in case the emperor
recovered from a dangerous malady under which he
was labouring. Caligula was restored to health, and
Potitus compelled to fulfil his oath. (Dio Cass. , 59,
8. --Compare the remarks of Keimar, ad loc, on the
belief prevalent throughout the ancient world that the
life of an individual could be prolonged if another
? ? rould lay down his own in its stead. )
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? >
I
AFRICA.
originally applied by the Romans to the country aroum
Cottage, the first part of the continent with which
thy became acquainted, anil the appellation a said to
hive been derived from a small Carthaginian district
on the northern coast, called frigi. (Ritter, Erdkun-
ie, \, p. 955, 24 ed. ) Hence, even when the name
M become applied to the whole continent, there still
feaained, in Roman geography, the district of Africa
hvpet, oa the Mediterranean coast, corresponding to
tAeaoJern kingdom of Tunis, with part of that of Tnp-
cii. The term Libya, on the other hand, though used
by the Greeks to designate the entire country, became
limited with the Romans to a part merely; and thus
we have with the latter, the region of Libya, extending
along the coast from the Greater Syrtis to Egypt, and
stretching inland to the deserts. --The knowledge
v. iii. . 'u Herodotus possessed of this continent was far
Iran extensive. He considered Africa as terminating
north of the equinoctial line; and, even in these nar-
row limits. Egypt alone, ranking it as a part of Africa
infect, ie clearly described. Jf we exclude Egypt, the
acquaintance possessed by the historian relative to the
other parts of the continent, and which is founded on
the information imparted by others, follows merely
three lines of direction: one proceeds along the Nile,
and reaches probably the limit of modern discoveries
in that quarter; another, leaving the temple and Oasis
of Ammon, loses itself in the great desert; while a
thud advances along the Mediterranean coast as far as
the environs of Carthage. (Malle-Brun, 1, p. 26,
Bnssel* ed. ) The natives of Africa are divided by
Herodotus into two races, the Africans, or, to adopt
(he Greek phraseology, I^ibyans, and the . 'Ethiopians;
one possessing the northern, the other the southern
{art (4, 197). By these appear to be meant the
Moors, and the Nejrroes, or the darker-coloured nations
of the interior. "The common boundary of the Afri-
cans and Ethiopians in ancient times may be placed
at the southern border of the Great Desert. Hanno
found the . Ethiopians in possession of the western
coast, about the parallel of 19? ; and Pliny (5, 31)
places them at five journeys beyond Cenie. At pres-
ent the negroes are not found higher up than the Sen-
egal river, or about 17? , and that only in the inland
pats. (Renncll, Geography of Herodottu, p. 427,
t*nn. ) Nothing, however, can be more indeterminate
than the terms . Ethiopia and /Ethiopian; and it is
certain that many distinct races were included under
the latter denomination. (VuJ. . Ethiopia. ) The whole
of Africa, except where it is joined to Asia, was known
by the ancients in general to be surrounded by the sea;
but of Hs general figure and extension towards the south
they had no accurate knowledge. There is strong rea-
son, however, to believe, that, at an era anterior to the
earliest records of history, the circumnavigation of Af-
rica was accomplished by the Phoenicians in the ser-
vice of Necho, king of Egypt- Herodotus, to whom
we ire indebted for the knowledge of this interesting
fact, speaking of the peninsular figure of the continent
of . Uhra. says (4, 42): "This discovery was first
made by Necho, king of Egypt, as far as we are able
to judge. When he had desisted from opening the
canal that leads from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf, he
seat certain Phoenicians in ships, with orders to pass
by the Columns of Hercules into the sea that lies to
the north of Africa, and then to return to Egypt.
? ? Tbe*e Phoenicians thereupon set sail from the Red
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? AFRICA.
AFRICA.
the way to India to those whom the monarch should
charge with this commission. Euergetes assented, and
Eudoxus was one of those directed to go on this er-
rand. He sailed with a cargo of various articles calcu-
lated for presents, and brought back in exchange aro-
matics and precious stones. He was disappointed,
however, in the expectations of profit which he had en-
tertained, since the king appropriated all the return-
cargo to himself. After the death of Euergetes, Cleo-
patra, his widow, assumed the reins of government, and
sent Eudoxus on a second voyage to India with a rich-
er supply of merchandise than before. On his return,
he was carried by the winds to the coast of . 'Ethiopia,
where, landing at several points, he conciliated the na-
tives by distributing among them com, wine, and dried
figs, things of which until then they had been ignorant.
He received in exchange water and guides. He noted
down also some words of their language; and found,
moreover, in this quarter, theextremity of a ship's prow,
carved in the shape of a horse's head. This fragment,
he was told, had belonged to a shipwrecked vessel that
came from the west. Having reached Egypt, he found
the son of Cleopatra on the throne, and he was again
despoiled of the fruits of his voyage, being charged
with having converted many things to his own use.
As regards the fragment of the shipwrecked vessel
brought home with him, he exposed it in the market-
place for the examination of pilots and masters of ves-
sels, who informed him that it must have belonged to
a ship from Gades (Cadiz). The grounds of their be-
lief were as follows: the traders of Gades, according
to them, had large vessels; but the less wealthy, small-
er ones, which they called horses, from the ornament
on their prows, and which they used in lishing along
the coasts of Mauritania as far as the river Lixus.
Some shipmasters even recognized the fragment as hav-
ing belonged to a certain vessel of this class, which,
with many others, had attempted to advance beyond
the Lixus, and had never after been heard of. From
these statements Eudoxus conceived the possibility of
circumnavigating Africa. He returned home, disposed
of all his effects, and put to sea again with the money
thus obtained, intending to attempt the enterprise in
question. Having visited Dicearchia, Massilia, and
other commercial cities, he everywhere announced his
project, and collected funds and adventurers. He was
at length enabled to equip one large and two small ves-
sels, well-stored with provisions and merchandise, man-
ned chiefly by volunteers, and carrying, moreover, a
pompous train of artisans, physicians, and young slaves
skilled in music. Having set sail, he wascarried on his
way at first by favourable breezes from the west. The
crews, however, became fatigued, and he was compell-
ed, though reluctantly, to keep nearer the shore, and
soon experienced the disaster which he had dreaded,
his ship grounding on a sandbank. As the vessel did
not immediately go to pieces, he was enabled to save
the cargo and great part of her timbers. With the
latter he constructed another vessel of the size of one
of fifty oars. Resuming his route, he came to a part
inhabited by nations who spoke the same language, as
he thought, with those on the eastern coast whom he
had visited in his second voyage from India, and of
whose tongue he had noted down some words. Hence
he inferred that these were a part of the great /Ethio-
pian race. The smallness of his vessels, however, in-
duced him at length to return, and he remarked on his
? ? way back a deserted island, well supplied with wood
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? aJqnteioiarasthe Carthaginian navigator had done,
-lit us now turn our attention, fora moment, to the
intniorofthe country. "We have already alluded in
ffncral terms to the knowledge possessed by Herodo-
lu of Africa. To what ? we have stated on this sub-
jot nay be added the following curious narrative
? kith we receive front the historian himself (2, 32).
"I was also informed," Bays Herodotus, '? by some
Cyreneans, that in a journey they took to the oracle of
Ammon, they had conferred with Etearehus, king of
the Ammonians; and that, among other things, dis-
coursing with him concerning the sources of the Nile,
as of a thins altogether unknown, Etearchus acquaint-
ed them, that certain Nasamoncs, a nation of Libya in-
habiting tfce Syrtis, and a tract of land of no great ex-
tent eastward of the Syrtis, came into his country, and,
beingasked by him if they had learned anything touch-
la; the Libyan deserts, answered that some petulant
tjunj men, sons to diners persons of great power
among them, had, after many extravagant actions, re-
? olTcJ to send five of their number to the coast of
Libya, to see if they could make any farther discov-
eries than others had done. The young men chosen
by their companions to make this expedition, having
famished themselves with -water and other necessary
provisions, first passed through the inhabited country;
<<nd when they had likewise traversed that region which
abounds in wild beasts, they entered the deserts, ma-
king their way towards the west. A fter they had trav-
elled many days through the sands, they at length saw
tome trees growing in a plain, and they approached,
mdbeean to gather the fruit which was on them ; and
while tkey were gathering, several little men, less than
men of middle size, came up, and, having seized them,
carried them away. The Nasamones did not at all
understand what they said, neither did they understand
the speech of the Nasamones. However, they conduct-
ed them over vast morasses to acity built on a great river
running from the west to the east, and abounding in
crocodiles; where the Nasamones found all the inhab-
itants black, and of no larger size than their guides.
To this relation Etearchus added, as the Cyreneans
assured me, that the Nasamones returned safe to their
own country, and that the men to whom they had thus
come were all enchanters. " (Compare the remarks
under the article Nasamones. ) Rennell (Geogr. of
Herod. , p. 432) observes, that it is extremely probable
that the river seen by the Nasamones was that which,
according to the present state of our geography, is
known to pass by Tombuctoo, and thence eastward
through the centre of Africa (in effect, the river com-
monly known by the name of Niger). What is called
the inhabited country in this narrative, he makes the
same with the modern Fe-zzan, in which also he finds
the sandy and desert region traversed by the Nasa-
mones. It appears certain to him, as well as to Larcher,
that the city in question was the modem Tombuctoo.
Malte-Brun^ however (1, p. 28, Brussels e/l. ), thinks it
impossible that Tombuctoo can be the place alluded
to, since it is separated from the country of the Nasa-
raones by so many deserts, rivers, and mountains. --In
the days of Strabo, the knowledge possessed by the
ancients of Africa was little, if at all, improved. The
Mediterranean coast and the banks of the Nile were
the only ports frequented by the Greeks. Their opin-
ion respecting the continent itself was that it formed
a trapezium, or else that the coast from the Columns
of Hercoles to Pelasium might be considered as the
base of a right-angled triangle (Strabo, 17, p. 825, ed.
? ? dumb), of which the Nile formed the perpendicular
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? AFRICA.
AFRICA.
? to give rise, one thing is sufficiently evident, that the
Romans knew only a third part of Africa. Pliny,
moreover, gives us an account of two Roman expedi-
tions into the interior of Africa. The first is that of
Suetonius PauUnus. (Plin. , 5, 1. ) This officer, hav-
ing set out from the river Lixus with some Roman
troops, arrived in ten days at Mount Atlas, passed over
some miles of the chain, and met, in a desert of black
sand, with a river called Ger. This appears to have
been the Gyr of Segelmessa. The second expedition
was that of Cornelius Balbus. "Wo have subdued,"
says Pliny (5, 5), "the nation of the Phazanii, together
with their cities Alcle and Cillaba: and likewise Cyd-
amus. From these a chain of mountains, called the
Black by reason of their colour, extends in a direction
from east to west. Then come deserts, and afterward
Matclgs, a town of the Garamantcs, the celebrated
fountain of Debris, whose waters are hot from midday
to midnight, and cold from midnight to midday; and
also Garama, the capital of the nation. All these
countries have been subjugated by the Roman arms,
and over them did Cornelius Balbus triumph. " Pliny
then enumerates a large crowd of cities and tribes,
whose names were said to have adorned' the triumph.
Maitc-Brun, after a fair discussion of this subject, is
of opinion that Balbus must have penetrated as far as
Bornou and Dongala, which appear to coincide with
the Boin and Daunagi of Pliny. The black mountains
were probably those of Tibesti. (lHalle-Brun, 1, p.
85, Brussels ed. )--Marinus of Tyre, who came before
Ptolemy, pretended to have read the itinerary of a Ro-
man expedition under Septimius Flaccus and Julius
Matcrnus. (Plot. , 1, 8, seqq. ) These officers set
out from Leptis Magna for Garama, the capital of the
Garamantes, which they found to be 5400 stadia from
the former city. Septimius, after this, marched di-
rectly south for the space of three months, and came
to a country called Agyzimba, inhabited by negroes.
Marinus, after some reasoning, fixes the position of
the country at 24? south of the equator. A strict
application of the laws of historical criticism will con-
sign to the regions of fable this Roman expedition, un-
known even to the Romans themselves. How can we
possibly admit, that a general executed a march more
astonishing than even that of Alexander, and that no
contemporary writer has preserved the least mention
of it! At what epoch, or under what reign, are we
to place this event! How, moreover, could an army,
in three months, traverse a space equal to eleven hun-
dred French leagues \ (Malle-Brun, 1, p. 128, Brus-
sels ed. )--The form of Africa was totally changed by
Ptolemy. We have seen that Strabo and Pliny re-
garded this part of the world as an island, terminating
within the equinoctial line. The Atlantic Ocean was
thought to join the Indian Sea under the torrid zone,
the heats of wjiich were regarded as the most powerful
barrier to the circumnavigation of Africa. Ptolemy,
who did not admit the communication of the Atlantic
with the Erythrean or Indian Sea, thought, on the
contrary, that the western coast of Africa, after having
formed a gulf of moderate depth, which he calls Hes-
perkus ('EoTtptKoc), extended indefinitely between
south and west, while he believed that the eastern
coast, after Cape Prasum, proceeded to join the coast
of Asia below Catigara. (Ptol. . 7, 3. ) This opinion,
which made the Atlantic and Indian Oceans only large
basins, separated the one from the other, had been
? ? supported by Hipparchus.
The interior of Africa pre-
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? AGAMEMNON.
KM the shape of any animal, or even the form of the
human visage; how to produce pomegranates without
<<wk figs of two colours, &c. (SckoU, Hut. Lit.
Gr. . vA. 4, p. 305, and S, 269. -- Biographic Vvxcer-
Kfc,tol. 1, p. 274. >--II. The surname of the Scipios,
(ran their victories in Africa over the Carthaginians.
(1'iiScipio. )--III. , IV. , V. (Vtd. Supplement. )
AOACLYTOS). Vtd. Supplement.
AGILUS. Vid. Supplement.
ABAKEDK. Vid. Supplement.
ASJLXKDEB and TKOPHONIOS, two architects and
brothers, who built the temple of Apollo at Delphi,
when erected for the fourth time. (Bockk, ad Find. ,
Fngn. . vot 3, p. 67O. ) According to Plutarch, they
were informed by the god, when asking him for a rec-
ompense, that they would receive one on the seventh
day from that time, and were ordered to spend the in-
tervening period in festive indulgence. They did HO,
and on the seventh night were found dead in their beds.
if Int. , CoHioL ad Ap. Op. , ed. Rd>>kc, vol. 6, p. 413,
if,:) Cicero relates the same story, but makes the
two brothers ask Apollo for that which was best for
man (? ? quod csset optimum homini," where Plutarch
merely has airciv fitaOov), and also gives the prescri-
bed time as three days. ( CV . Tusc. ijueut. , 1, 47. )
A very different version, however, is found in Pausa-
nias. This writer informs us, that Agamcdes and Tro-
phonius were the sons of Erginus, monarch of Orchom-
enas. or rather that Trophonius was the son of Apol-
lo, and Agamedea of the king. When they had at-
tained to manhood, they became very skilful in build-
ing temple* for the gods, and palaces for kings.
Among other labours, they constructed a temple for
Apollo at Delphi, and a. treasury for Hyrieus. (Vid.
tit/rims. ) In the wall of this building they placed a
? tone in such a manner that they couid take it out
whenever they pleased; and, in consequence of this,
they carried away from time to tune portions of the
deposited treasure. Agamedes was at last caught in
a trap placed BO as to secure the robber, whereupon
bis brother cat off his head in order to prevent discov-
er;. After this, Trophonius was swallowed up in an
opening of the earth, in the grove of Lebedea. The
whole story appears to wear a figurative character.
Ercrinns u the protector of labour (epyivor, Ipyov);
Trophonius is the "nouriaher" (rpeijiu, rpoQo? ); and
Agamedes is the " very prudent one" (uyav and /tf/dof).
Trophonius, even after he has descended to the lower
world, makes bis voice to be heard from those profound
depth'- He rules over the powers of the abyss, be-
come* Jupiter-Trophonius, and gives counsel to those
who have the courage to descend into the cave at Le-
bedea. He is Hades, the wise and good deity, as
Plato calls him (P/uedan, <J 68). He is therefore, also,
the supreme intelligence that rules in the lower world,
which serves as a guide to the souls of the departed,
and accompanies them in their migrations. In the
name Hyrieus, moreover, we see "a keeper of bees,"
a ? ? bee-master" ('Tptcvc, from fpav, vpiov, "a bee-
hive"), and the bee was connected with the mysteries
of Ceres, and also the transmigration of souls. There
is, moreover, a strong analogy between the story as
here told, and that related of the Egyptian monarch
Khampsinitus. Both fables appear to be allegorical
illustrations, connected with agriculture. (Creuzer,
SymJnltk, vol. 2, p. 381. --Guigniaut, vol. 2, p. 330 )
AGAMEMNON, king of Mycene and commander of
the Grecian forces against Troy. He was brother to
? ? Jtfenelaus, and was, according to most authorities, the
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? AGA
AGA
ing to this point of the case, Atreus, who, as eldest
son, had succeeded Pelops, left on his deathbed Aga-
memnon and Menelaus, still under age, to the guard-
ianship of his brother Thyestes, who resigned the king-
lorn to his nephews when they had reached maturity.
The variations introduced into this story, therefore,
would seem to be the work of later poets, especially
of the Tragic writers, from whom the grammarians
and scholiasts borrowed. (Heyne, ad II. , 2, v. 106. --
Suppl. el Emend. -- vol. 4, p. 685. ) With respect
to the extent of Agamemnon's sway, we arc informed
by Homer (II. , 2, 108) that he ruled over many isl-"
ands and over all Argos (noAXyeri vqootoi Kai 'Apye'i
iravri). By Argos appears to be here meant, not the
city of that name, for that was under the sway of Dio-
mede, but a large portion of the Peloponnesus, in-
cluding particularly the cities of Mycense and Tiryns.
(Heyne, Exeurs. , 1, ad H. , 2. ) The islands to which
the poet alludes can hardly be those of the Sinus Ar-
golicus, which are few in number and small. Homer
himself says, that Agamemnon possessed the most
powerful fleet, and from this it would appear that he
held many islands under his sway, though we are un-
acquainted with their names. (Heyne, I. c. --Thucyd. ,
1, 6. )--Thus much for Agamemnon, on the supposi-
t. on that such an individual once actually existed. If
we follow, however, the theory advocated by Hermann
and others, and make not only the Trojan war itself to
have boen originally a mere allegory, but the names
of the leading personages to be also allegorical, and
indicative of their respective stations or characters,
Agamemnon becomes the "permanent," or "general
leader of the host" (uyu and fii/ivu), the termination
uv strengthening the idea implied by the two compo-
nent words from which the appellation is derived, and
denoting collection or aggregation. The name Aga-
memnon is als>> connected with the early religion of
Greece, for we find mention made of a Zeic 'Aya/tiu-
vuv. (Mcurs. , Miscell. Lacon. , 1,4. --Eustath. ad II. ,
2, p. 168. -- Consult Hermann und Creuzer, Briefe
iibcr Horn, und Hes. , p. 20, and Creuzer, Symbolik,
vol. 2, p. 450. )
Aoamemnonius, an epithet applied to Orestes, a son
of Agamemnon. (Virg. , Mn. , 4, v. 471. )
Aganippe, a celebrated fountain of Bceotia, on
Mount Helicon. The grove of the Muses stood on
the summit of the mountain, and a little below was
Aganippe. The source Hippocrenc was some dis-
tance above. These two springs supplied the small
rivers Olmius and Permessus, which, after uniting their
waters, flowed into the Copaic lake near Haliartus.
(Slrabo, 407 and 411. ) Pausanias (9, 31) calls the
former I-minus. Aganippe was sacred to the Muses,
who from it were called Aganippides. Ovid (Fait. , 5,
7) has the expression u fantes Aganippidos Hippo-
crenes," whence some arc led to imagine that he makes
Aganippe and Hippocrene the same. This, however,
is incorrect: the epithet Aganippis, as used by the
poet, being equivalent here merely to "Musis sacra. "
--II. A nymph of the fountain.
Agapenor, the son of Anccua, and grandson of Ly-
curgus, who led the Arcadian forces in the expedition
against Troy, and, after the fall of that city, was car-
ried by a storm, on his return home, to the island of
Cyprus, where he founded the city of Paphos.
Aoapetus. Vid. Supplement.
Agar, a town of Africa Propria, in the district of
? ? Byzacium, and probably not far from Zclla.
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? r
A GA
Hadm in his edition of the minor Greek geographers.
(SiUl. Hut. Lit. Gr. , vol. 3, p. 391. )--II. A native
rf Samoa, whose TIcfKTttca is cited by Plutarch in his
Pmllek He is otherwise entirely unknown, and
iitnce some have supposed Inm to be identical with
Ajaihitchides of Cnidus, and the HepaiKu to be merely
a section of the work on Asia by this writer. (SeltaU.
Hoi. Lilt. Gr. , I. c. )
A. vniMu-Hrs, I. an Athenian artist, mentioned by
Yitninui (lib. 7. jtra:f. ), and said by him to have in-
Ttmed scene-painting. He was contemporary with
. Eschylus, and prepared the scenery and decorations
fot his theatre. Sillig (Z>ic/. Art. , >>. r. ) maintains,
that the words of Vitruvius, in the passage just referred
to. namely, " tcertam fecit,'''' merely mean, that Aga-
tharchns constructed a stage for . 'Eschylus. since, ac-
cording to Aristotle (foe/. , 4), Sophocles first brought
in the decorations of scenery (aicrrvaypafyia}. But the
language of Vitruvius, taken in connection with what
follows, evidently refers to perspective and sccne-
Daintin? . and Bentley also understands them in this
? east. "(Diss. Phal.
