No More Learning

Greek tutors and teachers of
who, even they were not slaves, were as
rule accounted as servants,1 were now permanent inmates
in the palaces of Rome; people speculated in them, and there statement that 200,000 sesterces (£2000) were paid for Greek literary slave of the first rank. As early
as 593 there existed in the capital number of special 18L establishments for the practice of Greek declamation.
Cicero says that he treated his learned slave Dionysius more respect fully than Scipio treated Panaetius, and in the same sense said in
knowledge
philosophy,
Lucilius—
Paenula, . ri quaerir, mnt:riu', rem’, “gum Utilr'or Milli, quam rapienr.
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Latin in struction.
But by its side there sprang up also higher Latin instruction. We have shown the previous epoch how Latin elementary instruction raised its character; how the place of the Twelve Tables was taken by the Latin Odyssey as sort of improved primer, and the Roman boy was now trained to the knowledge and delivery of his mother tongue by means of this translation, as the Greek by means of the original: how noted teachers of the Greek language and literature, Andronicus, Ennius, and others, who already probably taught not children properly so called, but boys growing up to maturity and young men, did not disdain to give instruction in the mother-tongue along with the Greek. These were the first steps towards higher Latin instruc tion, but they did not as yet form such an instruction itself. Instruction in language cannot go beyond the elementary stage, so long as lacks literature. It was not until
m NATIONALITY, RELIGION, BOOK rv
Several distinguished names already occur among these Roman teachers; the philosopher Panaetius has been already mentioned 203); the esteemed grammarian Crates of Mallus in Cilicia, the contemporary and equal
169. rival of Aristarchus, found about 585 at Rome an audience for the recitation and illustration, language, and matter of the Homeric poems It true that this new mode of juvenile instruction, revolutionary and anti-national as was, encountered partially the resistance of the government;
161. but the edict of dismissal, which the authorities in 593 fulminated against rhetoricians and philosophers, remained (chiefly owing to the constant change of the Roman chief magistrates) like all similar commands without any result worth mentioning, and after the death of old Cato there were still doubtless frequent complaints in accordance with his views, but there was no further action. The higher instruction in Greek and the sciences of Greek culture remained thenceforth recognized as an essential part of Italian training.
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:15
there were not merely Latin schoolbooks but a Latin literature, and this literature already somewhat rounded
05 in the works of the classics of the sixth century, that
the mother-tongue and the native literature truly entered
into the circle of the elements of higher culture ; and the emancipation from the Greek schoolmasters was now not
slow to follow. Stirred up by the Homeric prelections of Public Crates, cultivated Romans began to read the recitative
of
works of their own literature, the Punic War of Naevius,
Works the Annals of Ennius, and subsequently also the Poems
of Lucilius first to a select circle, and then in public on
set days and in presence of a great concourse, and oc casionally also to treat them critically after the precedent of the Homeric grammarians. These literary prelections, which cultivated dilettanli (lz'tterati) held
gratuitously, were not formally a part of juvenile instruction, but were yet an essential means of introducing the youth to the
understanding and the discussion of the classic Latin literature.
The formation of Latin oratory took place in a similar Rhetorical way. The Roman youth of rank, who were even at an “mm early age incited to come forward in public with panegyrics
and forensic speeches, can never have lacked exercises in
oratory ; but it was only at this epoch, and in consequence
of the new exclusive culture, that there arose a rhetoric
properly so called. Marcus Lepidus Porcina (consul in
617) is mentioned as the first Roman advocate who techni- 187. cally handled the language and subject-matter; the two
famous advocates of the Marian age, the masculine and
Marcus Antonius (6rr-667) and the polished 148-87. and chaste orator Lucius Crassus (614-663) were already 140-91. complete rhetoricians. The exercises of the young men
in speaking increased naturally in extent and importance,
but still remained, just like the exercises in Latin literature, essentially limited to the personal attendance of the be
vigorous
Course of literature and rhetoric.
tinguished Roman knight of strict conservative views, who read Plautus and similar works with a select circle of younger men—-including Varro and Cicero—and some times also went over outlines of speeches with the authors, or put similar outlines into the hands of his friends. This was instruction, but Stilo was not a professional school master; he taught literature and rhetoric, just as juris prudence was taught at Rome, in the character of a senior friend of aspiring young men, not of a man hired and holding himself at every one’s command.
But about his time began also the scholastic higher
instruction in Latin, separated as well from
Latin as from Greek instruction, and imparted in special establishments by paid masters, ordinarily manumitted slaves. That its spirit and method were throughout borrowed from the exercises in the Greek literature and language, was a matter of course; and the scholars also consisted, as at these exercises, of youths, and not of boys. This Latin instruction was soon divided like the Greek into two courses; in so far as the Latin literature was first the subject of scientific lectures, and then a technical introduction was given to the preparation of panegyrics, public, and forensic orations. The first Roman school of literature was opened about Stilo’s time by Marcus Saevius Nicanor Postumus, the first separate school for Latin rhetoric about 660 by Lucius Plotius Gallus; but ordin' arily instructions in rhetoric were also given in the Latin schools of literature. This new Latin school-instruction was of the most comprehensive importance. The intro duction to the knowledge of Latin literature and Latin
216 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, noox rv
ginner on the master of the art so as to be trained by his example and his instructions.
Formal instruction both in Latin literature and in Latin 100. rhetoric was given first about 6 50 by Lucius Aelius Prae coninus of Lanuvium, called the “penman ” (Stilo), a dis
elementary
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oratory, such as had formerly been imparted by connois seurs and masters of high position, had preserved a certain independence in relation to the Greeks. The judges of language and the masters of oratory were doubtless under the influence of Hellenism, but not absolutely under that of the Greek school-grammar and school-rhetoric ; the latter in particular was decidedly an object of dread. The pride as well as the sound common sense of the Romans demurred to the Greek assertion that the ability to speak of things, which the orator understood and felt, in telligibly and attractively to his peers in the mother-tongue could be learned in the school by school-rules. To the solid practical advocate the procedure of the Greek rhetori cians, so totally estranged from life, could not but appear worse for the beginner than no preparation at all; to the man of thorough culture and matured by the experience of life, the Greek rhetoric seemed shallow and repulsive; while the man of serious conservative views did not fail to observe the close affinity between a professionally de veloped rhetoric and the trade of the demagogue. Accord ingly the Scipionic circle had shown the most bitter hosti lity to the rhetoricians, and, if Greek declamations before paid masters were tolerated doubtless primarily as exercises in speaking Greek, Greek rhetoric did not thereby find its way either into Latin oratory or into Latin oratorical instruction. But in the new Latin rhetorical schools the Roman youths were trained as men and public orators by discussing in pairs rhetorical themes ; they accused Ulysses, who was found beside the corpse of Ajax with the latter’s bloody sword, of the murder of his comrade in arms, or upheld his innocence; they charged Orestes with the
murder of his mother, or undertook to defend him; or perhaps they helped Hannibal with a supplementary good
advice as to the question whether he would do better to comply with the invitation to Rome, or to remain in
218 NATIONALITY, RELIGION, AND EDUCATION Book IV
Carthage, or to take flight. It was natural that the Catonian opposition should once more bestir itself against these offensive and pernicious conflicts of words. The censors of 662 issued a warning to teachers and parents not to allow the young men to spend the whole day in exercises, whereof their ancestors had known nothing; and the man, from whom this warning came, was no less than the first forensic orator of his age, Lucius Licinius Crassus. Of course the Cassandra spoke in vain; de clamatory exercises in Latin on the current themes of the Greek schools became a permanent ingredient in the education of Roman youth, and contributed their part to
educate the very boys as forensic and political and to stifle in the bud all earnest and true eloquence.
As the aggregate result of this modern Roman educa tion there sprang up the new idea of “humanity,” as it was called, which consisted partly of a more or less super ficial appropriation of the aesthetic culture of the Hellenes,
of a privileged Latin culture as an imitation or mutilated copy of the Greek. This new humanity, as the very name indicates, renounced the specific characteristics of Roman life, nay even came forward in opposition to them, and combined in itself, jun like our closely kindred “general culture,” a nationally cosmopolitan and socially exclusive character. Here too we trace the revolution, which separated classes and blended nations
players
partly
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CHAPTER XIII LITERATURE AND ART
THE sixth century was, both in a political and a literary Literary point of view, a vigorous and great age. It is true that we reaction. do not find in the field of authorship any more than in
that of politics a man of the first rank ; Naevius, Ennius,
Plautus, Cato, gifted and lively authors of distinctly-marked individuality, were not in the highest sense men of creative talent; nevertheless we perceive in the soaring, stirring, bold strain of their dramatic, epic, and historic attempts, that these rest on the gigantic struggles of the Punic wars. Much is only artificially transplanted, there are various faults in delineation and colouring, the form of art and the language are deficient in purity of treatment, Greek and national elements are quaintly conjoined; the whole per formance betrays the stamp of its scholastic origin and lacks independence and completeness; yet there exists in the poets and authors of that age, if not the full power to reach their high aim, at any rate the courage to compete with and the hope of rivalling the Greeks. It is otherwise in the epoch before us. The morning mists fell ; what had been begun in the fresh feeling of the national strength hardened amidst war, with youthful want ‘of insight into the difliculty of the undertaking and into the measure of their own talent, but also with youthful delight in and love to the work, could not be carried farther now, when on the
Sclpionlo
140. 136.
220 LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
one hand the dull sultriness of the approaching revolu tionary storm began to fill the air, and on the other hand the eyes of the more intelligent were gradually opened to the incomparable glory of Greek poetry and art and to the very modest artistic endowments of their own nation. The literature of the sixth century had arisen from the influence of Greek art on half-cultivated, but excited and susceptible minds. The increased Hellenic culture of the seventh called forth a literary reaction, which destroyed the germs of promise contained in those simple imitative attempts by the winter-frost of reflection, and rooted up the wheat and the tares of the older type of literature together.
‘ This reaction proceeded primarily and chiefly from the circle which assembled around Scipio Aemilianus, and whose most prominent members among the Roman world of quality were, in addition to Scipio himself, his elder friend and counsellor Gaius Laelius (consul in 614) and Scipio’s younger companions, Lucius Furius Philus (consul in 618) and Spurius Mummius, the brother of the destroyer of Corinth, among the Roman and Greek literati the comedian Terence, the satirist Lucilius, the historian Polybius, and the philosopher Panaetius. Those who were familiar with the Iliad, with Xenophon, and with Menander, could not be greatly impressed by the Roman Homer, and still less by the bad translations of the tragedies of Euripides which Ennius had furnished and Pacuvius con tinued to furnish. While patriotic considerations
might set bounds to criticism in reference to the native chron
icles, Lucilius at any rate directed very pointed shafts
“the dismal figures from the complicated ex positions of Pacuvius ” ; and similar severe, but not unjust criticisms of Ennius, Plautus, Pacuvius—all those poets "who appeared to have a licence to talk pompously and to reason illogically”—are found in the polished author of the Rhetoric dedicated to Herennius, written at the close
against
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART 221
of this period. People shrugged their shoulders at the interpolations, with which the homely popular wit of Rome had garnished the elegant comedies of Philemon and Diphilus. Half smiling, half envious, they turned away from the inadequate attempts of a dull age, which that circle probably regarded somewhat as a mature man regards the poetical effusions of his youth; despairing of the trans plantation of the marvellous tree, they allowed the higher species of art in poetry and prose substantially to fall into abeyance, and restricted themselves in these departments to an intelligent enjoyment of foreign masterpieces. The
of this epoch displayed itself chiefly in the subordinate fields of the lighter comedy, the poetical miscellany, the political pamphlet, and the professional
sciences. The literary cue was correctness, in the style of art and especially in the language, which, as a more limited circle of persons of culture became separated from the body of the people, was in its turn divided into the classical Latin of higher society and the vulgar Latin of the common
productiveness
The prologues of Terence promise "pure Latin"; warfare against faults of language forms a chief element of the Lucilian satire; and with this circumstance is connected the fact, that composition in Greek among the Romans now falls decidedly into the shade. - In so far certainly there is an improvement; inadequate efforts occur in this epoch far less frequently; performances in their kind complete and thoroughly pleasing occur far oftener than before or afterwards; in a linguistic point of view Cicero calls the age of Laelius and Scipio the golden age of pure unadulterated Latin. In like manner literary gradually rises in public opinion from a trade to an art. At the beginning of this period the preparation of theatrical pieces at any rate, if not the publication of recitative poems, was still regarded as not becoming for the Roman of quality; Pacuvius and Terence lived by their pieces; the
people.
activity
222 LITERATURE AND ART soox rv
writing of dramas was entirely a trade, and not one of golden produce. About the time of Sulla the state of matters had entirely changed. The remuneration given to actors at this time proves that even the favourite dramatic poet might then lay claim to a payment, the high amount of which removed the stigma. By this means composing for the stage was raised into a liberal art ; and we accord ingly find men of the highest aristocratic circles, such as
90. 87. Lucius Caesar (aedile in 664;} 667), engaged in writing for the Roman stage and proud of sitting in the Roman “poet’s club ” by the side of the ancestorless Accius. Art gains in sympathy and honour; but the enthusiasm has departed in life and in literature. The fearless self confidence, which makes the poet a poet, and which is very decidedly apparent in Plautus especially, is found in none of those that follow; the Epigoni of the men that fought with Hannibal are correct, but feeble.
Let us first glance at the Roman dramatic literature and the stage itself. Tragedy has now for the first time her specialists ; the tragic poets of this epoch do not, like those of the preceding, cultivate comedy and epos side by side. The appreciation of this branch of art among the writing and reading circles was evidently on the increase, but tragic
itself hardly improved. We now meet with the national tragedy (praetzxta), the creation of Naevius, only in the hands of Pacuvius to be mentioned immediately— an after-growth of the Ennian epoch. Among the probably numerous poets who imitated Greek tragedies two alone
Pacuvius. acquired a considerable name. Marcus Pacuvius from
Tragedy.
219-129.
Brundisium (5 3 5-4 625) who in his earlier years earned his livelihood in Rome by painting and only composed tragedies when advanced in life, belongs as respects both his years and his style to the sixth rather than the seventh century, although his poetical activity falls within the latter. He composed on the whole after the manner of his country
poetry
can. xru LITERATURE AND ART
:23
man, uncle, and master Ennius. Polishing more carefully and aspiring to a higher strain than his predecessor, he was regarded by favourable critics of art afterwards as a model of artistic poetry and of rich style : in the fragments, how ever, that have reached us proofs are not wanting to justify the censure of the poet’s language by Cicero and the censure of his taste by Lucilius; his language appears more rugged than that of his predecessor, his style of composition pompous and punctilious. 1 There are traces that he like Ennius attached more value to philosophy than to religion ; but he did not at any rate, like the latter, prefer dramas chiming in with neological views and preach ing sensuous passion or modern enlightenment, and drew without distinction from Sophocles or from Euripides—of that poetry with a decided special aim, which almost stamps Ennius with genius, there can have been no vein in the younger poet.
More readable and adroit imitations of Greek tragedy
were furnished by Pacuvius’ younger contemporary, Lucius
Accius, son of a freedman of Pisaurum (584-after 651), 170-10l with the exception of Pacuvius the only notable
poet of the seventh century. An active author also in the
1 Thus in the Paulur, an original piece, the following line occurred, probably in the description of the pass of Pythium (ii. 506) :
Qua uix caprigeua glneri gradz'li: grlm'o at.
And in another piece the hearers are expected to understand the following dscription
Quadruper tardig‘rada agrerti: humili: were, Capile brew‘, cert/in anguimz, aspectu trun', Euirc:rata inanima cum animali rm.
To which they naturally reply
Ita razpl‘uam dictione ah I: dalur,
Quad conjecture . rapimr aeg're cont‘uit; Non intellegimur, niri . ri-apan‘e dixerir.
Then follows the confession that the tortoise is referred to. Such enigmas, moreover, were not wanting even among the Attic tragedians, who on that account were often and sharply taken to task by the Middle Comedy.
tragic
Aoolll.
Greek comedy.
Terence.
224 LITERATURE AND ART soon iv
field of literary history and grammar, he doubtless laboured to introduce instead of the crude manner of his predecessors greater purity of language and style into Latin tragedy; yet even his inequality and incorrectness were emphatically censured by men of strict observance like Lucilius.
Far greater activity and far more important results are apparent in the field of comedy. At the very commence ment of this period a remarkable reaction set in against the sort of comedy hitherto prevalent and popular. Its
196-159. representative Terentius (558-595) is one of the most interesting phenomena, in a historical point of view, in Roman literature. Born in Phoenician Africa, brought in early youth as a slave to Rome and there introduced to
the Greek culture of the day, he seemed from the very first
destined for the vocation of giving back to the new Attic
comedy that cosmopolitan character, which in its adaptation to the Roman public under the rough hands of Naevius, Plautus, and their associates it had in some measure lost. Even in the selection and employment of models the contrast is apparent between him and that predecessor whom alone we can now compare with him. Plautus chooses his pieces from the whole range of the newer Attic comedy, and by no means disdains the livelier and more popular comedians, such as Philemon; Terence keeps almost exclusively to Menander, the most elegant, polished, and chaste of all the poets of the newer comedy. The method of working up several Greek pieces into one Latin is retained by Terence, because in fact from the state of the case it could not be avoided by the Roman editors; but it is handled with incomparably more skill and careful ness. The Plautine dialogue beyond doubt departed very frequently from its models; Terence boasts of the verbal adherence of his imitations to the originals, by which
however we are not to understand a verbal translation in our sense. The not ‘unfrequently coarse, but always
can. xrn LITERATURE AND ART
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efl'ective laying on of Roman local tints over the Greek ground-work, which Plautus was fond of, is completely and designedly banished from Terence; not an allusion puts one in mind of Rome, not a proverb, hardly a reminiscence;1 even the Latin titles are replaced by Greek. The same distinction shows itself in the artistic treatment. First of all the players receive back their appropriate masks, and greater care is observed as to the scenic arrangements, so that it is no longer the case, as with Plautus, that everything needs to take place on the street, whether belonging to it or not. Plautus ties and unties the dramatic knot carelessly and loosely, but his plot is droll and often striking; Terence, far less effective, keeps everywhere account of probability, not unfrequently at the cost of suspense, and wages emphatic war against the certainly somewhat flat and insipid standing expedients of his predecessors, ag. against allegoric dreams. 2 Plautus paints his characters with broad strokes, often after a stock model, always with a view to the gross effect from a distance and on the whole; Terence handles the psycho logical development with a careful and often excellent miniature-painting, as in the Adelplzz' for instance, where the two old men—the easy bachelor enjoying life in town, and
1 Perhaps the only exception is in the Andria (iv. 5) the answer to the question how matters go : " Sic
U! guimur," airmt, " quanda ut wlumu: non lint,"
in allusion to the line of Caecilius. which is, indeed, also imitated from a Greek proverb :-
Viva: ut porris, guanda non qui: at velir.
The comedy is the oldest of Terence’s, and was exhibited by the theatrical
authorities on the recommendation of Caecilius. gratitude is characteristic.
The gentle expression of
9 A counterpart to the hind chased by dogs and with tears calling on a young man for help, which Terence ridicules (Pharm. prol. 4), may be recognized in the far from ingenious Plautine allegory of the goat and the ape (Merc. 1). Such excrescences are ultimately traceable to the rhetoric of Euripides (Lg. Eurip. Hec. 90).
vor. 1v
115
ii.
226 LITERATURE AND ART ‘BOOK rv
the sadly harassed not at all refined country-landlord—form a masterly contrast. The springs of action and the language of Plautus are drawn from the tavern, those of Terence from the household of the good citizen. The lazy Plautine hostelry, the very unconstrained but very charming damsels with the hosts duly corresponding, the sabre-rattling troopers, the menial world painted with an altogether peculiar humour, whose heaven is the cellar, and whose fate is the lash, have disappeared in Terence or at any rate undergone improvement. In Plautus we find ourselves, on the whole, among incipient or thorough rogues, in Terence again, as a rule, among none but honest men ; occasionally leno plundered or young man taken to the brothel, done with moral intent, possibly out of brotherly love or to deter the boy from frequenting im proper haunts. The Plautine pieces are pervaded by the significant antagonism of the tavern to the house; every where wives are visited with abuse, to the delight of all husbands temporarily emancipated and not quite sure of an amiable salutation at home. The comedies of Terence are pervaded by conception not more moral, but doubtless
more becoming, of the feminine nature and of married life. As rule, they end with virtuous marriage, or, possible, with two—just as was the glory of Menander that he compensated for every seduction by marriage. The eulogies of bachelor life, which are so frequent in Menander, are repeated by his Roman remodeller only with characteristic shyness,1 whereas the lover in his agony, the tender husband at the amouc/lament, the loving sister the death-bed in the Eunuc/zus' and the Andria are very grace fully delineated; in the Hayra there even appears at the close as delivering angel virtuous courtesan, likewise
Micio in the Adelphi praises his good fortune in life, more particularly because he has never had a. wife, " which those (the Greeks) reckon a piece of good fortune. "
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genuine Menandrian figure, which the Roman public, it is true, very properly hissed. In Plautus the fathers through out only exist for the purpose of being jeered and swindled by their sons; with Terence in the Heautan Tz'morumenor the lost son is reformed by his father’s wisdom, and, as in general he is full of excellent instructions as to education, so the point of the best of his pieces, the Adelp/zz', turns on finding the right mean between the too liberal training of the uncle and the too rigid training of the father. Plautus writes for the great multitude and gives utterance to profane and sarcastic speeches, so far as the censorship of the stage at all allowed ; Terence on the contrary describes it as his aim to please the good and, like Menander, to offend no body. Plautus is fond of vigorous, often noisy dialogue, and his pieces require a lively play of gesture in the actors; Terence confines himself to “quiet conversation. ” The language of Plautus abounds in burlesque turns and verbal witticisms, in alliterations, in comic coinages of new terms, Aristophanic combinations of words, pithy expressions of the day jestingly borrowed from the Greek. Terence knows nothing of such caprices ; his dialogue moves on with the purest symmetry, and its points are elegant epigrammatic
and sententious turns. The comedy of Terence is not to be called an improvement, as compared with that of Plautus, either in a poetical or in a moral point of view. Originality cannot be aflirmed of either, but, if possible, there is less of it in Terence; and the dubious praise of more correct copying is at least outweighed by the circum stance that, while the younger poet reproduced the agree ableness, he knew not how to reproduce the merriment of Menander, so that the comedies of Plautus imitated from Menander, such as the Sficlmr, the Cirtellaria, the Bacc/tider, probably preserve far more of the flowing charm of the
original than the comedies of the “dz'mz'a'z'atur . Menander. ” And, while the aesthetic critic cannot recognize an improve
228 LITERATURE AND ART noox rv
ment in the transition from the coarse to the dull, as little can the moralist in the transition from the obscenity and indifference of Plautus to the accommodating morality of Terence. But in point of language an improvement certainly took place. Elegance of language was the pride of the poet, and it was owing above all to its inimitable charm that the most refined judges of art in aftertimes, such as Cicero, Caesar, and Quinctilian, assigned the palm to him among all the Roman poets of the republican age. In so far it is perhaps justifiable to date a new era in Roman literature-the real essence of which lay not in the development of Latin poetry, but in the development of the Latin language—from the comedies of Terence as the first artistically pure imitation of Hellenic works of art. The modern comedy made its way amidst the most determined literary warfare. The Plautine style of composing had taken root among the Roman bourgeoirie; the comedies of Terence encountered the liveliest opposition from the public, which found their “insipid language,” their “feeble style,” intolerable. The, apparently, pretty sensitive poet
replied in his prologues—which properly were not intended for any such purpose—with counter-criticisms full of de fensive and offensive polemics ; and appealed from the multitude, which had twice run off from his Ifayra to witness a band of gladiators and rope-dancers, to the culti vated circles of the genteel world. He declared that he only aspired to the approval of the “good”; in which doubtless there was not wanting a. hint, that it was not at all seemly to undervalue works of art which had obtained the approval of the “few. ” He acquiesced in or even favoured the report, that persons of quality aided him in composing with their counsel or even with their co
operation. 1
In reality he carried his point; even in
' In the prologue of the Heauton Timer-um he puts the objection into the mouth of his censors :
crrAr. xm LITERATURE AND ART
“9
literature the oligarchy prevailed, and the artistic comedy
of the exclusives supplanted the comedy of the people:
we find that about 620 the pieces of Plautus disappeared 184. from the set of stock plays. This is the more significant, because after the early death of Terence no man of con spicuous talent at all further occupied this field. Respect
ing the comedies of Turpilius 651 at an advanced age) 108. and other stop-gaps wholly or almost wholly forgotten, connoisseur already at the close of this period gave as
his opinion, that the new comedies were even much worse than the had new pennies
180).
We have formerly shown (iii. 164) that in all probability National
already in the course of the sixth century national Roman comedy. comedy (togata) was added to the Graeco-Roman (palliata),
as portraiture not of the distinctive life of the capital,
Repeat: ad rtudium bum: . te applicau: music-um Amicum ingeniojretum, baud natura . rua.
And in the later prologue (594) to the AdeZp/zi he says— I00.
Nam quad irli dicunt male-001i, hominer nubile: Eur): adiutan, adridueque una . rcn'bere;
Quad illi malediclum wllemem use exirtimanl
Eam laudem hi: ducit maximum, guum illir place! 010' 1106ir uni-unit at populo placard,
Quorum opera in 62110, in alia, in negalia, Suo quirque temper: um: ert . tine ruperbia.
As early as the time of Cicero was the general supposition that Laelius and Scipio Aemilianus were here meant: the scenes were desig
nated which were alleged to proceed from them stories were told of the journeys of the poor poet with his genteel patrons to their estates near Rome; and was reckoned unpardonahle that they should have done nothing at all for the improvement of his financial circumstances. But
the power which creates legend is, as well known, nowhere more potent
than in the history of literature. It clear, and even judicious Roman writics acknowledged, that these lines could not possibly apply to Scipio
who was then twenty-five years of age, and to his friend Laelius who was
not much older. Others with at leut more judgment thought of the poets
of quality Quintus Labeo (consul in 571) and Marcus Popillius (consul in 188. 581), and of the learned patron of art and mathematician. Lucius Sulpicius 178. Gallus (consul in 588); but this too evidently mere conjecture. 'l‘hat 166. Terence was in close relations with the Scipionic house cannot, however,
be doubted a. significant factI that the first exhibition of the Ad:lplu' Lnd the second of the Hayra took place at the funeral games of Lucius Paullus, which were provided by his sons Scipio and Fabius.
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90.
but of the ways and doings of the Latin land. Of course the Terentian school rapidly took possession of this species of comedy also; it was quite in accordance with its spirit to naturalise Greek comedy in Italy on the one hand by faithful translation, and on the other hand by pure Roman imitation. The chief representative of this school was Lucius Afranius (who flourished about 660). The fragments of his comedies remaining give no distinct impression, but they are not inconsistent with what the Roman critics of art remark regarding him. His numerous national comedies were in their construction thoroughly formed on the model of the Greek intrigue-piece ; only, as was natural in imita tion, they were simpler and shorter. In the details also he borrowed what pleased him partly from Menander, partly from the older national literature. But of the Latin local tints, which are so distinctly marked in Titinius the creator of this species of art, we find not much in Afranius ,1 his subjects retain a very general character, and may well have
been throughout imitations of particular Greek comedies with merely an alteration of costume. A polished eclecti eism and adroitness in composition—literary allusions not unfrequently occur—are characteristic of him as of Terence: the moral tendency too, in which his pieces approximated to the drama, their inoffensive tenor in a police point of view, their purity of language are common to him with the latter. Afranius is sufliciently indicated as of a kindred spirit with Menander and Terence by the judgment of posterity that he wore the toga as Menander would have
1 External circumstances also, it'may be presumed, co-operatecl in bringing about this change.
After all the Italian communities had obtained the Roman franchise in consequence of the Social war, it was no longer allowable to transfer the scene of a comedy to any such community, and the poet had either to keep to general ground or to choose places that had fallen into ruin or were situated abroad. Certainly this circumstance, which was taken into account even in the production of the older comedies, exercised an unfavourable effect on the national comedy.
230
LITERATURE AND ART Boox rv
CRAP. xiii LITERATURE AND ART
:3:
worn it had he been an Italian, and by his own expression that to his mind Terence surpassed all other poets.
The farce appeared afresh at this period in the field of Atelllnll. Roman literature. It was in itself very old 291): long
before Rome arose, the merry youths of Latium may have improvised on festal occasions in the masks once for all estab
lished for particular characters. These pastimes obtained a fixed local background in the Latin “asylum of fools,” for which they selected the formerly Oscan town of Atella, which was destroyed in the Hannibalic war and was thereby handed over to comic use thenceforth the name of “ Oscan plays ” or “plays of Atella” was commonly used for these
exhibitions. 1 But these pleasantries had nothing to do with
With these names there has been associated from ancient times a series of errors. The utter mistake of Greek reporters, that these farcu were played at Rome in the Oscan language, now with justice universally rejected; but is, on a closer consideration, little short of impossible to bring these pieces, which are laid in the midst of Latin town and country life, into relation with the national Oscan character at all. The appella tion of "Atellan play" to be explained in another way. The Latin farce with its fixed characters and standing jests needed a permanent scenery the fool-world everywhere seeks for itself a local habitation. Of course under the Roman stage-police none of the Roman communities,
or of the Latin communities allied with Rome, could be taken for this purpose, although was allowable to transfer the togatae to these. But Atella, which, although destroyed de jure along with Capua in 543 (ii. 211, 340, 366). continued practically to subsist as a village inhabited by Roman farmers, was adapted in every respect for the purpose. This conjecture
changed into certainty by our observing that several of these farces are
laid in other communities within the domain of the Latin tongue, which existed no longer at all, or no longer at any rate in the eye of the law
such as the Campani of Pomponius and perhaps also his Adult/n‘ and his Quinquatrz'a in Capua, and the Militer Pomelinmrer of Novius in Suessa Pometia—-vvhile no existing community was subjected to similar mal treatment. The real home of these pieces was therefore Latium, their poetical stage was the Latinized Oscan land with the Oscan nation they
have no connection. The statement that a piece of Naevius after 550) 200, was for want of proper actors performed by l'Atellan players" and was therefore called p:rronala (Festus, . r. 11. ), provs nothing against this view:
the appellation "Atellan players" comes to stand here proleptically, and we might even conjecture from this passage that they were formerly termed " masked players " (perronati).
An explanation quite similar may be given of the "lays of Fscen nium," which likewise belong to the burlesque poetry of the Romans and were localized in the South Etruscan village of Fescennium;
not necessary on that account to class them with Etruscan poetry any
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LITERATURE AND ART noox iv
the stage1 and with literature; they were performed by amateurs where and when they pleased, and the text was not written or at any rate was not published. It was not until the present period that the Atellan piece was handed over to actors properly so called} and was employed, like the Greek satyric drama, as an afterpiece particularly after tragedies ; a change which naturally suggested the extension of literary activity to that field. Whether this authorship developed itself altogether independently, or whether possibly the art-farce of Lower Italy, in various respects of kindred character, gave the impulse to this Roman farce,a can no
more than the Atellanae with Oscan. That Fescennium was in historical times not a town but a village, cannot certainly be directly proved, but is in the highest degree probable from the way in which authors mention the place and from the silence of inscriptions.
1 The close and original connection, which Livy in particular reprsents as subsisting between the Atellan farce and the . ratura with the drama thence developed, is not at all tenable. The difference between the lu‘rln'o and the Atellan player was just about as great as is at present the difl'erence between a professional actor and a man who goes to a masked ball; between the dramatic piece, which down to Terence's time had no masks, and the Atellan, which was essentially based on the character-mask, there subsisted an original distinction in no way to be effaced. The drama arose out of the flute-piece, which at first without any recitation was confined merely to song and dance, then acquired a
text (ruture), and lastly obtained through Andronicus a libretto borrowed from the Greek stage, in which the old flute-lays occupied nearly the place of the Gredr chorus. This course of development nowhere in its earlier stages comes into contact with the farce, which was performed by amateurs.
3 In the time of the empire the Atellana was represented by professional actors (Friedlander in Becker's Handbuch, vi. 549). The time at which these began to engage in it is not reported, but it can hardly have been other than the time at which the Atellan was admitted among the regular stage-plays, {. e. the epoch before Cicero (Cic. ad Fam. ix. 16). This view is not inconsistent with the circumstance that still in Livy's time (vii. 2) the Atellan players retained their honorary rights as contrasted with other actors; for the statement that professional actors began to take part in performing the Atellana for pay does not imply that the Atellana was no longer performed, in the country towns for instance, by unpaid amateurs, and' the privilege therefore still remained applicable.
It deserves attention that the Greek farce was not only especially at home in Lower Italy, but that several of its pieces (ag. among those of Sopater, the “ Lennie-Porridge," the “ Wooers of Bacchis," the " Valet of Mystaltos," the “Bookworms," the "Physiologist ") strikingly remind usof the Atellanae. This composition of farces must have reached down to the time at which the Greeks in and around Neapolis formed a circle enclosed
CHAP. x111 LITERATURE‘ AND ART
:33
longer be determined ; that the several pieces were uniformly original works, is certain. The founder of this new species of literature, Lucius Pomponius from the Latin colony of Bononia, appeared in the first half of the seventh century ;1 and along with his pieces those of another poet Novius soon became favourites. So far as the few remains and the reports of the old lz'tleratorer allow us to form an opinion, they were short farces, ordinarily perhaps of one act, the
charm of which depended less on the preposterous and loosely constructed plot than on the drastic portraiture of particular classes and situations. Festal days and public acts were favourite subjects of comic delineation, such as the
“Marriage,” the "First of March,” “Harlequin Candidate”; so were also foreign nationalities—the Transalpine Gauls, the Syrians; above all, the various trades frequently appear on the boards. The sacristan, the soothsayer, the bird-seer, the physician, the publican, the painter, fisherman, baker,
across the stage; the public criers were severely assailed and still more the fullers, who seem to have played in the Roman fool-world the part of our tailors. While the varied life of the city thus received its due attention, the farmer with his joys and sorrows was also represented in all aspects. The copiousness of this rural repertory may be guessed from the numerous titles of that nature, such as “the Cow,” “the Ass,” “the Kid,” “the Sow,” “the Swine,” “the Sick Boar,” “the Farmer,” “the Countryman,”
“Harlequin Countryman,” “the Cattle-herd,” “the Vine dresser,” “the Fig-gatherer,” “Woodcutting,” “Pruning,”
“the Poultry-yard. ” In these pieces it was always the standing
within the Latin-speaking Campania; for one of these writers of fares, Blaesus of Capreae, bears even a Roman name and wrote a farce "Saturnus. "
1 According to Eusebius, Pomponius flourished about 664; Velleius 90. calls him a contemporary of Lucius Crassus (614-663) and Marcus 140-91. Antonius (611-667). The former statement is probably about a genera- 148-37. tion too late ; the reckoning by zlictoriali (p. 182) which was discontinued
about 6 50 still occurs in his Pictorer, and about the end of this period we 100. already meet the mimes which displaced the Atellanae from the stage.
pass
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LITERATURE AND ART noon rv
figures of the stupid and the artful servant, the good old man, the wise man, that delighted the public; the first in particular might never be wanting—the Pulcinello of this farce-the gluttonous filthy Maccur, hideously ugly and yet eternally in love, always on the point of stumbling across his own path, set upon by all with jeers and with blows and eventually at the close the regular scapegoat. The titles “ Maccur Micr,” “MGL'L‘US Capri,” “Mama Wrga,” “Maczur Exul,” “Macci
Gemini” may furnish the good-humoured reader with some conception of the variety of entertainment in the Roman masquerade. Although these farces, at least after they came to be written, accommodated themselves to the general laws of literature, and in their metres for instance followed the Greek stage, they yet naturally retained a far more Latin and more popular stamp than even the national comedy. The farce resorted to the Greek world only under the form of travestied tragedy;1 and this style appears to have been cultivated first by Novius, and not very frequently in any case. The farce of this poet moreover ventured, if not to trespass on Olympus, at least to touch the most human of the gods, Hercules: he wrote a HZ’rculer Auc tz'onator. The tone, as a matter of course, was not the most refined; very unambiguous ambiguities, coarse rustic Obscenities, ghosts frightening and occasionally
devouring children, formed part of the entertainment, and offensive
personalities, even with the mention of names, not unfre quently crept in. But there was no want also of vivid delineation, of grotesque incidents, of telling jokes, and of pithy sayings ; and the harlequinade rapidly won for itself no inconsiderable position in the theatrical life of the capital and even in literature.
I It was probably merry enough in this form. In the Plonu'uuol Novius, for instance, there was the line :—
Sum ama, iam t: accidam claua . m'rpea, just as Menander's \Ileufinpanhfis makes his appearance,
CHAP- xm LITERATURE AND ART
235
Lastly as regards the development of dramatic arrange- Dram! “ ments we are not in a position to set forth in detail—what mg’ is clear on the whole—that the general interest in dramatic performances was constantly on the increase, and that they
became more and more frequent and magnificent. Not
only was there hardly any ordinary or extraordinary popular
festival that was now celebrated without dramatic exhibi
tions ; even in the country-towns and in private houses repre sentations by companies of hired actors were common. It
is true that, while probably various municipal towns already
at this time possessed theatres built of stone, the capital
was still without one; the building of a theatre, already contracted for, had been again prohibited by the senate in
599 on the suggestion of Publius Scipio Nasica. It was 155. quite in the spirit of the sanctimonious policy of this age,
that the building of a permanent theatre was prohibited out
of respect for the customs of their ancestors, but never theless theatrical entertainments were allowed rapidly to increase, and enormous sums were expended annually in erecting and decorating structures of boards for them.
The arrangements of the stage became visibly better. The improved scenic arrangements and the reintroduction of masks about the time of Terence are doubtless connected
with the fact, that the erection and maintenance of the stage and stage-apparatus were charged in 580 on the 17. 4.
public chest. 1 The plays which Lucius Mummius pro duced after the capture of Corinth (609) formed an epoch 145. in the history of the theatre. It was probably then that
a theatre acoustically constructed after the Greek fashion
1 Hitherto the person providing the play had been obliged to fit up the stage and scenic apparatus out of the round sum assigned to him or at his
own expense, and probably much money would not often be expended on these. But in 580 the censors made the erection of the stage for the 174 games of the praetors and aediles a. matter of special contract (Liv. xli.
:7); the circumstance that the stage-apparatus was now no longer erected merely for a single performance must have led to a puceptible improve
ment of it.
I36
LITERATURE AND ART BOOK IV
and provided with seats was first erected, and more care
was expended on the exhibitions. 1 Now also there is frequent mention of the bestowal of a prize of victory—which implies the competition of several pieces— of the audience taking a lively part for or against the leading actors, of cliques and :lagueurr. The decorations and machinery were improved; moveable scenery artfully painted and audible theatrical thunder made their appear ance under the aedileship of Gaius Claudius Pulcher in
99. 79. 655 ;2 and twenty years later (675) under the aedileship of the brothers Lucius and Marcus Lucullus came the changing of the decorations by shifting the scenes. To the close of this epoch belongs the greatest of Roman
62. actors, the freedman Quintus Roscius about 692 at great age), throughout several generations the ornament and pride of the Roman stage,a the friend and welcome
generally
boon-companion the sequel.
of Sulla—to whom we shall have to recur
In recitative poetry the most surprising circumstance
The attention given to the acoustic an'angements of the Greeks may be Inferred from Vitruv. v. 5, 8. Ritschl (Parerg. 227, xx. ) has dis cussed the question of the seats but probable (according to Plautus, Capt. pro]. 11) that those only who were not capite cum‘ had a claim to a seat. It probable, moreover, that the words of Horace that “ captive Greece led captive her conqueror" primarily refer to these epoch-making theatrical games of Mummius (Tac. Arm. xiv. 2r).
The scenery of Pulcher must have been regularly painted, since the birds are said to have attempted to perch on the tiles (Plin. H. N. xxxv. 4, 23; Val. Max. ii. 4, 6). Hitherto the machinery for thunder had con sisted in the shaking of nails and stones in copper kettle Pulcher first produced a better thunder by rolling stones, which was thenceforth named
" Claudian thunder" (Festus, 1/. Claudiana, p. 57).
Among the few minor poems preserved from this epoch there occurs
the following epigram on this illustrious actor :—
Conrtiteram, exorientm Auroram forte mlufaiu, Cum rubito a [ma Rorciur exoritur.
Pate mi/zi liceat, coelerter, dicere vertra; Mortalir ‘virurt pulchr-iar err: deo.
The author of this epigram, Greek in its tone and inspired by Greek
enthusiasm for art, was no less a man than the conqueror of the Cimbri, 102. Quintus Lutatius Catulus, consul in 652.
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237
the insignificance of the Epos, which during the sixth century had occupied decidedly the first place in the literature destined for reading ; it had numerous representa tives in the seventh, but not a single one who had even temporary success. From the present epoch there is hardly anything to be reported save a number of rude attempts to translate Homer, and some continuations of the Ennian Annals, such as the “Istrian War” of Hostius and the
“Annals (perhaps) of the Gallic War” by Aulus Furius
(about 6 50), which to all appearance took up the narrative 100.
at the very point where Ennius had broken off—the description of the Istrian war of 576 and 577. In didactic 178, 1" and elegiac poetry no prominent name appears. The only successes which the recitative poetry of this period has to
show, belong to the domain of what was called Satura—a
species of art, which like the letter or the pamphlet allowed
of any form and admitted any sort of contents, and accordingly in default of all proper generic characters
derived its individual shape wholly from the individuality
of each poet, and occupied a position not merely on the boundary between poetry and prose, but even more than
half beyond the bounds of literature proper. The humorous
poetical epistles, which one of the younger men of the Scipionic circle, Spurius Mummius, the brother of the destroyer of Corinth, sent home from the camp of Corinth
to his friends, were still read with pleasure a century after
wards; and numerous poetical pleasantries of that sort not destined for publication probably proceeded at that time
from the rich social and intellectual life of the better circles
of Rome.
Its representative in literature is Gaius Lucilius (606
651) sprung of a respectable family in the Latin colony of 148-108. Suessa, and likewise a member of the Scipionic circle.
His poems are, as it were, open letters to the public.
Their contents, as a clever successor gracefully says, embrace
Saturn.
Lnclllul.
238
LITERATURE AND ART noox W
the whole life of a cultivated man of independence, who looks upon the events passing on the political stage from the pit and occasionally from the sidescenes 5 who con verses with the best of his epoch as his equals; who follows literature and science with sympathy and intelligence with out wishing personally to pass for a poet or scholar; and who, in fine, makes his pocket-book the confidential receptacle for everything good and bad that he meets with, for his political experiences and expectations, for gramma tical remarks and criticisms on art, for incidents of his own
life, visits, dinners, journeys, as well as for anecdotes which he has heard. Caustic, capricious, thoroughly individual, the Lucilian poetry has yet the distinct stamp of an opposi tional and, so far, didactic aim in literature as well as in morals and politics; there is in it something of the revolt of the country against the capital; the Suessan’s sense of his own purity of speech and honesty of life asserts itself in antagonism to the great Babel of mingled tongues and corrupt morals. The aspiration of the Scipionic circle after literary correctness, especially in point of language, finds critically its most finished and most clever representative in Lucilius. He dedicated his very first book to Lucius Stilo, the founder of Roman philology 216), and desig
nated as the public for which he wrote not the cultivated circles of pure and classical speech, but the Tarentines, the Bruttians, the Siculi, or in other words the half-Greeks of Italy, whose Latin certainly might well require cor rective. Whole books of his poems are occupied with the settlement of Latin orthography and prosody, with the combating of Praenestine, Sabine, Etruscan provincialisms, with the exposure of current solecisms; along with which, however, the poet by no means forgets to ridicule tne insipidly systematic Isocratean purism of words and phrases,‘
Quam lepide )téfsrs compmtae ut terr:rulae onma Arte pam'menta atgue emblemate wrmiculato
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can. xru LITERATURE AND ART
239
and even to reproach his friend Scipio in right earnest jest with the exclusive fineness of his language. 1 But the poet inculcates purity of morals in public and private life far more earnestly than he preaches pure and simple Latinity. For this his position gave him peculiar advantages. Al though by descent, estate, and culture on a level with the
genteel Romans of his time and possessor of a handsome house in the capital, he was yet not a Roman burgess, but a Latin; even his position towards Scipio, under whom he had served in his early youth during the Numantine war, and in whose house he was a frequent visitor, may be connected with the fact, that Scipio stood in varied relations to the Latins and was their patron in the political feuds of the time (iii. 33 He was thus precluded from public life, and he disdained the career of speculator—he had no desire, as he once said, to “ cease to be Lucilius in order to become an Asiatic revenue-farmer. ” So he lived in the sultry age of the Graechan reforms and the agitations pre ceding the Social war, frequenting the palaces and villas of the Roman grandees and yet not exactly their client, at once in the midst of the strife of political coteries and parties and yet not directly taking part with one or another; in way similar to Béranger, of whom there much that reminds us in the political and poetical position of Lucilius. From this position he uttered his comments on public life with sound common sensethat was not to be shaken,
with good humour that was inexhaustible, and with perpetually gushing:
Nuru: um 11 mane ad noctm, fertn algae prefab Toto itidem pariterque die popular-qua palmgue
lactar: indu fora . te omner, dander: nurquam.
The poet advises him
Quofacelior videane ct . rcire flur guam uteri
to say not perineum: but pmirum.
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LITERATURE AND ART
Uni re algue ez‘a':m rlurl'io amner a'm'er: at arh' , Verba dare at mute porrz'nt, pugnare dalare,
Blandilia urtare, bonum rimulare virum re, lnridimrfacere ut :1’ lwrter rint omnibur onmu.
noon IV
The illustrations of this inexhaustible text remorselessly,‘ without omitting his friends or even the poet himself, as sailed the evils of the age, the coterie-system, the endless Spanish war-service, and the like; the very commence ment of his Satires was a great debate in the senate of the Olympian gods on the question, whether Rome deserved to enjoy the continued protection of the celestials. Cor porations, classes, individuals, were everywhere severally mentioned by name ; the poetry of political polemics, shut. out from the Roman stage, was the true element and life breath of the Lucilian poems, which by the power of the
most pungent wit illustrated with the richest imagery-—a power which still entrances us even in the remains that survive-—pierce and crush their adversary “as by a drawn sword. ” In this—in the moral ascendency and the proud sense of freedom of the poet of Suessa—lies the reason why the refined Venusian, who in the Alexandrian age of Roman poetry revived the Lucilian satire, in spite of all his superi ority in formal skill with true modesty yields to the earlier poet as “his better. ” The language is that of a man of thorough culture, Greek and Latin, who freely indulges his humour; a poet like Lucilius, who is alleged to have made two hundred hexameters before dinner and as many after
in far too great hurry to be nice; useless prolixity, slovenly repetition of the same turn, culpable instances of carelessness frequently occur: the first word, Latin or Greek, always the best. The metres are similarly treated, particularly the very predominant hexameter: we trans pose the words—his clever imitator says-—no man would
observe that he had anything else before him than simple prose in point of effect they can only be compared to our
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can. xm LITERATURE AND ART
241
doggerel verses. 1 The poems of Terence and those of Lucilius stand on the same level of culture, and have the same relation to each other as a carefully prepared and polished literary work has to a letter written on the spur
of the moment. But the incomparably higher intellectual gifts and the freer view of life, which mark the knight of Suessa as compared with the African slave, rendered his success as rapid and brilliant as that of Terence had been laborious and doubtful; Lucilius became immediately the favourite of the nation, and he like Béranger could say of
his poems that “they alone of all were read by the people. ” The uncommon popularity of the Lucilian poem in historical point of view, remarkable event; we see from.
that literature was already power, and beyond doubt we should fall in with various traces of its influence, thorough history of this period had been preserved. Posterity has only confirmed the judgment of contempor aries the Roman judges of art who were opposed to the Alexandrian school assigned to Lucilius the first rank among all the Latin poets. So far as satire can be re
garded as distinct form of art at all, Lucilius created and in created the only species of art which was peculiar to the Romans and was bequeathed them to posterity.
The following longer fragment a characteristic specimen of the style and metrical treatment, the loose structure of which cannot possibly be reproduced in German hexameters :—
Virtur, Albina, ert pretium perrohlere verum Qua’r in vzrramur, qua‘r vi'uimu’ rebu’ patent,
Virtur at Immini rain qua quaeque Meat rer Virtur Jfiift Iwmini rectum, utile, quid rit lumerhml,
Quae tuna, quae mala item, quid inutile, turfe, inlumert‘ull; Virtur quaermdaefinem rei rn'r: modumqu:
Virtur divifiir pretium p:rrol-uere parr:
Virtur id dare quad re ipra debet‘ur honor-i,
Hortm ar: atque inimicum lumu'mnn morumque malmn, Contra defemarem lwminum morumque bonorum,
H0: magnifaure, hi. r 6m: 11:11:, in"r vii/ere amicum Cmmada praeterea patn'rzi prim putare,
Deind: parentum, tertia iam fortr:maque mime v01~ IV
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Historical composi tion. Polybius.
208-127.
the Romans various geographical tales current among the Greeks, such as the Delian legend of Latona, the fables of Europa and of the marvellous bird Phoenix; as was likewise reserved for him on his travels to discover at Dodona and to copy that remarkable tripod, on which might be read the oracle imparted to the Pelasgians before their migration into the land of the Siceli and Aborigines —a discovery which the Roman annals did not neglect devoutly to register.
In historical composition this epoch especially marked by the emergence of an author who did not belong to Italy either by birth or in respect of his intellectual and literary standpoint, but who first or rather alone brought literary appreciation and description to bear on Rome’s place in the world, and to whom all subsequent generations, and we too, owe the best part of our knowledge of the Roman development. Polybius 5464'. 627) of Megalopolis in the Peloponnesus, son of the Achaean statesman
:42
LITERATURE AND ART BOOK iv
Of poetry attaching itself to the Alexandrian school nothing occurs in Rome at this epoch except minor poems translated from or modelled on Alexandrian epigrams, which deserve notice not on their own account, but as the first harbingers of the later epoch of Roman literature. Leaving out of account some poets little known and whose dates cannot be fixed with certainty, there belong to this
102. category Quintus Catulus, consul in 652 36 n. ) and 97. Lucius Manlius, an esteemed senator, who wrote in 657. The latter seems to have been the first to circulate among
189. Lycortas, took part apparently as early as 565 in the expedition of the Romans against the Celts of Asia Minor, and was afterwards on various occasions, especially during the third Macedonian war, employed by his countrymen in military and diplomatic affairs. After the crisis oc casioned that war in Hellas he was carried off along with the other Achaean hostages to Italy (ii. 517), where
by
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CHAP. XIII LITERATURE AND ART
243
he lived in exile for seventeen years (587 -6o4) and was 167-150. introduced by the sons of Paullus to the genteel circles of
the capital. By the sending back of the Achaean hostages
(iii. 264) he was restored to his home, where he thenceforth
acted as permanent mediator between his confederacy and
the Romans. He was present at the destruction of Carthage and of Corinth (608). He seemed educated, as 146. it were, by destiny to comprehend the historical position
of Rome more clearly than the Romans of that day could themselves. From the place which he occupied, a Greek statesman and a Roman prisoner, esteemed and occasion
ally envied for his Hellenic culture by Scipio Aemilianus
and the first men of Rome generally, he saw the streams, which had so long flowed separately, meet together in the same channel and the history of the states of the Medi terranean resolve itself into the hegemony of Roman power
and Greek culture. Thus Polybius became the first Greek
of note, who embraced with serious conviction the compre hensive view of the Scipionic circle, and recognized the superiority of Hellenism in the sphere of intellect and of
the Roman character in the sphere of politics as facts,
which history had given her final decision, and to which people on both sides were entitled and bound to submit. In this spirit he acted as a practical statesman, and wrote his history. If in his youth he had done homage to the honourable but impracticable local patriotism of the Achaeans, during his later years, with a clear discernment of inevitable necessity, he advocated in the community to which he belonged the policy of the closest adherence to Rome. It was a policy in the highest degree judicious and beyond doubt well-intentioned, but it was far from being high-spirited or proud. Nor was Polybius able wholly to disengage himself from the vanity and paltriness of the Hellenic statesmanship of the time. He was hardly released from exile, when he proposed to the senate that
regarding
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LITERATURE AND ART BOOK 1'
it should formally secure to the released their former rank in their several homes; whereupon Cato aptly remarked, that this looked to him as if Ulysses were to return to the cave of Polyphemus to request from the giant his hat and girdle. He often made use of his relations with the great men in Rome to benefit his countrymen; but the way in which he submitted to, and boasted of, the illustrious pro tection somewhat approaches fawning servility. His literary activity breathes throughout the same spirit as his practical action. It was the task of his life to write the history of the union of the Mediterranean states under the hegemony of Rome. From the first Punic war down to the destruction of Carthage and Corinth his work embraces the fortunes of all the civilized states—namely Greece, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Carthage, and Italy—and exhibits in causal connection the mode in which they came under the Roman protectorate; in so far he describes it as his object to demonstrate the fitness and reasonableness of the Roman hegemony. In design as in execution, this history stands in clear and distinct contrast with the contemporary Roman as well as with the contemporary Greek historiography.