No More Learning

Pessimism as a preparatory state to Nihilism.
IO.
A. Pessimism viewed as strength--in what re spect In the energy of its logic, as anarchy, Nihilism, and analysis.
B. Pessimism regarded as collapse--in what
sense ? In the sense of its being a softening influence, a sort of cosmopolitan befingering, a
"tout comprendre," and historical spirit.
appear
The logic of Pessimism leads finally to Nihilism : what is the force at work 3-The notion that there
are no values, and no purpose: the recognition of the part that moral valuations have played in all other lofty values.
* This is a Kantian term. Kant recognised two kinds of
Freedom--the practical and the transcendental kind. The first belongs to the phenomenal, the second to the intelligible world. --TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.
? Critical tension: extremes make their ance and become dominant.
I I.
? ? ? 12 THE WILL TO POWER.
Result: moral valuations are condemnations, ne
gations, morality is the abdication of the will to live. . . .
|
I2.
THE COLLAPSE OF COSMOPOLITAN VALUES.
A.
Nihilism will have to manifest itself as a psycho logical condition, first when we have sought in all
that has happened a purpose which is not there: so that the seeker will ultimately lose courage. Nihilism is therefore the coming into consciousness of the long waste of strength, the pain of "futility," uncertainty, the lack of an opportunity to recover
in some way, or to attain to a state of peace concerning anything--shame in one's own pres
ence, as if one had cheated oneself too long. . . .
The purpose above-mentioned might have been achieved: in the form of a "realisation" of a most
high canon of morality in all worldly phenomena,
the moral order of the universe; or in the form of
the increase of love and harmony in the traffic of humanity; or in the nearer approach to a general
condition of happiness; or even in the march to wards general nonentity--any sort of goal always
constitutes a purpose. The common factor to all these appearances is that something will be at tained, through the process itself: and now we perceive that Becoming has been aiming at nothing, and has achieved nothing. Hence the disillusion ment in regard to a so-called purpose in existence, as a cause of Nihilism; whether this be in re
? ? ? ? {
NIHILISM.
13
spect of a very definite purpose, or generalised into
the recognition that the hypotheses are false
which have hitherto been offered the object of life, and which relate the whole "Evolu
tion" (man longer assistant in, let alone the culmination the evolutionary process).
totality, systematisation, even organisation
and behind all phenomena, that the soul
thirsting for respect and admiration will wallow the general idea highest ruling and adminis
trative power (if the soul logician, the sequence consequences and perfect reasoning
will suffice conciliate everything). kind
unity, some form "monism": and result
this belief man becomes obsessed by feel
Nihilism will manifest itself
condition, the second place, when man has fixed
presence
him, sort the surrender
All which infinitely superior divinity. "The general good exacts
the individual but lo, there no such general good At bottom, man loses
the belief his own worth when no infinitely precious entity manifests itself through him--that say, he conceived such an All, order
able believe his own worth.
Nihilism, psychological condition, has yet
third and last form. Admitting these two points of view: that no purpose can assigned Be
coming, and that no great entity rules behind all Becoming, which the individual may completely
superior value; there still remains the subterfuge which would con
lose himself element
psychological
? ing profound relativity and dependence
the
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? THE WILL TO POWER.
I4
sist in condemning this whole world of Becoming as an illusion, and in discovering a world which
would lie beyond and would be real world. The moment, however, that man perceives that
this world has been devised only for the purpose meeting certain psychological needs, and that
he has no right whatsoever the final form Nihilism comes into being, which comprises
denial of metaphysical world, and which forbids
itself all belief in real world.
point, the reality Becoming
that admitted: all bypaths
From this stand the only reality back-worlds and
false godheads are abandoned--but this world no
? longer endured, although
What has actually happened? The feeling
worthlessness was realised when was understood
that neither the notion "Purpose," nor that Unity," nor that "Truth," could be made
interpret the general character existence. Noth ing achieved obtained thereby; the unity
which intervenes the multiplicity events
entirely lacking:
"true," false; there certainly no longer
one wishes disown
the character existence not
any reason believe real world. short, the categories, "Purpose," "Unity," "Being," by
life, we have once more divorced from it--and the
means which we had lent some worth world now appears worthless us.
B.
Admitting that we have recognised the impos sibility interpreting the world by means these
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NIHILISM.
I5
~? hree categories, and that from this standpoint the
world begins to be worthless to us; we must ask ourselves whence we derived our belief in these
three categories. Let us see if it is possible to refuse to believe in them. If we can deprive them of their value, the proof that they cannot be applied to the world, is no longer a sufficient reason for depriving that world of value.
Result: The belief the categories reason the cause of Nihilism--we have measured the
worth the world according categories which
can only applied purely fictitious world. Conclusion: All values with which we have tried, hitherto, lend the world some worth, from
? our point fore deprived
view, and with which we have there
all worth (once these values have inapplicable)--all these values,
been shown
are, psychologically, the results
certain views maintain
certain com-- munities: but falsely projected into the nature
things. always man's exaggerated ingenuous
ness regard himself the sense and measure all things.
Nihilism represents an intermediary pathological condition (the vast generalisation, the conclusion
that there
purpose anything, pathological):
This probably refers Kant's celebrated table twelve categories. The four classes, quantity, quality, relation, and modality, are each provided with three categories. --TRANS LATOR'S NOTE.
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? I6 THE WILL TO POWER.
whether it be that the productive forces are no
The conditions this hypothesis:--That there truth; that there no absolute state
affairs "thing-in-itself. " This itself only
Mihilism,
that the value things consists precisely the fact that these values are not real and never have
been real, but that they are only symptom strength the part the valuer, simplification serving the purposes existence,
I4.
Values and their modification are related the
the "freedom expres
yet strong enough--or
that decadence still hesi tates and has not yet discovered expedients.
growth power
and the most extreme kind. finds
? the valuer. The measure disbelief and
spirit" which tolerated, viewed sion of the growth of power.
the highest spiritual power, the over-rich life, partly destruc
"Nihilism viewed the ideal tive, partly ironical.
What belief? How belief born All
belief assumes that something true.
The extremest form of Nihilism would mean
that all belief--all assumption truth--is false: because no real world at hand. were there
fore: only
origin must constantly simplified world).
appearance seen perspective, whose
found (seeing that we are need narrower, shortened, and
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NIHILISM.
17
This should be realised, that the extent to which we can, in our heart of hearts, acknowledge appearance, and the necessity of falsehood, with
out going to rack and ruin, is the measure of strength.
In this respect, Nihilism, in that it is the nega
tion of a real world and of Being, might be a divine view of the world.
I6.
If we are disillusioned, we have not become so in regard to life, but owing to the fact that our
eyes have been opened to all kinds of "desiderata. " With mocking anger we survey that which is
called "Ideal": we despise ourselves only because we are unable at every moment of our lives to quell that absurd emotion which is called "Ideal ism. " This pampering by means of ideals is stronger than the anger of the disillusioned one.
I7.
To what extent does Schopenhauerian Nihilism
continue to be the result of the same ideal as that
zwhich gave rise to Christian Theism f The
amount of certainty concerning the most exalted desiderata, the highest values and the greatest
degree of perfection, was so great, that the
philosophers started out from it as if it had been an a priori and absolute fact: "God" at the head, as the given quantity--Truth. "To become like
God," "to be absorbed into the Divine Being"-- WOL. I. B
? ? ? ? I8 THE WILL TO POWER.
I |
these were for centuries the most ingenuous and most convincing desiderata (but that which con. vinces is not necessarily true on that account it is nothing more nor less than convincing. Ar observation for donkeys).
The granting of a personal-reality to this accre.
tion of ideals has been unlearned: people have
become atheistic. But has the ideal actually beer
abandoned? The , latest metaphysicians, as a
matter of fact, still seek their true "reality" in i --the "thing-in-itself" beside which everything
"else is merely appearance. Their dogma thal
because our world
appearance obviously
? not the expression that ideal, therefore canno be "true"--and at bottom does not even lead
back that metaphysical world cause. The
unconditioned,
highest degree perfection, cannot possibly
far stands for thal
Schopen hauer, who desired otherwise, was obliged
be the reason all the conditioned.
imagine this metaphysical basis the antithesi the ideal, "an evil, blind will": thus could be "that which appears," that which manifest
itself the world appearance. But even so,
did not give up that ideal absolute--he circum vented it.
(Kant seems have needed the hypothesis
"intelligible freedom,"*
ens perfectum the responsibility
trived this world short,
explain evil: scandalous logic for philosopher
See Note 11.
order
relieve having con
order
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? NIHILISM.
I8.
I9
The most general sign of modern times: in his
own estimation, man has lost an infinite amount of
dignity. For a long time he was the centre and
tragic hero of life in general; then he endeavoured
to demonstrate at least his relationship to the most essential and in itself most valuable side of
life--as all metaphysicians do, who wish to hold
fast to the dignity of man, in their belief that moral values are cardinal values. He who has
let God go, clings all the more strongly to the belief in morality.
I9.
Every purely moral valuation (as, for instance,
? Europe must expect the same thing! It is supposed that
the Buddhistic) terminates in Nihilism:
one can get along with a morality bereft of a religious background; but in this direction the road to Nihilism is opened. There is nothing in religion
which compels us to regard ourselves as valuing CreatureS.
2O.
The question which Nihilism puts, namely, "to what purpose ? " is the outcome of a habit, hitherto, to regard the purpose as something fixed, given and
exacted from outside--that is to say, by some super natural authority. Once the belief in this has been unlearned, the force of an old habit leads to the search after another authority, which would know how to speak unconditionally, and could point to
? ? ? 2O THE WILL TO POWER.
goals and missions. The authority of the conscience
now takes the first place (the more morality is emancipated from theology, the more imperative
does it become) as a compensation for the personal
author aty. Or the authority
evade the will, also the willing goal and
the risk setting oneself goal. One would like
get rid the responsibility (Fatalism would be accepted). Finally: Happiness, and with
dash humbug, the happiness the greatest number.
said:--
(1) definite goal quite unnecessary.
(2) Such goal cannot possibly foreseen. Precisely now, when will fullest strength
were necessary, the weakest and most pusil.
lanimous condition. Absolute mistrust concerning the organising power the will.
I.
The perfect Wihilist. --The Nihilist's eye idealises an ugly sense, and inconstant what
gregarious instinct (the herd).
immanent spirit, which has
which one can abandon oneself. One would like
remembers: and fade,
allows recollections
of reason. Or the Or history with
goal itself, and
I.
? go astray does not protect them from that cadaverous coloration with which weakness dyes all
that distant and past. And what does not do for itself fails for the whole the past mankind well--that say, allows drop
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|
? 2328. 360 NIHILISM,
22.
2I
* A. Nihilism as a sign of enhanced spiritual
It may be two things:--
active Nihilism.
B. Nihilism as a sign of the collapse and decline of spiritual strength: passive Nihilism.
23.
Nihilism, a normal condition.
It may be a sign of strength ; spiritual vigour
may have increased to such an extent that the
goals
Nihilism.
strength:
? toward which man has marched hitherto (the "convictions," articles of faith) are no longer suited to it (for a faith generally expresses the exigencies of the conditions of existence, a submis sion to the authority of an order of things which conduces to the prosperity, the growth and power of
a living creature . . ); on the other hand, a sign of insufficient strength, to fix a goal, a "wherefore,"
and a faith for itself.
It reaches maximum relative strength,
powerful destructive force, the form active AVihilism.
Its opposite would be weary Nihilism, which no
longer attacks: most renowned form being Buddhism: passive Nihilism, sign weakness:
spiritual strength may
fatigued, exhausted,
that the goals and values which have prevailed: hitherto are longer suited and are longer believed in--so that the synthesis values and goals (upon which every strong culture stands)
? ? * ~
of
no
*
of
no
as
its
its
be it a
in of of
to
so :
as
a
? 22 THE WILL TO POWER.
decomposes, and the different values contend with one another: Disintegration, then everything which
is relieving, which heals, becalms, or stupefies, steps
into the foreground under the cover of various dis. guises, either religious, moral, political or aesthetic,
etC.
-
24.
Nihilism is not only a meditating over the "in vain l'--not only the belief that everything de serves to perish; but one actually puts one's shoulder to the plough; one destroys. This, if you will, is illogical; but the Nihilist does not believe in the necessity of being logical. . . . It is the
condition of strong minds and wills; and to these it is impossible to be satisfied with the negation of judgment: the negation by deeds proceeds from
their nature.
Annihilation by the reasoning faculty seconds annihilation by the hand.
25.
? Concerning the genesis of the Nihilist. The courage of all one really knows comes but late in life. It is only quite recently that I have ac knowledged to myself that heretofore I have been a Nihilist from top to toe. The energy and thoroughness
with which marched forward Nihilist deceived the concerning, this fundamental fact. When one progressing towards goal seems impossible that "aimlessness per se"
should be one? 's fundamental article faith.
? ? of
. . . it
is
I
a
as a
? NIHILISM.
26.
23
The Pessimism of strong natures. The "where fore" after a terrible struggle, even after victory. That something may exist which is a hundred times more important than the question, whether we feel well or unwell, is the fundamental instinct of all strong natures--and consequently too, whether the others feel well or unwell. In short, that we have a purpose, for which we would not even hesitate to sacrifice men, run all risks, and bend our backs to the worst: this is the great passion.
2. FURTHER CAUSES OF NIHILISM.
27.
The causes of Nihilism: (1) The higher species is
lacking, i. e. , the species whose inexhaustible fruit
fulness and power would uphold our belief in Man
(think only of what is owed to Napoleon--almost all the higher hopes of this century).
? species ("herd," "mass," "society") is forgetting modesty, and inflates its needs into cosmic and metaphysical values. In this way all life is vulgarised: for inasmuch as the mass of mankind rules, it tyrannises over the ex
ceptions, so that these lose their belief in themselves and become AWihilists.
All attempts to conceive of a new species come to nothing ("romanticism," the artist, the philosopher;
against Carlyle's attempt to lend them the highest moral values).
(2) The inferior
? ? ? THE WILL TO POWER.
24
The struggle against genius ("popular poetry,"
etc. ). Sympathy with the lowly and the suffering
as a standard for the elevation of the soul.
The philosopher is lacking, the interpreter of
deeds, and not alone he who poetises them. 28.
All attempts made to escape Nihilism, which
do not consist in transvaluing the values that have prevailed hitherto, only make the matter worse; they complicate the problem.
29.
The varieties of self-stupefaction. In one's
heart of hearts, not to know, whither? Empti
ness. The attempt to rise superior to it all by means of emotional intoxication: emotional in
toxication in the form of music, in the form of cruelty the tragic joy over the ruin the
The result is that higher types are resisted.
The downfall and insecurity of all higher types,
Imperfect
Nihilism--its forms: we are now surrounded by them.
? blind, gushing en distinct periods
(in the form hatred, etc. ).
work blindly, like scientific instrument; keep
eye on the many small joys, like an investi gator, for instance (modesty towards oneself); the
mysticism the voluptuous joy eternal empti
noblest, and the form
thusiasm over individual men
The attempt
? ? of
of
of or
an
in a
to
to
of
of
. . .
in
? m
NIHILISM.
25
ness; art "for art's sake" ("le fait"), "immaculate
investigation," in the form of narcotics against the disgust of oneself; any kind of incessant work,
any kind of small foolish fanaticism; the medley
of all means, illness as the result of general pro fligacy (dissipation kills pleasure).
(1) As a result, feeble will-power.
(2) Excessive pride and the humiliation of
petty
The time is coming when we shall have to pay) for having been Christians for two thousand years: we are losing the firm footing which enabled us to live--for a long while we shall not know in what direction we are travelling. We are hurling our selves headlong into the opposite valuations, with,
that degree of energy which could only have been engendered in man by an overvaluation of himself.
Now, everything is false from the root, words and nothing but words, confused, feeble, or over strained.
(a) There is a seeking after a sort of earthly solution of the problem of life, but in the same sense as that of the final triumph of truth, love, justice (socialism: "equality of persons").
(b) There is also an attempt to hold fast to the moral ideal (with altruism, self-sacrifice, and
the denial of the will, in the front rank).
(c) There is even an attempt to hold fast to a "Beyond": were it only as an antilogical x;
but it is forthwith interpreted in such a way that
weakness felt as a contrast.
3O.
? ? ? ? * 26 THE WILL TO POWER.
a kind of metaphysical solace, after the old style, may be derived from
(d) There
mena life divine guidance
attempt read the pheno.
such way arrive the old, with its powers reward.
ing, punishing, educating, and
ducing something things.
better
(e) People once more believe
evil; that the victory
annihilation the evil English, and typical
generally con the order
good and
the good and the regarded duty (this
that blockhead, John
? Stuart Mill).
(f) The contempt felt for "naturalness," for
the desires and for the ego: the attempt regard even the highest intellectuality and art result
an impersonal and disinterested attitude.
(g) The Church still allowed meddle
all the essential occurrences and incidents in the
life the individual, with view consecrat
ing and giving loftier meaning: we still have the "Christian State" and the "Christian
marriage. "
31.
There have been more thoughtful and more
which the people themselves, after centuries sectarian quarrels, had sunk deeply into the abyss philosophical dogmas, as, from time
zerdachtere,
destructively thoughtful"
times than ours: times like those which Buddha appeared, for instance,
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in
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to
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in
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so
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to
*.
it
a is
a
as to to
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as in a
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of
at
is
of a
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it.
? NIHILISM,
27
time, European people have done in regard to the fine points of religious dogma. "Literature" and
the press would be the last things to seduce one to any high opinion of the spirit of our times: the millions of Spiritists, and a Christianity with gymnastic exercises of that ghastly ugliness
English inventions, throw more light on the subject.
which is characteristic of all
European Pessimism is still in infancy--a
fact which argues against it: has not yet attained that prodigious and yearning fixity
sight which attained India once upon time, and which nonentity reflected; there
still too much the "ready-made," and not enough the "evolved" constitution, too
much learned and poetic Pessimism; mean that good deal has been discovered, invented,
and "created," but not caused.
32.
Criticism the Pessimism which has prevailed
? eudaemonological standpoint, last abbreviation the question:
hitherto. The want the
what the purpose all? The reduction gloom.
Our Pessimism: the world has not the value
which we believed have,--our faith itself has
so increased our thirst for knowledge that we are compelled say this to-day. the first place,
seems less value: first felt less value,--only this sense are we pessimists,--that
say, with the will acknowledge this
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a is
to
is
to
it
is In
in its
of
to
to of
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it
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of
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is
it
of
it
it of
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its
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? 28 THE WILL TO POWER.
transvaluation without reserve, and no longe heretofore, to deceive ourselves and chant th old story.
It is precisely in this way that we find
pathos which urges us to seek for new values.
short: the world might have far more value
we thought--we must get behind the naive our ideals, for it is possible that, in our cons
effort to give it the highest interpretation, we
not bestowed even a moderately just value up What has been deified ? The valuing ins inside the community (that which enabled i
survive).
What has been calumniated? That which
tended to separate higher men from their infe the instincts which cleave gulfs and build bar
33.
Causes effecting the rise of Pessimism:--
(1) The most powerful instincts and which promised most for the future have hit been calumniated, so that life has a curse up.
(2) The growing bravery and the more d. mistrust on the part of man have led him to cover the fact that these instincts cannot b.
adrift from life, and thus he turns to eml life.
(3) Only the most mediocre, who are conscious of this conflict, prosper; the h species fail, and as an example of degener
tend to dispose all hearts against them--on other hand, there is some indignation cause
? ? ? ? NIHILISM.
29
the mediocre positing themselves as the end and meaning of all things. No one can any longer reply to the question: "Why? "
(4) Belittlement, susceptibility to pain, unrest,
haste, and confusion are steadily increasing--the
materialisation of all these tendencies, which is called "civilisation," becomes every day more simple,
with the result that, in the face of the monstrous machine, the individual despairs and surrenders.
34.
Modern Pessimism is an expression of the use
lessness only of the modern world, not of the world and existence as such.
35.
The "preponderance of pain over pleasure," or
the reverse (Hedonism); both of these doctrines are already signposts to Nihilism. . .
For here, in both cases, no other final purpose is sought than the phenomenon pleasure or pain.
But only a man who no longer dares to posit a will, a purpose, and a final goal can speak in
this way--according to every healthy type of
man, the worth of life is certainly not measured
by the standard of these secondary things. And a preponderance of pain would be possible and, in
spite of mighty will, saying yea life, and holding this preponderance for necessary.
? living"; "Resignation"; "what the good tears? "--this feeble and/
"Life not worth
? ? is
is
it, a
of of
is a
of
a
a
to }|A*|}
? 3O
THE WILL TO POWER.
sentimental attitude of mind. "Un monstre gai vaut mieux qu'un sentimental ennuyeux. "
36.
The philosophic Nihilist is convinced that all
phenomena are without sense and are in vain, and
that there ought to be no such thing as Being without sense and in vain. But whence comes
this "There ought not to be? "--whence this "sense" and this standard? At bottom the
Nihilist supposes that the sight of such a desolate, useless Being is unsatisfying to the philosopher,
and fills him with desolation and despair. This aspect of the case is opposed to our subtle sensi
bilities as a philosopher. It leads to the absurd conclusion that the character of existence must
perforce afford pleasure to the philosopher if it is to have any right to subsist. - -
Now it is easy to understand that happiness and unhappiness, within the phenomena of this
world, can only serve the purpose of means: the question yet remaining to be answered whether
? will ever possible for "object" and "purpose"
problem purposelessness quite beyond our ken.
37,
perceive the
life--whether the the reverse not
The development Nihilism out of Pessimism. The denaturalisation of Values. Scholasticism
values. The values isolated, idealistic, instead
? ? of
it
of
of
be
or of us to
is, is
? zweakness:--
(1) The weak fall
pieces upon it;
NIHILISM.
31
of ruling and leading action, turn against it and condemn
Opposites introduced the place natural
gradations
rank. Opposites are compatible with plebeian age, because they are more easy grasp.
The rejected world opposed an artificially constructed "true and valuable" one. At last we discover out of what material the "true" world was built; all that remains, now, the rejected world, and the account our reasons for rejecting we place our greatest disillusionment,
At this point Nihilism reached; the directing
values have been retained--nothing more!
This gives rise the problem strength and
and ranks. Hatred the order
? (2) The strong destroy what does not fall
pieces own accord;
(3) The strongest overcome the directing
values.
The whole condition affairs produces the
tragic age.
-
THE NIHILISTIC MoveMENT As AN EXPRESSION OF DECADENCE.
38.
Just lately accidental and every way
inappropriate term has been very much misused: everywhere people are speaking "Pessimism,"
? ? of in
of
of
to to
an
3.
of
is
in of
of its
it
it.
to
to to
to
is
is
a
of of
? 32
THE WILL TO POWER.
and there is a fight around the question (to whic some replies must be forthcoming): which right--Pessimism or Optimism P
People have not yet seen what is so terribl obvious--namely, that Pessimism is not a proble but a symptom,-that the term ought to be r placed by "Nihilism,"--that the question, "to
or not to be," is itself an illness, a sign degeneracy, an idiosyncrasy.
The Nihilistic movement is only an expressio of physiological decadence.
39.
To be understood:--That every kind of declir
and tendency to sickness has incessantly been :
work in helping to create general evaluation: that in those valuations which now dominat
decadence has even begun to preponderate, th: we have not only to combat the conditions whic present misery and degeneration have brough into being; but that all decadence, previous
that of our own times, has been transmitted an
has therefore remained an active force
riddle, philosophers.
which -the animal "man" sets to a -
4O.
b
? among us. A universal departure of this kind, on th part of man, from his fundamental instincts, suc
universal decadence of the valuing judgment, the note of interrogation par excellence, the re
The notion "decadence":--Decay, decline, ar waste, are, per no way open objection
? ? se, in
to
? young. And even
NIHILISM.
33
they are the natural consequences of life and vital growth. The phenomenon of decadence is just
as necessary to life as advance or progress is: we are not in a position which enables us to suppress On the contrary, reason would have retain
its rights.
disgraceful on the part socialist-theorists
argue that circumstances and social combina tions could devised which would put an end
vice, illness, crime, prostitution, and poverty.
But that Life society
prime must bring forth ordure and decaying matter. The more
tantamount
not liberty remain
condemning
? energetically and daringly
will be failures and
nearer will fall. Age not deferred by
means of institutions. Nor illness.
Fundamental aspect the nature what has heretofore been regarded are effects.
Nor vice.
decadence: causes
this way, the whole perspective the
problems morality
All the struggle morals against vice, luxury,
crime, and even against illness, seems naivete? , superfluous effort: there no such thing
"improvement" Decadence
zwithstood
word against repentance).
itself not thing that can absolutely necessary and proper
altered.
all ages and all peoples. That which must VOL.
advances, the richer deformities, and the
? ? to
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. to . all
to It it. is
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of4I.
ais is at
it is
in bebe tois
is
ofis
its in is
(a
a is
of
as of its
it
be be asa
In
its
it it
.
is
is
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of to
to
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