But the emperor's
advisors
talked him out of it, arguing that Seneca's fragile health would do him in soon enough.
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome_nodrm
Quintilian considers Celsus to have been a reliable authority on all topics on which he wrote.
Document: Good Health . . . and How
to Maintain It
A man in health, who is both vigorous and his own master, should be under no obligatory rules, and have no need, either for a medical attendant, or for a [masseuse] and anointer. His kind of life should afford him variety; he should now be in the country, now in town, and more often about the farm. He should sail, hunt, rest sometimes, but more often take exercise. For while inaction weakens the body, work strengthens it. The former brings on premature old age, the latter prolongs youth.
It is well also at times to go to the bath, at times to make use of cold waters; to undergo sometimes [anointing], sometimes to neglect that same; to avoid no
? ? ? ? ? 97
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
kind of food in common use; to attend at times a ban- quet, at times to hold aloof; to eat more than sufficient at one time, at another no more; to take food twice rather than once a day, and always as much as one wants, provided one digests it. But while exercise and food of this sort are necessaries, those of the athletes are redundant. For in the one class [i. e. , the exercise regimen] any break in the routine of exercise, owing to necessities of civil life, affects the body injuriously, and in the other [i. e. , the dietary regimen], bodies thus fed up in their fashion age very quickly and become infirm. . .
On waking, one should lie still for a while, then, except in winter time, bathe the face freely with cold water. When the days are long, the siesta should be taken before the midday meal, when short, after it. In winter, it is best to rest in bed the whole night long; if there must be study by lamplight, it should not be immediately after taking food, but after digestion. He who has been engaged in the day, whether in domestic or on public affairs, ought to keep some portion of the day for the care of the body. The primary care in this respect is exercise, which should always precede the taking of food. The exercise should be ampler in the case of one who has labored less and digested well. It should be lighter in the case of one who is fatigued and has digested less well.
Useful exercises are: reading aloud, drill [a` la sol- diers], handball, running, walking, but this is not by any means most useful on the level, since walking up and down hill varies the movement of the body, unless indeed the body is thoroughly weak. But it is better to walk in the open air than under cover; better, when the head allows of it, in the sun than in the shade; better under the shade of a wall or of trees than under a roof; better a straight than a winding walk. But the exercise ought to come to an end with sweating, or at any rate [tiredness], which should be well this side of fatigue . . . But in these matters, as before, the example of athletes should not be followed, with their fixed rules and immoderate labor. [Tr. W. G. Spencer. Celsus: De Medicina. (1. 2. 1,4-7. ) Volume I. LCL, 1935. Page numbers: 43, 47, 49. ]
AFTERMATH
Topics covered in the remainder of Book 1 include advice on the kinds and amounts of food that ought to be consumed; how to deal with the various changes in life, such as occupation, place of residence, and the aging process; how to gain or lose
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? handball: Various kinds of throwing, catching, and bouncing ball games were popular with the Romans, perhaps none more so than trigon, apparently similar to three-sided catch, in which the players threw the ball to one another. Points could be earned or lost with catches or drops, respectively.
lamplight: Pliny the Younger informs us that his famous uncle, the natu- ral scientist--and prolific author-- Pliny the Elder, often worked at night, by lamplight, not with any view toward getting a head start on the next day's agenda, but simply to gain time for additional research. Sometimes, he would arise at mid- night, or one or two o'clock in the morning, to study and write.
[masseuse] and anointer: The Latin term iatralipta ("masseuse/anointer") covers both procedures. In one of his subsequent chapters, Celsus details the role of massage in medical care, noting that it should be used when- ever a weak body needs toning, or one that is too hard requires soften- ing, or when a thin or sickly body needs nourishment.
redundant: In a famous passage from his now-fragmentary play Autolycus, Euripides lambasts overfed athletes: "Although there are myriads of evils throughout Greece, there is nothing worse than the race of athletes. First of all, they neither learn how to live a good life, nor could they possibly do so. For how could a man who is a slave to his jaw and obedient to his belly acquire wealth to surpass than of his father? " [tr. Robinson]
? ? ? ? ? 98
weight; purging and vomiting; lifestyle choices that should be made depending on age and time of year; instructions for people who are susceptible to various and specific kinds of ail- ments (such as headaches, stomach pains, muscular aches and pains); and how to remain healthy during epidemics.
W. G. Spencer, the translator of the document, proclaims that Celsus's work has been highly regarded by scholars and historians of all subsequent time periods, and that Celsus richly deserves to be favorably compared with Cicero.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What parts of Celsus's "prescriptions" for good health sound contemporary? Does he articulate any advice that seems injurious or outdated?
2. What do you think of Euripides's harsh assessment of overfed athletes? Can you think of any modern examples of the kind of athletes described by Euripides?
3. Why do you suppose Celsus recommends reading aloud as a "useful exercise"?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Would it be possible to draw a parallel between the dietary excesses of ancient athletes (i. e. , the sort of excesses about which both Celsus and Euripides complain) and the stories of steroid abuse by modern athletes? In other words, could the food overindulgences of ancient athletes have long-term consequences similar to those suffered by modern steroid users? (Euripides goes on to say that "in their prime, [the athletes] make a brilliant spectacle as they go about and are the pride of the state; but when bitter old age comes upon them, they are gone like coarse cloaks which have lost their nap. ")
e DelvefurtherintothewritingsofHippocratesandCelsus,(mostlikely)the two most notable Greek and Roman physicians, respectively. Which of the two authors seems more authoritative? Which one covers the various areas of medical practice more thoroughly?
Further Information
Garrison, Fielding. An Introduction to the History of Medicine. Philadelphia, 1929. Langslow, D. R. Medical Latin in the Roman Empire. Oxford, 2000. Scarborough, John. Roman Medicine. Ithaca, NY, 1969.
Website
Celsus on Medicine. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/ Introduction*. html
Bibliography for Document
Robinson, Rachel Sargent. Sources for the History of Greek Athletics. Ann Arbor, MI, 1927. Spencer, W. G. (tr. ). Celsus: De Medicina. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
How to Obtain Good Health, and Keep It
? ? ? ? 99
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21. HOW THE MIND CAN HEAL THE BODY
INTRODUCTION
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (a. k. a. Seneca the Younger, to distinguish him from his father, Seneca the Elder) flourished in the first century CE. He produced a wide variety of literary works, including philosophical treatises, moral essays, letters (all addressed to his friend Lucilius), and plays. He was also one of the wealthiest men of his time; his net worth was estimated at 300,000,000 sesterces.
Seneca undertook the potentially dangerous task of serving as a tutor for the crazed emperor Nero. As Nero's madness grew steadily worse, Seneca found himself increasingly unable to restrain him, and so he resigned his position and withdrew from Nero's court. Unfortunately, he was later implicated in a plot to assassinate Nero (in 65 CE) and forced to commit suicide.
The document is excerpted from one of his 124 letters to Lucilius. The letters detail Seneca's views on a massive range of topics, such as using time wisely; the advantages of mental training over physical; retirement; festivals; wisdom; scientific discovery; drunken- ness; the simple life; and many more.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The ancient Romans (and the ancient Greeks) strongly believed in the mind-body connection, and that one could not enjoy health in one realm without health also in the other. Seneca's letter reflects those beliefs.
2. The Romans recognized walking as a particularly healthful exercise. The Younger Pliny wrote a very interesting account [3. 1] of a friend of his, one Vestricius Spurinna, a vigorous septuagenarian and a devotee of walking. "This is the rule strictly observed by Spurinna [writes Pliny]: . . . every morning . . . [he] calls for his shoes and takes a three-mile walk to exercise mind and body. " [The mind-body con- nection again! After a brief rest, he takes a seven-mile ride in a carriage, and then embarks upon a second walk, this time for one mile. And later in the day:] "When summoned to his bath in mid-afternoon in winter, and an hour earlier in summer, he first removes his clothes and takes a walk in the sunshine if there is no wind, and then throws a ball briskly for some time, this being another form of exercise whereby he keeps old age at bay . . . The result is that Spurinna has passed
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his seventy-seventh year, but his sight and hearing are unimpaired, and he is physi- cally agile and energetic; old age has brought him nothing but wisdom. " [Pliny the Younger. Letters 3. 1; tr. Radice. ] In other letters, Seneca expresses skepticism about strenuous exercises, such as weightlifting, running, or jumping. However, he seems to think that walking is an ideal form of physical activity.
Document: The Mind-Body Connection
[Epistle 78]
That you are frequently troubled by the snuffling of catarrh and by short attacks of fever which follow after long and chronic catarrhal seizures, I am sorry to hear, particularly because I have experienced this sort of illness myself, and scorned it in its early stages. For when I was still young, I could put up with hardships and show a bold front to illness. But I finally succumbed, and arrived at such a state
that I could do nothing but snuffle, reduced as I was to the extremity of thinness . . .
Now I shall tell you what consoled me during those days, stating at the outset that these very aids to my peace of mind were as efficacious as medicine. Honorable consolation results in a cure, and whatever has uplifted the soul helps the body also. My studies were my salvation. I place it to the credit of philosophy that I recovered, and regained my strength. I owe my life to philosophy, and that is the least of my obligations! My friends, too, helped me greatly toward good health; I used to be comforted by their cheering words, by the hours they spent at my bedside, and by their conversa- tion. Nothing, my excellent Lucilius, refreshes and aids a sick man so much as the affection of his friends . . .
These, then, are the remedies to which you should have recourse. The physician will prescribe [how much your should walk and how much you should exercise]; he will warn you not to become addicted to idleness, as is the tendency of the inactive; he will order you to read in a louder voice and to exercise your lungs, the passages and cavity of which are affected; or to sail and shake up your bowels by a little mild motion. He will recommend proper food, and the suitable time for aid- ing your strength with wine, or refraining from it in order to keep your cough from being irritated and hacking . . .
This, too, will help [to overcome illness and pain]-- to turn the mind aside to thoughts of other things, and thus depart from pain. Call to mind what honorable or brave deeds you have done; consider the good side of your own life. Run over in your memory those things
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? catarrh: destillatio in Latin, a word meaning congestion.
illness: Interestingly, the Latin word translated as "illness," valetudo (which is the word used here by Seneca), was neutral; it could mean either good or bad health.
physician: Our English word "doctor" comes directly from Latin, but the Latin word doctor does not refer to a medical practitioner. Rather, it is closely related to the verb docere, to teach. Hence, a Roman doctor was a teacher, or an instructor. The Latin word for physician was medicus (which is the term Seneca uses in his letter).
thinness: According to the historian Dio Cassius, the emperor Cali- gula (reigned 37-41 CE) envied Seneca's oratorical skills and con- sidered having him executed.
But the emperor's advisors talked him out of it, arguing that Seneca's fragile health would do him in soon enough.
you: A reference to the author's friend Lucilius.
? ? ? 102
which you have particularly admired. Then think of all the brave men who have conquered pain: of him who continued to read his book as he allowed the cutting out of varicose veins; of him who did not cease to smile, though that very smile so enraged his torturers that they tried upon him every instru- ment of cruelty. You may tell me now of whatever you like: of colds, hard coughing spells that bring up parts of our entrails, fever that parches our very vitals, thirst, limbs so twisted that the joints protrude in different directions; yet worse than these are [various instruments of torture, which Seneca graphi- cally describes] . . . Nevertheless there have been men who have not uttered a moan amid these tortures . . . Can you not bring yourself, after an example like this, to make a mock at pain? [Tr. Richard M. Gummere. Seneca: Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales. (78). Volume II. LCL, 1920. Page numbers: 181, 183, 185, 193. ]
AFTERMATH
It might be argued that with Seneca's forced suicide, the final restraint on Nero's extravagant behavior snapped. Undoubtedly, the emperor's reign of terror accelerated once Seneca was out of the picture. In an ironic postscript to Seneca's death, his wife, Pompeia Paulina, who had vowed to die with him and had begun the process by opening her veins, was restored to life, by Nero's orders, when her wounds were bandaged by his attendants. Apparently, Nero suspected that public opinion would be badly enough inflamed against him as a result of Seneca's suicide, and that the ill-will created by that act would only become worse if it appeared that Paulina were also a victim of his madness.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Imagine that you were the recipient of this letter. What would your reactions be? Do you agree with Seneca that a study of philosophy could aid in the recovery from physical illness? And what about his claim that "nothing . . . refreshes and aids a sick man [or woman! ] so much as the affection of his friends. " Does that sound plausible?
2. What do you think about Seneca's description of the kinds of healthy lifestyle choices that a Roman physician might prescribe: walking; reading in a loud voice; taking a ride in a sailing ship, to "shake up the bowels"; and proper food and drink?
How the Mind Can Heal the Body
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? WHO WAS LUCILIUS?
Most of what we know about Lucilius comes from Seneca's letters to him. He was born in south central Italy, possibly in Naples or Pompeii. During his lifetime, he held a number of important government positions (including a governorship, possibly of Sicily). His interests included geography and philosophy, as well as writing; he is thought to be the author of a poem entitled "Aetna," about volcanic activity at the site of the famous Sicilian mountain. It is not known how, where, or when he and Seneca met, although Seneca's 124 letters to him are all believed to have been written between 63 and 65 CE.
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Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
? ? ? ? ANIMALS AS MEDICAL INSTRUCTORS?
The Roman natural scientist Pliny the Elder relates some amazing stories about animals making use of cures and treatments that could be applied to humans. The hippopotamus, for example: "The hippopotamus stands out as an actual master in one department of medicine. For when its unceasing voracity has caused it to overeat itself, it comes ashore to reconnoiter places where rushes have been recently cut, and where it sees an extremely sharp stalk, it squeezes its body down on to it and makes a wound in a certain vein in its leg, and by thus letting blood unburdens its body, which would otherwise be liable to disease, and plasters up the wound again with mud. " [Pliny the Elder. Natural History 8. 96; tr. Rackham. ] Pliny goes on to note that many other creatures, such as ibises, deer, lizards, swallows, tortoises, weasels, storks, goats, snakes, elephants, bears, ravens, and many others have all developed remedies for the various injuries and ailments that befall them.
? ? ? TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Seneca certainly had access to the halls of power in ancient Rome, consid- ering that he knew personally at least two Roman emperors (Caligula and Nero). But even though Seneca was a cultured and thoughtful man, and not likely to overthrow an emperor or even embarrass one, it seems as if his relationship with both Caligula and Nero was uneven at best. Research these relationships, and see if you can discover why the two emperors (apparently) felt so threatened by Seneca that both of them wanted him out of the way--and in Nero's case, that is precisely what transpired.
e Checkthefollowingwebsiteinthe"FurtherInformation"section:http:// www. egs. edu/library/lucius-annaeus-seneca/biography. There, you will find this sentence: "Seneca considered himself to be a Stoic, although his personal life seems to contradict the noble attitude of his texts. " Research Stoicism, and read a few more of Seneca's letters. Do you think that the Internet state- ment is accurate? Based on what you know of Stoicism, are there any state- ments in the document that would reflect--or contradict--a Stoic point of view?
e As a follow-up to the previous question, read some--or all--of Marcus Aurelius's short book Meditations. Marcus Aurelius was a noted Roman emperor (reigned 161-180 CE) and a Stoic philosopher, and his book is considered a good example of Stoic principles and ideas. Do you find any sentiments expressed in Meditations that are comparable to Seneca's state- ments in the document?
e Harsh judgments: Many modern commentators take Seneca to task for what they see as a disconnect between his high-minded Stoicism and his behavior in the real world. Lillian Feder's assessment is typical: "Readers of Seneca's philosophy have been troubled by the disparity between the high ethical standards set forth in his philosophical writings and the many compromises of his life. " Do you think that Seneca's views on health, ill- ness, and tolerance for pain, as described in the document, reveal a dispar- ity between what he preached and what he practiced?
? 104
Further Information
Share, Don, ed. Seneca in English. New York, 1998.
Strem, George G. The Life and Teaching of Lucius Annaeus Seneca. New York, 1981.
Website
Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Biography. http://www. egs. edu/library/lucius-annaeus-seneca/ biography
Bibliography for Document
Feder, Lillian. Apollo Handbook of Classical Literature. New York, 1964.
Gummere, Richard M. (tr. ). Seneca: Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales. Volume II. [LCL. ]
London and Cambridge, 1920.
Rackham, H. (tr. ). Pliny: Natural History. Volume III. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge,
1940.
Radice, Betty (tr. ). Pliny: Letters and Panegyricus. Volume I. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1969.
How the Mind Can Heal the Body
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INTRODUCTION
HOUSING
? ? The ancient Greeks and Romans, much like modern Americans, built and lived in a wide variety of houses, ranging from humble cottages, to sweltering apartment buildings, all the way to magnificent palaces. The documents of this chapter reflect that diversity.
Not too much is known about the specifics of the architecture of Greek private houses, so for information on that topic, we turn, in the first document, to the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius. His book on Roman architecture provides facts and information on Greek architecture as well as Roman, including a detailed look at the floor plan of a typ- ical Greek house.
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22. VITRUVIUS'S DESCRIPTION OF AN ELEGANT HOME
INTRODUCTION
Ironically, our best written source of information about ancient Greek houses comes not from a Greek author but from a Roman: the architect Vitruvius, who lived in the early first century CE. Vitruvius wrote a book on architecture, the only one of its kind surviving from antiquity. In this treatise (which is divided into 10 books), he covers many components of the subject: building materials; construction methods; public buildings (e. g. , theaters and baths); private homes; interior decoration; water and water quality; aqueduct construction; acoustics; and civil and military machines.
The document below has been excerpted from Book 6, where Vitruvius takes up the topic of private homes.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. In the document, Vitruvius is describing an upscale house, the kind that would have been owned by a wealthy person. Greeks of more modest income could not have afforded all of the refinements that Vitruvius mentions here.
2. Vitruvius is a Roman writing a description of Greek houses, so he occasionally uses Latin architectural terms in his descriptions such as atria, triclinia, and exedrae.
3. Ancient Greek men and women seem to have led almost separate lives. Women, for
example, were not allowed to participate with men in political discussions or debates, or run for public office, nor were they typically to be seen outside the home unless accompanied by a male relative. This segregation of the sexes is even reflected in house architecture; note how many rooms or areas of the house were restricted to men or women only.
Document: Pricey Greek Houses, as Described
by a Roman
The Greeks, not using atria, do not build [houses] as we do; but as you enter, they make passages of scanty width with stables on one side, and the porter's
? ? ? ? ? 109
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
rooms on the other; and these immediately adjoin the inner entrance. The space between the two entrances is called in Greek thyroron. You then enter the peristyle. This has colonnades on three sides. On the side which looks south- ward, there are two piers at a fair distance apart, on which beams are laid. The space behind is recessed two-thirds of the distance between the piers. The recess by some is called prostas, pastas by others.
As we pass in, there is the Great Hall in which the ladies sit with the spinning women. Right and left of the recess are the bedchambers, of which one is called the thala- mus, the other the amphithalamus. Round the colonnades are the ordinary dining-rooms, the bedrooms and servants' rooms. This part of the building is called the women's quarter, gyneconitis.
Next to this is a larger block of buildings with more splendid peristyles; in these the colonnades are equal in height, or else the colonnade which looks to the south has loftier columns. The peristyle which has one colon- nade higher is called Rhodian. These buildings have splendid approaches and doorways of suitable dignity. The colonnades of the peristyles are finished with ceil- ings of stucco, plaster, and fine wood paneling. In the colonnades which face north are. . . triclinia and picture galleries; on the east the libraries, the exedrae on the west; halls and square entrances face the south, that there may be ample room for four triclinia, and for the servants who attend them and assist in the amusements.
In these halls men's banquets are held. For it was not customary for women to join men at dinner. Now these peristyles are called the men's block, for in them men meet without interruption from the women. Moreover, on the right and left, lodges are situated with their own entrances, dining-rooms and bedrooms, so that guests on their arrival may be received into the guest houses . . . For when the Greeks were more luxurious and in circumstances more opulent, they provided for visitors on their arrival, dining rooms, bedrooms, and storerooms with supplies. On the first day, they invited them to dinner; afterwards, they sent poultry, eggs, vegetables, fruit, and other country produce. Therefore, painters, when they portrayed what was sent to guests, called them guest-gifts. Thus the heads of families in a guest-house do not seem to be away from home when they enjoy private generosity in the visitors' quarters. Now between the two peristyles and the visitors' quarters, there are passages . . . [called] Andrones, the men's quarters . . . [T]he Greeks call andrones the halls where the men's ban- quets take place, because women are excluded. [Tr. Frank
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? amusements: In this context, "amuse- ments" is a generic word that might refer to various board or ball games, or entertainments staged by actors, singers, dancers, or acrobats.
atria: The atrium (pl. atria) was, as Vitruvius implies, a very common feature in most Roman homes, although not in Greek. It served as a sort of vestibule or entry room to the house, where the owners could greet their guests or visitors. The word survives in English today as a term for the lobby area in large department stores, banks, and similar structures. Interestingly, the word atrium also refers to the two chambers of the human heart where the blood collects before proceeding to the ventricles; hence, a heart's atrium is a kind of cardiac entry room.
exedrae: An exedra was a small alcove, or perhaps a den, used for reading, relaxing, meditating, polite conver- sation, or perhaps even napping. In his treatise On the Orator, Cicero recounts a story about how the orator/lawyer Crassus would often enjoy noon-day quiet time in an exedra, where he would reflect on an upcoming speech that he would have to deliver or a court case in which he was involved.
Document: Good Health . . . and How
to Maintain It
A man in health, who is both vigorous and his own master, should be under no obligatory rules, and have no need, either for a medical attendant, or for a [masseuse] and anointer. His kind of life should afford him variety; he should now be in the country, now in town, and more often about the farm. He should sail, hunt, rest sometimes, but more often take exercise. For while inaction weakens the body, work strengthens it. The former brings on premature old age, the latter prolongs youth.
It is well also at times to go to the bath, at times to make use of cold waters; to undergo sometimes [anointing], sometimes to neglect that same; to avoid no
? ? ? ? ? 97
Voices of Ancient Greece and Rome
kind of food in common use; to attend at times a ban- quet, at times to hold aloof; to eat more than sufficient at one time, at another no more; to take food twice rather than once a day, and always as much as one wants, provided one digests it. But while exercise and food of this sort are necessaries, those of the athletes are redundant. For in the one class [i. e. , the exercise regimen] any break in the routine of exercise, owing to necessities of civil life, affects the body injuriously, and in the other [i. e. , the dietary regimen], bodies thus fed up in their fashion age very quickly and become infirm. . .
On waking, one should lie still for a while, then, except in winter time, bathe the face freely with cold water. When the days are long, the siesta should be taken before the midday meal, when short, after it. In winter, it is best to rest in bed the whole night long; if there must be study by lamplight, it should not be immediately after taking food, but after digestion. He who has been engaged in the day, whether in domestic or on public affairs, ought to keep some portion of the day for the care of the body. The primary care in this respect is exercise, which should always precede the taking of food. The exercise should be ampler in the case of one who has labored less and digested well. It should be lighter in the case of one who is fatigued and has digested less well.
Useful exercises are: reading aloud, drill [a` la sol- diers], handball, running, walking, but this is not by any means most useful on the level, since walking up and down hill varies the movement of the body, unless indeed the body is thoroughly weak. But it is better to walk in the open air than under cover; better, when the head allows of it, in the sun than in the shade; better under the shade of a wall or of trees than under a roof; better a straight than a winding walk. But the exercise ought to come to an end with sweating, or at any rate [tiredness], which should be well this side of fatigue . . . But in these matters, as before, the example of athletes should not be followed, with their fixed rules and immoderate labor. [Tr. W. G. Spencer. Celsus: De Medicina. (1. 2. 1,4-7. ) Volume I. LCL, 1935. Page numbers: 43, 47, 49. ]
AFTERMATH
Topics covered in the remainder of Book 1 include advice on the kinds and amounts of food that ought to be consumed; how to deal with the various changes in life, such as occupation, place of residence, and the aging process; how to gain or lose
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? handball: Various kinds of throwing, catching, and bouncing ball games were popular with the Romans, perhaps none more so than trigon, apparently similar to three-sided catch, in which the players threw the ball to one another. Points could be earned or lost with catches or drops, respectively.
lamplight: Pliny the Younger informs us that his famous uncle, the natu- ral scientist--and prolific author-- Pliny the Elder, often worked at night, by lamplight, not with any view toward getting a head start on the next day's agenda, but simply to gain time for additional research. Sometimes, he would arise at mid- night, or one or two o'clock in the morning, to study and write.
[masseuse] and anointer: The Latin term iatralipta ("masseuse/anointer") covers both procedures. In one of his subsequent chapters, Celsus details the role of massage in medical care, noting that it should be used when- ever a weak body needs toning, or one that is too hard requires soften- ing, or when a thin or sickly body needs nourishment.
redundant: In a famous passage from his now-fragmentary play Autolycus, Euripides lambasts overfed athletes: "Although there are myriads of evils throughout Greece, there is nothing worse than the race of athletes. First of all, they neither learn how to live a good life, nor could they possibly do so. For how could a man who is a slave to his jaw and obedient to his belly acquire wealth to surpass than of his father? " [tr. Robinson]
? ? ? ? ? 98
weight; purging and vomiting; lifestyle choices that should be made depending on age and time of year; instructions for people who are susceptible to various and specific kinds of ail- ments (such as headaches, stomach pains, muscular aches and pains); and how to remain healthy during epidemics.
W. G. Spencer, the translator of the document, proclaims that Celsus's work has been highly regarded by scholars and historians of all subsequent time periods, and that Celsus richly deserves to be favorably compared with Cicero.
ASK YOURSELF
1. What parts of Celsus's "prescriptions" for good health sound contemporary? Does he articulate any advice that seems injurious or outdated?
2. What do you think of Euripides's harsh assessment of overfed athletes? Can you think of any modern examples of the kind of athletes described by Euripides?
3. Why do you suppose Celsus recommends reading aloud as a "useful exercise"?
TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Would it be possible to draw a parallel between the dietary excesses of ancient athletes (i. e. , the sort of excesses about which both Celsus and Euripides complain) and the stories of steroid abuse by modern athletes? In other words, could the food overindulgences of ancient athletes have long-term consequences similar to those suffered by modern steroid users? (Euripides goes on to say that "in their prime, [the athletes] make a brilliant spectacle as they go about and are the pride of the state; but when bitter old age comes upon them, they are gone like coarse cloaks which have lost their nap. ")
e DelvefurtherintothewritingsofHippocratesandCelsus,(mostlikely)the two most notable Greek and Roman physicians, respectively. Which of the two authors seems more authoritative? Which one covers the various areas of medical practice more thoroughly?
Further Information
Garrison, Fielding. An Introduction to the History of Medicine. Philadelphia, 1929. Langslow, D. R. Medical Latin in the Roman Empire. Oxford, 2000. Scarborough, John. Roman Medicine. Ithaca, NY, 1969.
Website
Celsus on Medicine. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/ Introduction*. html
Bibliography for Document
Robinson, Rachel Sargent. Sources for the History of Greek Athletics. Ann Arbor, MI, 1927. Spencer, W. G. (tr. ). Celsus: De Medicina. Volume I. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge, 1935.
How to Obtain Good Health, and Keep It
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21. HOW THE MIND CAN HEAL THE BODY
INTRODUCTION
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (a. k. a. Seneca the Younger, to distinguish him from his father, Seneca the Elder) flourished in the first century CE. He produced a wide variety of literary works, including philosophical treatises, moral essays, letters (all addressed to his friend Lucilius), and plays. He was also one of the wealthiest men of his time; his net worth was estimated at 300,000,000 sesterces.
Seneca undertook the potentially dangerous task of serving as a tutor for the crazed emperor Nero. As Nero's madness grew steadily worse, Seneca found himself increasingly unable to restrain him, and so he resigned his position and withdrew from Nero's court. Unfortunately, he was later implicated in a plot to assassinate Nero (in 65 CE) and forced to commit suicide.
The document is excerpted from one of his 124 letters to Lucilius. The letters detail Seneca's views on a massive range of topics, such as using time wisely; the advantages of mental training over physical; retirement; festivals; wisdom; scientific discovery; drunken- ness; the simple life; and many more.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. The ancient Romans (and the ancient Greeks) strongly believed in the mind-body connection, and that one could not enjoy health in one realm without health also in the other. Seneca's letter reflects those beliefs.
2. The Romans recognized walking as a particularly healthful exercise. The Younger Pliny wrote a very interesting account [3. 1] of a friend of his, one Vestricius Spurinna, a vigorous septuagenarian and a devotee of walking. "This is the rule strictly observed by Spurinna [writes Pliny]: . . . every morning . . . [he] calls for his shoes and takes a three-mile walk to exercise mind and body. " [The mind-body con- nection again! After a brief rest, he takes a seven-mile ride in a carriage, and then embarks upon a second walk, this time for one mile. And later in the day:] "When summoned to his bath in mid-afternoon in winter, and an hour earlier in summer, he first removes his clothes and takes a walk in the sunshine if there is no wind, and then throws a ball briskly for some time, this being another form of exercise whereby he keeps old age at bay . . . The result is that Spurinna has passed
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his seventy-seventh year, but his sight and hearing are unimpaired, and he is physi- cally agile and energetic; old age has brought him nothing but wisdom. " [Pliny the Younger. Letters 3. 1; tr. Radice. ] In other letters, Seneca expresses skepticism about strenuous exercises, such as weightlifting, running, or jumping. However, he seems to think that walking is an ideal form of physical activity.
Document: The Mind-Body Connection
[Epistle 78]
That you are frequently troubled by the snuffling of catarrh and by short attacks of fever which follow after long and chronic catarrhal seizures, I am sorry to hear, particularly because I have experienced this sort of illness myself, and scorned it in its early stages. For when I was still young, I could put up with hardships and show a bold front to illness. But I finally succumbed, and arrived at such a state
that I could do nothing but snuffle, reduced as I was to the extremity of thinness . . .
Now I shall tell you what consoled me during those days, stating at the outset that these very aids to my peace of mind were as efficacious as medicine. Honorable consolation results in a cure, and whatever has uplifted the soul helps the body also. My studies were my salvation. I place it to the credit of philosophy that I recovered, and regained my strength. I owe my life to philosophy, and that is the least of my obligations! My friends, too, helped me greatly toward good health; I used to be comforted by their cheering words, by the hours they spent at my bedside, and by their conversa- tion. Nothing, my excellent Lucilius, refreshes and aids a sick man so much as the affection of his friends . . .
These, then, are the remedies to which you should have recourse. The physician will prescribe [how much your should walk and how much you should exercise]; he will warn you not to become addicted to idleness, as is the tendency of the inactive; he will order you to read in a louder voice and to exercise your lungs, the passages and cavity of which are affected; or to sail and shake up your bowels by a little mild motion. He will recommend proper food, and the suitable time for aid- ing your strength with wine, or refraining from it in order to keep your cough from being irritated and hacking . . .
This, too, will help [to overcome illness and pain]-- to turn the mind aside to thoughts of other things, and thus depart from pain. Call to mind what honorable or brave deeds you have done; consider the good side of your own life. Run over in your memory those things
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? catarrh: destillatio in Latin, a word meaning congestion.
illness: Interestingly, the Latin word translated as "illness," valetudo (which is the word used here by Seneca), was neutral; it could mean either good or bad health.
physician: Our English word "doctor" comes directly from Latin, but the Latin word doctor does not refer to a medical practitioner. Rather, it is closely related to the verb docere, to teach. Hence, a Roman doctor was a teacher, or an instructor. The Latin word for physician was medicus (which is the term Seneca uses in his letter).
thinness: According to the historian Dio Cassius, the emperor Cali- gula (reigned 37-41 CE) envied Seneca's oratorical skills and con- sidered having him executed.
But the emperor's advisors talked him out of it, arguing that Seneca's fragile health would do him in soon enough.
you: A reference to the author's friend Lucilius.
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which you have particularly admired. Then think of all the brave men who have conquered pain: of him who continued to read his book as he allowed the cutting out of varicose veins; of him who did not cease to smile, though that very smile so enraged his torturers that they tried upon him every instru- ment of cruelty. You may tell me now of whatever you like: of colds, hard coughing spells that bring up parts of our entrails, fever that parches our very vitals, thirst, limbs so twisted that the joints protrude in different directions; yet worse than these are [various instruments of torture, which Seneca graphi- cally describes] . . . Nevertheless there have been men who have not uttered a moan amid these tortures . . . Can you not bring yourself, after an example like this, to make a mock at pain? [Tr. Richard M. Gummere. Seneca: Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales. (78). Volume II. LCL, 1920. Page numbers: 181, 183, 185, 193. ]
AFTERMATH
It might be argued that with Seneca's forced suicide, the final restraint on Nero's extravagant behavior snapped. Undoubtedly, the emperor's reign of terror accelerated once Seneca was out of the picture. In an ironic postscript to Seneca's death, his wife, Pompeia Paulina, who had vowed to die with him and had begun the process by opening her veins, was restored to life, by Nero's orders, when her wounds were bandaged by his attendants. Apparently, Nero suspected that public opinion would be badly enough inflamed against him as a result of Seneca's suicide, and that the ill-will created by that act would only become worse if it appeared that Paulina were also a victim of his madness.
ASK YOURSELF
1. Imagine that you were the recipient of this letter. What would your reactions be? Do you agree with Seneca that a study of philosophy could aid in the recovery from physical illness? And what about his claim that "nothing . . . refreshes and aids a sick man [or woman! ] so much as the affection of his friends. " Does that sound plausible?
2. What do you think about Seneca's description of the kinds of healthy lifestyle choices that a Roman physician might prescribe: walking; reading in a loud voice; taking a ride in a sailing ship, to "shake up the bowels"; and proper food and drink?
How the Mind Can Heal the Body
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? WHO WAS LUCILIUS?
Most of what we know about Lucilius comes from Seneca's letters to him. He was born in south central Italy, possibly in Naples or Pompeii. During his lifetime, he held a number of important government positions (including a governorship, possibly of Sicily). His interests included geography and philosophy, as well as writing; he is thought to be the author of a poem entitled "Aetna," about volcanic activity at the site of the famous Sicilian mountain. It is not known how, where, or when he and Seneca met, although Seneca's 124 letters to him are all believed to have been written between 63 and 65 CE.
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? ? ? ? ANIMALS AS MEDICAL INSTRUCTORS?
The Roman natural scientist Pliny the Elder relates some amazing stories about animals making use of cures and treatments that could be applied to humans. The hippopotamus, for example: "The hippopotamus stands out as an actual master in one department of medicine. For when its unceasing voracity has caused it to overeat itself, it comes ashore to reconnoiter places where rushes have been recently cut, and where it sees an extremely sharp stalk, it squeezes its body down on to it and makes a wound in a certain vein in its leg, and by thus letting blood unburdens its body, which would otherwise be liable to disease, and plasters up the wound again with mud. " [Pliny the Elder. Natural History 8. 96; tr. Rackham. ] Pliny goes on to note that many other creatures, such as ibises, deer, lizards, swallows, tortoises, weasels, storks, goats, snakes, elephants, bears, ravens, and many others have all developed remedies for the various injuries and ailments that befall them.
? ? ? TOPICS TO CONSIDER
e Seneca certainly had access to the halls of power in ancient Rome, consid- ering that he knew personally at least two Roman emperors (Caligula and Nero). But even though Seneca was a cultured and thoughtful man, and not likely to overthrow an emperor or even embarrass one, it seems as if his relationship with both Caligula and Nero was uneven at best. Research these relationships, and see if you can discover why the two emperors (apparently) felt so threatened by Seneca that both of them wanted him out of the way--and in Nero's case, that is precisely what transpired.
e Checkthefollowingwebsiteinthe"FurtherInformation"section:http:// www. egs. edu/library/lucius-annaeus-seneca/biography. There, you will find this sentence: "Seneca considered himself to be a Stoic, although his personal life seems to contradict the noble attitude of his texts. " Research Stoicism, and read a few more of Seneca's letters. Do you think that the Internet state- ment is accurate? Based on what you know of Stoicism, are there any state- ments in the document that would reflect--or contradict--a Stoic point of view?
e As a follow-up to the previous question, read some--or all--of Marcus Aurelius's short book Meditations. Marcus Aurelius was a noted Roman emperor (reigned 161-180 CE) and a Stoic philosopher, and his book is considered a good example of Stoic principles and ideas. Do you find any sentiments expressed in Meditations that are comparable to Seneca's state- ments in the document?
e Harsh judgments: Many modern commentators take Seneca to task for what they see as a disconnect between his high-minded Stoicism and his behavior in the real world. Lillian Feder's assessment is typical: "Readers of Seneca's philosophy have been troubled by the disparity between the high ethical standards set forth in his philosophical writings and the many compromises of his life. " Do you think that Seneca's views on health, ill- ness, and tolerance for pain, as described in the document, reveal a dispar- ity between what he preached and what he practiced?
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Further Information
Share, Don, ed. Seneca in English. New York, 1998.
Strem, George G. The Life and Teaching of Lucius Annaeus Seneca. New York, 1981.
Website
Lucius Annaeus Seneca. Biography. http://www. egs. edu/library/lucius-annaeus-seneca/ biography
Bibliography for Document
Feder, Lillian. Apollo Handbook of Classical Literature. New York, 1964.
Gummere, Richard M. (tr. ). Seneca: Ad Lucilium Epistulae Morales. Volume II. [LCL. ]
London and Cambridge, 1920.
Rackham, H. (tr. ). Pliny: Natural History. Volume III. [LCL. ] London and Cambridge,
1940.
Radice, Betty (tr. ). Pliny: Letters and Panegyricus. Volume I. [LCL. ] Cambridge and London,
1969.
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INTRODUCTION
HOUSING
? ? The ancient Greeks and Romans, much like modern Americans, built and lived in a wide variety of houses, ranging from humble cottages, to sweltering apartment buildings, all the way to magnificent palaces. The documents of this chapter reflect that diversity.
Not too much is known about the specifics of the architecture of Greek private houses, so for information on that topic, we turn, in the first document, to the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius. His book on Roman architecture provides facts and information on Greek architecture as well as Roman, including a detailed look at the floor plan of a typ- ical Greek house.
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22. VITRUVIUS'S DESCRIPTION OF AN ELEGANT HOME
INTRODUCTION
Ironically, our best written source of information about ancient Greek houses comes not from a Greek author but from a Roman: the architect Vitruvius, who lived in the early first century CE. Vitruvius wrote a book on architecture, the only one of its kind surviving from antiquity. In this treatise (which is divided into 10 books), he covers many components of the subject: building materials; construction methods; public buildings (e. g. , theaters and baths); private homes; interior decoration; water and water quality; aqueduct construction; acoustics; and civil and military machines.
The document below has been excerpted from Book 6, where Vitruvius takes up the topic of private homes.
KEEP IN MIND AS YOU READ
1. In the document, Vitruvius is describing an upscale house, the kind that would have been owned by a wealthy person. Greeks of more modest income could not have afforded all of the refinements that Vitruvius mentions here.
2. Vitruvius is a Roman writing a description of Greek houses, so he occasionally uses Latin architectural terms in his descriptions such as atria, triclinia, and exedrae.
3. Ancient Greek men and women seem to have led almost separate lives. Women, for
example, were not allowed to participate with men in political discussions or debates, or run for public office, nor were they typically to be seen outside the home unless accompanied by a male relative. This segregation of the sexes is even reflected in house architecture; note how many rooms or areas of the house were restricted to men or women only.
Document: Pricey Greek Houses, as Described
by a Roman
The Greeks, not using atria, do not build [houses] as we do; but as you enter, they make passages of scanty width with stables on one side, and the porter's
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rooms on the other; and these immediately adjoin the inner entrance. The space between the two entrances is called in Greek thyroron. You then enter the peristyle. This has colonnades on three sides. On the side which looks south- ward, there are two piers at a fair distance apart, on which beams are laid. The space behind is recessed two-thirds of the distance between the piers. The recess by some is called prostas, pastas by others.
As we pass in, there is the Great Hall in which the ladies sit with the spinning women. Right and left of the recess are the bedchambers, of which one is called the thala- mus, the other the amphithalamus. Round the colonnades are the ordinary dining-rooms, the bedrooms and servants' rooms. This part of the building is called the women's quarter, gyneconitis.
Next to this is a larger block of buildings with more splendid peristyles; in these the colonnades are equal in height, or else the colonnade which looks to the south has loftier columns. The peristyle which has one colon- nade higher is called Rhodian. These buildings have splendid approaches and doorways of suitable dignity. The colonnades of the peristyles are finished with ceil- ings of stucco, plaster, and fine wood paneling. In the colonnades which face north are. . . triclinia and picture galleries; on the east the libraries, the exedrae on the west; halls and square entrances face the south, that there may be ample room for four triclinia, and for the servants who attend them and assist in the amusements.
In these halls men's banquets are held. For it was not customary for women to join men at dinner. Now these peristyles are called the men's block, for in them men meet without interruption from the women. Moreover, on the right and left, lodges are situated with their own entrances, dining-rooms and bedrooms, so that guests on their arrival may be received into the guest houses . . . For when the Greeks were more luxurious and in circumstances more opulent, they provided for visitors on their arrival, dining rooms, bedrooms, and storerooms with supplies. On the first day, they invited them to dinner; afterwards, they sent poultry, eggs, vegetables, fruit, and other country produce. Therefore, painters, when they portrayed what was sent to guests, called them guest-gifts. Thus the heads of families in a guest-house do not seem to be away from home when they enjoy private generosity in the visitors' quarters. Now between the two peristyles and the visitors' quarters, there are passages . . . [called] Andrones, the men's quarters . . . [T]he Greeks call andrones the halls where the men's ban- quets take place, because women are excluded. [Tr. Frank
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? amusements: In this context, "amuse- ments" is a generic word that might refer to various board or ball games, or entertainments staged by actors, singers, dancers, or acrobats.
atria: The atrium (pl. atria) was, as Vitruvius implies, a very common feature in most Roman homes, although not in Greek. It served as a sort of vestibule or entry room to the house, where the owners could greet their guests or visitors. The word survives in English today as a term for the lobby area in large department stores, banks, and similar structures. Interestingly, the word atrium also refers to the two chambers of the human heart where the blood collects before proceeding to the ventricles; hence, a heart's atrium is a kind of cardiac entry room.
exedrae: An exedra was a small alcove, or perhaps a den, used for reading, relaxing, meditating, polite conver- sation, or perhaps even napping. In his treatise On the Orator, Cicero recounts a story about how the orator/lawyer Crassus would often enjoy noon-day quiet time in an exedra, where he would reflect on an upcoming speech that he would have to deliver or a court case in which he was involved.
