" Along the whole
range, therefore, of the eastern coast, although so con-
veniently situated for intercourse with Italy, the an-
cients had but one harbour, Olbia, and that far to the
north; and in modern days, too, no place of any im-
portance is found along this part of Sardinia.
range, therefore, of the eastern coast, although so con-
veniently situated for intercourse with Italy, the an-
cients had but one harbour, Olbia, and that far to the
north; and in modern days, too, no place of any im-
portance is found along this part of Sardinia.
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
1, p.
420.
)
SANOAKIUS, a river of Asia Minor, rising near a
place called Sangia (Sayyi'a), in Mount Adoreus, a
branch of Mount Dindymus, in Galatia, and falling into
the Euxine on the coast of Bithynia. Its source was
150 stadia from Pessinus. According to Strabo (543),
it formed the true eastern boundary of Bithynia, and
bis account coincides in this with that of the earlier
writers. (Scylax, p. 34. --Apoll. Rhad. . ,1, 724. ) The
Bithynian kings, however, gradually extended their
dominions farther to the east, and the Romans gave
the country a still farther enlargement on this side.
This river is called Sangaris by Constantino Porphy-
rogenitus (1, 5), and Sagaris by Ovid (ep. e Pont. , 4,
10). The modern name is the Sakaria. . (Manncrl't
Gcogr, vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 607. )
SANNYKION, an Athenian comic poet, contemporary
with Aristophanes. Little is known of him. One of
bis p'ays, entitled Aaxcj? (/),<v. -i. '). in which he bur-
lesqued a verse of the Orestes of Euripides (Sckol. ad
Aristoph. , Ran, p. 142. -- Schol. ad Eurip. , Orett. ,
279), appears to have been acted about 407 B. C.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 81. ) Another comedy of
ii<<, entitled Fc'Xur ("Laughter"), is also mentioned.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 91. -- Bentley's Pkalarii,
rul. 1, p. 261, . erf. Dyce. )
SANTONKS, a people of Gallia Aquitanica. north ol
the mouth of the Garumna, on the coast. Their cap-
ital was Mediolanum Santonum, now Saintcs. (Plin. ,
4, 19. --Cos. , B. G , 1. 10. --Id. ibid. , 3, 111 )
SiFig, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in Umbria,
and falling into the Hadriatic below Ravenna. It is
now the Sana or Alps. It was also called Isapis
(Plin. , 3, 15. --Sil. Ital. , 8, 449. --Lucan , 2, 405. )
SAPOR, I. a king of Persia, who succeeded his fa-
tner, Artazerxes, about the 238th year of the Christian
era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, Sapor wished to
increase his paternal dominions by conquest; and, as
the indolence of the emperors of Rome seemed favour-
able to his views, he laid waste the provinces of Meso-
potamia, Syria, and Cilicia; and ho might have be-
come master of all Asia if Odenatus had not stoppoc
bis progress. If Gordian attempted to repel him, his
efforts were weak, and Philip, who succeeded him on
tho imperial throne, bought the peace of Sapor will
money. Valerian, who was afterward invested will
the purple, marched against the Persian monarch, bu
was defeated and taken prisoner. Odenatus no soon
er heard that the Roman emperor was a captive in
the bands of Sapor, than he attempted to release him
by force of arms. The forces of Persia were cut tc
? ? pieces, the wives and treasures of the monarch fel
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? SAPPHO.
SAPPHO.
I nved, were sent away from Leucadia. (Concern-
ing the connexion if this custom with the worship of
Apollo, see Miller's Dorians, b. 1, ch. 11, $ 10. )
This custom was applied in various ways by the poets
? f the time to the description of lovers. Stesichorus,
in his poetical novel named Calyce, spoke of the love
of a virtuous maiden for a youth who despised her
passion; and, in despair, she threw herself from the
Leucadian rock. The effect of the leap in the story
of Sappho (namely, the curing her of her intolerable
passion) must, therefore, have been unknown to Ste-
aichorus. Some years later, Anacrawn says in an ode,
"Again casting myself from the Leucadian rock, I
plunged into the gray sea. drunk with lnvn" (ap. He-
phast. , p. 130). The poet can scarcely, by these
words, be supposed to say that he cures himself of a
vehement passion, but rather means to describe the
delicious intoxication of violent love. The story of
Sappho's leap probably originated in some poetical im-
ages and relations of this kind; a similar story is told
of Venus in regard to her lament for Adonis. (PtoL,
Hephasl. , ap. Phot. , cod. , \9l:--ed. Bekk. , vol. 1, p.
153. ) Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the leap
from the Leucadian rock may really have been made,
in ancient times, by desperate and frantic persons.
Another proof of the fictifious character of the story is,
that it leaves the principal point in uncertainty, name-
ly, whether Sappho survived the leap or perished in it.
(Miller, Hist. Gr. hit. , p. 175. )--It appears that
Sappho became united in marriage to an individual
named Cercolas, and the fruit of this union was a
daughter, named Cleia (YLXtic), who is mentioned by
the poetess in one of her fragments. Having lost her
husband, Sappho turned her attention to literary pur-
suits, and inspired many of the Lesbian females with
a taste for similar occupations. She composed lyric
pieces, of which she left nine books, elegies, h'yrnns,
Ac. The admiration which these productions excited
was universal; her contemporaries carried it to the
highest pitch ef enthusiasm, and saw in her a superior
being: the Lesbians placed her image on their coins,
as that of a divinity. --Sappho had assembled around
her a number of young females, natives of Lesbos,
whom she instructed in music and poetry. They re-
vered her as their benefactress, and her attachment to
them was of the most affectionate description. This
intimacy was made a pretext by the licentious spirit of
later ages for the most dishonourable calumnies. An
expression in Horace (" maseula Sappho," Ep. , 1, 19,
28) has been thought to countenance this charge, but
its meaning has been grossly misunderstood; and,
what is still more to the purpose, it would appear that
the illustrious poetess has been ignorantly confounded
with a dissolute female of the same name, a native of
Lesbos, though not of Mytilene. (Vid. Sappho II. )
Indeed, as the Abbe Barthelemy has remarked, the ac-
counts that have reached us respecting the licentious
character of Sappho, have come only from writers long
subsequent to the age in which she lived. Sappho,
the favoured of the Muses, was, as we have just en-
deavoured to show, never enamoured of Phaon, nor
lid she ever make the leap of Leucadia. Indeed, the
severity with which Sappho censured her brother Cha-
raxus for his love for the courtesan Rhndopis, enables
us to form some judgment of the principles by which
? he guided her own conduct. For although, at the
time when she wrote this ode to him, the fire of youth-
? ? ful passion had been quenched within her breast, yet
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? S AR
SAR
being thus p. oved by the testimony of three authors,
it remains. to examine which of the two was the one
that loved Phaon, and leaped in despair from the
promontory of Leucate. Herodotus, the oldest au-
thor that makes mention of Sappho, only knew the
native of Mytilene. He is silent respecting her love
for Phaon, and, considering the discursive nature of
his history, he no doubt would have mentioned it
had the circumstance been true. Hermesianax, a
pieco of whose on the loves of poets is quoted by
Athena'iis {13, p. 598, seqq), speaks of Sappho's
attachment for Anacreon, but is ailent respecting
Phaon, when, in fact, her fatal passion for the latter,
and particularly its sad catastrophe, suited so well
the spirit, of his piece, that he could not have avoid-
ed mentioning them had they been true. In ait epi-
gram by Antipater of Sidon (Ep. , 70. --Jacobs's An-
thologia Gt. , vol. 2, p. 25), relative to the death of
Sappho, that poet is not only silent respecting her
tragical end at Leucate, but, according to him, she
fell in the course of nature, and her tomb was in her
Dative island. In the Bibliotheca of Photius, to which
we have already referred (vol. 1, p. 163, ed. Bekker),
an extract is given from a work of Ptolemy, son of
Hephaestion, in which is detailed a kind of history of
the leaps from Leucate. It is remarkable that no
mention is made in this account of the fate of Sappho,
although many instances are cited of those who had
made the hazardous experiment. All these negative
authorities would seem to more than counterbalance
the testimony of Ovid, who, in one of his Hero'ides,
confounds the female who was enamoured of Phaon
with the lyric poetess. --According to Strabo (452),
Menander made Sappho to have been the first that
ever took the leap. (Menandri, Reliq. , ed. Mcineke,
p. 105. ) Now Menander lived in tho fourth century
before our era, and the existence of the Sappho, there-
fore, who threw herself from the rock of Leucate, may
he traced up as far at least as three centuries prior to
the Christian era. It does not, however, go back as
far as the fifth century, since Herodotus, who flourish-
ed at that period, makes no mention cf the tragic end
of the Mytilcnian poetess: the natural inference,
therefore, is, that Sappho of Mytilene did not leap
from the promontory of Leucate, and that Sappho
of Eresus, who did, was not born when Herodotus
wrote his history. --Visconti has the merit of having
been the first modem writer who suspected that the
episode of Phaon and the catastrophe at Leucate be-
longed rather to the second than the first Sappho.
(Iconogr. Grera, vol. 1, p. 81, seqq. ) His suspicions
would have been changed into certainty if ho could
have foreseen the discovery of the ancient medal,
brought to light after his decease, and which so fully
establishes the existence of a second Sappho, a native
of Eresus. (Biogr. itniv. , vol. 40, p. 398. -- Com-
pare the remarks of Weleker, Sappho von einem herr-
Mchcndcn vorurlheil befreyt, Gott. , 1816, 8vo. )
Sa raceni, or, more correctly, A rraceni, a name first
belonging to a people in Arabia Felix, and derived
most probably from that of the town Arra. The ap-
plication of the name Saraceni to all the Arabians,
and thence to all Mohammedans, is of comparatively
recent origin. Ammianus Marcellinus employs the
term in question as having been used by others before
him. (Ammtaius Marcell. , 14, 4; 22, 15; 23, 6;
*4, 2. )
? ? Sardanapalos, the last king of Assyria, infamous
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? SARDINIA.
SARDINIA.
fc-orc the interior of the mountain ranges, and dt {real
damage to vessels along these shores. Hence proba-
b>- Ue appellation of ? ? Insani Monies" and hence,
too, the language of Claudian {Bell. Gildon. , v. 512),
"Insanos vnfamat navita monies.
" Along the whole
range, therefore, of the eastern coast, although so con-
veniently situated for intercourse with Italy, the an-
cients had but one harbour, Olbia, and that far to the
north; and in modern days, too, no place of any im-
portance is found along this part of Sardinia. The
Mountain atmosphere was healthy, but the rugged na-
ture of the ranges and the wild cnaracter ot the in-
habitants forbade any attempts at cultivation. In the
western and southern parts, on the other hand, tho soil
was fertile and well cultivated, but the climate very
unhealthy. Thus Mela remarks (2,7), " ul fecunda ita
pane pi ttilens insula. " The noxious effects of the
climate were still more sensibly felt by strangers than
by natives. Hence, whenever the Romans wished to
designate a particularly unhealthy region, they named
Sardinia; and so greatly did they dread the effects of
its climate, that they never ventured to keep a stand-
ing force in it for any length of time. (Cie , ep. ad
Quint. , fratrem, 2, 3. --Straio, 225. ) The principal
causes of this unhealthiness were the pools of stag-
nant water in the hollows of the island, and the want
of northerly winds. These winds were kept off, as
Pausaniaa believed (10, 17), by the mountains of Cor-
sica and even of Italy. The Insani Monies also
contributed their share in producing this. (Claudian,
Bell. Gildonic, v. 512, stqq. )--The fertility of the
island is attested by all the ancient writers; neither
wan it infested by any snakes, nor by any beasts of
prey. Rome obtained her supplies of grain not only
/ro n Sicily, but also from Sardinia; large quantities
of salt, too, as in modern times, were manufactured
or the western and southern coasts. The ancient
writers speak of mines, and Solinus (c. 11) of silver
ones: tho names of various places in the island indi-
eat: a mining country, as Metalla, Insula Plumbaria,
Ac. ; and Ptolemy makes mention of several mineral
springs and baths. Two products of the ialand, how-
ever, deserve particular notice. One of these is its
wool. Numerous herds of cattle were reared in the
island, as might be expected among a people who paid
little attention to, and derived little subsistence from
agriculture. (Diod. , 5, 15. ) It must oe remarked,
however, that the animals chiefly killed for food were
of a mongrel kind, begotten between a sheep and a
goat, and called musmones. (Plin , 8, 49. --Pausan. ,
10, 17. ) They were covered with a long and coarse
hair, and their skins served for the common clothing
of the mountaineers, whom Livy hence styles Pelliti.
In winter they wore the hair inward. {Lilian, H. A. ,
16, 31. ) In war they had small bucklers covered
With these skins. They were named from this attire
Maslrucali; and the Maslrucali Latrunculi were of-
ten very dangerous antagonists for the Romans. The
other remarkable product of Sardinia was a species
of wild parsley (apiastrum), called by Solinus herba
Sardonic. It grew very abundantly around springs
and wet places. Whoever ate of it died, apparently
Jaughing; in other words, the nerves became con-
tracted, and the lips of the sufferer assumed the ap-
pearance of an involuntary and paim'il laugh. Hence
the expression Sardonicus risus. (Pausan. , 10, 17.
--Solin. , c. 11. --Plin. , 20, 11. ) It must bo remark-
? ? ed, however, that the phrase utiSnot 2ap<56i><ov oc-
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? BAR
<<A R
will is surmounted with a parapet. Each nuraghe is
divided into three chambers or stories, the communi-
cation to which is effected by a kind of spiral ascent
in the side wall. (Mimant, Histoire de Sardaigne,
Paris, 1825. --De la Marmora, Voyage en Sardaigne,
Paris, 1826. --Petit Radel, Notices sur Us Nuraghcs
ie la Sardaigne, Paris, 1826. ) The author last cited
regards the nuraghes as of Cyclopian or Pelasgic ori-
gin, and carries back the period of their construction
to the 15th century before the Christian era. (Man-
nert, Geogr. , vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 468. --Balbi, Abrigi de
Geographie, p. 294. )
Sardis or Sprues (the Ionic forms of the name are
oi SufxSir and Xupdicc, the ordinary Greek form is
a: Supdeif/), a city of*Lydia, the ancient capital of
tho monarchs of the country. It was situate at the
foot of Mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, which
ran thiough the place; and on one of the elevations
of the mountain, comprehended within the circuit of
the city, waa the site of a strong citadel. According
to Herodotus (1, 84), a concubine of Males, king of
Lydia, had brought forth a young lion, and the mon-
arch was informed by the Telmessian diviners, that if
this animal were carried by him quite round the works
of the city, Sardis should be for ever impregnable.
The young lion was brought to every other pari of the
place except the steep side of the citadel which faced
Mount Tmolus, this latter part being neglected as al-
together insuperable and inaccessible; and yet by this
very part it was subsequently taken. This legend,
combined with the statement of Joannes Lydus {de
Mens. , p. 42), that Sardis was an old Lydian word
denoting *' the Year," has led Creuzer to give an as-
tronomical turn to the whole tradition. (Creuzer und
Hermann, Briefe, p. 10G, in 7iotis. )--Sardis was said
to have been destroyed by the Cimmerians during their
inroad into Asia (Strabo, 627), but to havo been soon
ifter rebuilt and strongly fortified: it is to this latter
period, no doubt, that the legend above mentioned re-
fers. As the capital of Crcesus, king of Lydia, it is
frequently mentioned in Herodotus, and the historian
relate* the manner in which it fell into the hands of
Cyrus, the citadel having been surprised on the very
side that was deemed inaccessible. The city retained
its size and importance under the Persian dominion.
Herodotus (7, 31) names it, by way of distinction,
'? the city of the Indians'' (ruv Atduv to daw), and
it became tho seat of the Persian satraps, as it had
been of the Lydian kings. The fortifications, how-
ever, must havo been destroyed by its new masters,
since otherwiso the Greeks could not have so easily
penetrated into the place in the expedition which pre-
ceded the Persian war. From the account of Herod-
otus (5, 100), the citadel alone would appear to have
remained. And yet, with all its greatness, Sardis
could not have been in these early times a well-built
city; at least the greater part of the houses would
seem to have been constructed of reeds, according to
the account of Herodotus, and even those which were
built with bricks were roofed with reeds. One of
these, on this occasion, was set on fire by a soldier,
and immedistely the flame spread from house to house,
and consumed the whole city. The temple of Cybele
also suffered in the conflagration, and it was this cir-
cumstance that gave Xerxes a pretext for destroying
the temples of Greece. --The city and acropolis sur-
rendered, at a later day, on the approach of Alexander
? ? after the battle of the Granicus. He encamped by the
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? SAR
SAT
mg la Strabo, it formed the harbour of that town, which
was also common to tne inland cities of Nola, Acerrc,
and Nuceria. The same writer adds, that it was navi-
gable for the space of eighteen miles; a circumstance
which will scarcely be found applicable to the present
stream; whence we should be led to conclude that a
considerable change has taken place in its course.
(Strabo, 247. ) The Pelasgi, who occupied this coast
at an early period, are said to have derived the name
of Sarrastes from thia river. (Cramer's Anc. Italy,
To! . 3, p. 180. )
Saron, a king of Troezene, unusually fond of hunt-
ing. He was drowned in the sea. while pursuing a
atag which had taken to the water, and divine hon-
ours were paid him after death. According to one ac-
count, he gave name to the Sinus Saronicus. Saron
built a temple to Diana at Troezene, and instituted
festivals in honour of her, called from himself Saronia.
(Pausan. , 2, 30. --Mela, 2, 3. )
SaronIcds Sinds, now the Gulf of Engia, a bay
>>f the ^Egean Sea, lying to the southwest of Attica,
and northeast of Argolis, and commencing between
the promontoriea of Sunium and Scylleum. Some
suppose that this part of the sea received its name
from Saron, who was drowned there, or from a small
river which discharged itself on the coast. Pliny,
however, makes the name lo bave come from the for-
ests of oak which at one time covered the shores of
the gulf, the term oapavic, in early Greek, signifying
"an oak. " (Pliny, 4, 9. -- Compare Schol. ad Cal-
tim, H. in Jon. , 22 )
Sarpkdon, I. a son of Jupiter by Europa, the daugh-
ter of Agenor. He was driven from Crete by his broth-
er Minos (rid. Rhadamanthus), and thereupon retired to
Lycia, where he aided Cilix against the people of that
country, and obtained the sovereignty of a part of it.
Jupiter is said to have bestowed upon him a life of
treble duration. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 2. -- Heyne, ad loc. )
--IE. A son of Jupiter and Laodamia the daughter of
Bcllerophon. He was king of Lycia, and leader with
Glaucus of the Lycian auxiliaries of Priam. The char-
acter of Sarpedon is represented as the most faultless
and amiable in the Iliad. He was by birth superior
to all the chiefs of either side, and his valour was not
unworthy of his descent. The account of his conflict
with Patroclus; the concern of Jupiter at his perilous
situation: the deliberation of the god whether he should
avert the hostile decrees of fate; and the subsequent
description of his death, are among the most striking
of all the episodes of the Iliad. (Horn. , II. , 16, 419,
ieqq. )--III. A promontory of the same name in Cili-
cia, beyond which Antiochus was not permitted to sail
by a treaty of peace which he had made with the Ro-
mans. (Liry, 38, 38". --Mela, I, 13. )
Sarra, the earlier Latin name for the city of Tyre.
The*Oriental form was 7ior or Sor. for which the
Carthaginians said Tsar or Sar, and the Romans, re-
ceiving the term from those, converted it into Sarra,
whence they also formed the adjective Sarranvs,
equivalent to "Tyrian. " (Virg. , Georg. , 2, 506. --
Sealiger, ad Paul. Diac. , s. v. Sarra. ) Servius erro-
neously deduces the appellation from Sor, which, ac-
cording to him, is the Phoenician name for the murex,
or shellfish that yielded the purple. (Serv. ad Virg. ,
I. c. ) The Greek name Tvpoc proceeds probably from
an Aramaic pronunciation, Tor. (Gesenius, Hear.
I*x. , vol. 2, p. 672, ed. Leo)
? ? Sarrastis, a people of Campania on the Sarnus.
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? SAT
3 AT
mien unable to make head against his powerful adver-
sary. --W. Pompeius, a writer in the reign of Trajan.
He was greatly esteemed by Pliny the younger, who
speaks of him with great warmth and approbation as an
historian, a poet, and an orator. Pliny always con-
sulted the opinion of Salurninus before he published
his compositions. (Plin. , Epist. , 1, 8. --Id. , 1, 16. )
Satuhnus (called by the Greeks Koovoc), a son of
Coelus or Uranus, and Terra, or the goddess of the
earth. Terra bore to Uranus a mighty progeny, the
Titans, six males and six females. The youngest of
the former was Saturn. These children were hated
by their father, who, as soon as they were born, thrust
them out of his sight into a cavern of Earth. (Vblcker,
Myth, der lap. , 283. -- Compare Apollud. , 1, 1, 3. )
Earth, grieved at this unnatural conduct, produced
"the substance of hoary oteel," and, forming from it a
sickle, roused her children, the Titans, to rebellion
against their father; but fear seized on them all
except Saturn, who, lying in wait with the sickle with
which his mother had armed him, mutilated his unsus-
pecting father. The drops which fell on the earth
from the wound gave birth to the Erinnyes, the Giants,
and the Melian nymphs. (Hes? Thcog. , 155,stqq. )--
After this, Saturn obtained his father's kingdom, with
the consent of his brethren, provided he did not bring
up any male children. Pursuant to this agreement,
Saturn always devoured his sons as soon as born, be-
cause, as some observe, he dreaded from them a retal-
iation of his unkindness to his father, till his wife
Rhea, unwilling to see her children perish, concealed
from her husband the birth of Jupiter, Neptune, and
Pluto, and, instead of the children, she gave him large
stones, which he immediately swallowed, without per-
ceiving the deceit. The other Titans having been in-
formed that Saturn had concealed his male children,
made war against him, dethroned and imprisoned him
with Rhea; and Jupiter, who was secretly educated
in Crete, was no sooner grown up, than he flew to de-
liver his father, and to place him on his throne. Sat-
urn, unmindful of his son's kindness, conspired against
him; but Jupiter banished him from his throne, and the
father fled for safely into Italy, where the country re-
tained the name of Latium, as being the place of his
eynccalmcnt (from lateo, "to lie concealed"). Janus,
who was then King of Italy, received Saturn with
marks of attention.
SANOAKIUS, a river of Asia Minor, rising near a
place called Sangia (Sayyi'a), in Mount Adoreus, a
branch of Mount Dindymus, in Galatia, and falling into
the Euxine on the coast of Bithynia. Its source was
150 stadia from Pessinus. According to Strabo (543),
it formed the true eastern boundary of Bithynia, and
bis account coincides in this with that of the earlier
writers. (Scylax, p. 34. --Apoll. Rhad. . ,1, 724. ) The
Bithynian kings, however, gradually extended their
dominions farther to the east, and the Romans gave
the country a still farther enlargement on this side.
This river is called Sangaris by Constantino Porphy-
rogenitus (1, 5), and Sagaris by Ovid (ep. e Pont. , 4,
10). The modern name is the Sakaria. . (Manncrl't
Gcogr, vol. 6, pt. 3, p. 607. )
SANNYKION, an Athenian comic poet, contemporary
with Aristophanes. Little is known of him. One of
bis p'ays, entitled Aaxcj? (/),<v. -i. '). in which he bur-
lesqued a verse of the Orestes of Euripides (Sckol. ad
Aristoph. , Ran, p. 142. -- Schol. ad Eurip. , Orett. ,
279), appears to have been acted about 407 B. C.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 81. ) Another comedy of
ii<<, entitled Fc'Xur ("Laughter"), is also mentioned.
(Clinton, Fast. Hellen. , p. 91. -- Bentley's Pkalarii,
rul. 1, p. 261, . erf. Dyce. )
SANTONKS, a people of Gallia Aquitanica. north ol
the mouth of the Garumna, on the coast. Their cap-
ital was Mediolanum Santonum, now Saintcs. (Plin. ,
4, 19. --Cos. , B. G , 1. 10. --Id. ibid. , 3, 111 )
SiFig, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in Umbria,
and falling into the Hadriatic below Ravenna. It is
now the Sana or Alps. It was also called Isapis
(Plin. , 3, 15. --Sil. Ital. , 8, 449. --Lucan , 2, 405. )
SAPOR, I. a king of Persia, who succeeded his fa-
tner, Artazerxes, about the 238th year of the Christian
era. Naturally fierce and ambitious, Sapor wished to
increase his paternal dominions by conquest; and, as
the indolence of the emperors of Rome seemed favour-
able to his views, he laid waste the provinces of Meso-
potamia, Syria, and Cilicia; and ho might have be-
come master of all Asia if Odenatus had not stoppoc
bis progress. If Gordian attempted to repel him, his
efforts were weak, and Philip, who succeeded him on
tho imperial throne, bought the peace of Sapor will
money. Valerian, who was afterward invested will
the purple, marched against the Persian monarch, bu
was defeated and taken prisoner. Odenatus no soon
er heard that the Roman emperor was a captive in
the bands of Sapor, than he attempted to release him
by force of arms. The forces of Persia were cut tc
? ? pieces, the wives and treasures of the monarch fel
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? SAPPHO.
SAPPHO.
I nved, were sent away from Leucadia. (Concern-
ing the connexion if this custom with the worship of
Apollo, see Miller's Dorians, b. 1, ch. 11, $ 10. )
This custom was applied in various ways by the poets
? f the time to the description of lovers. Stesichorus,
in his poetical novel named Calyce, spoke of the love
of a virtuous maiden for a youth who despised her
passion; and, in despair, she threw herself from the
Leucadian rock. The effect of the leap in the story
of Sappho (namely, the curing her of her intolerable
passion) must, therefore, have been unknown to Ste-
aichorus. Some years later, Anacrawn says in an ode,
"Again casting myself from the Leucadian rock, I
plunged into the gray sea. drunk with lnvn" (ap. He-
phast. , p. 130). The poet can scarcely, by these
words, be supposed to say that he cures himself of a
vehement passion, but rather means to describe the
delicious intoxication of violent love. The story of
Sappho's leap probably originated in some poetical im-
ages and relations of this kind; a similar story is told
of Venus in regard to her lament for Adonis. (PtoL,
Hephasl. , ap. Phot. , cod. , \9l:--ed. Bekk. , vol. 1, p.
153. ) Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the leap
from the Leucadian rock may really have been made,
in ancient times, by desperate and frantic persons.
Another proof of the fictifious character of the story is,
that it leaves the principal point in uncertainty, name-
ly, whether Sappho survived the leap or perished in it.
(Miller, Hist. Gr. hit. , p. 175. )--It appears that
Sappho became united in marriage to an individual
named Cercolas, and the fruit of this union was a
daughter, named Cleia (YLXtic), who is mentioned by
the poetess in one of her fragments. Having lost her
husband, Sappho turned her attention to literary pur-
suits, and inspired many of the Lesbian females with
a taste for similar occupations. She composed lyric
pieces, of which she left nine books, elegies, h'yrnns,
Ac. The admiration which these productions excited
was universal; her contemporaries carried it to the
highest pitch ef enthusiasm, and saw in her a superior
being: the Lesbians placed her image on their coins,
as that of a divinity. --Sappho had assembled around
her a number of young females, natives of Lesbos,
whom she instructed in music and poetry. They re-
vered her as their benefactress, and her attachment to
them was of the most affectionate description. This
intimacy was made a pretext by the licentious spirit of
later ages for the most dishonourable calumnies. An
expression in Horace (" maseula Sappho," Ep. , 1, 19,
28) has been thought to countenance this charge, but
its meaning has been grossly misunderstood; and,
what is still more to the purpose, it would appear that
the illustrious poetess has been ignorantly confounded
with a dissolute female of the same name, a native of
Lesbos, though not of Mytilene. (Vid. Sappho II. )
Indeed, as the Abbe Barthelemy has remarked, the ac-
counts that have reached us respecting the licentious
character of Sappho, have come only from writers long
subsequent to the age in which she lived. Sappho,
the favoured of the Muses, was, as we have just en-
deavoured to show, never enamoured of Phaon, nor
lid she ever make the leap of Leucadia. Indeed, the
severity with which Sappho censured her brother Cha-
raxus for his love for the courtesan Rhndopis, enables
us to form some judgment of the principles by which
? he guided her own conduct. For although, at the
time when she wrote this ode to him, the fire of youth-
? ? ful passion had been quenched within her breast, yet
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? S AR
SAR
being thus p. oved by the testimony of three authors,
it remains. to examine which of the two was the one
that loved Phaon, and leaped in despair from the
promontory of Leucate. Herodotus, the oldest au-
thor that makes mention of Sappho, only knew the
native of Mytilene. He is silent respecting her love
for Phaon, and, considering the discursive nature of
his history, he no doubt would have mentioned it
had the circumstance been true. Hermesianax, a
pieco of whose on the loves of poets is quoted by
Athena'iis {13, p. 598, seqq), speaks of Sappho's
attachment for Anacreon, but is ailent respecting
Phaon, when, in fact, her fatal passion for the latter,
and particularly its sad catastrophe, suited so well
the spirit, of his piece, that he could not have avoid-
ed mentioning them had they been true. In ait epi-
gram by Antipater of Sidon (Ep. , 70. --Jacobs's An-
thologia Gt. , vol. 2, p. 25), relative to the death of
Sappho, that poet is not only silent respecting her
tragical end at Leucate, but, according to him, she
fell in the course of nature, and her tomb was in her
Dative island. In the Bibliotheca of Photius, to which
we have already referred (vol. 1, p. 163, ed. Bekker),
an extract is given from a work of Ptolemy, son of
Hephaestion, in which is detailed a kind of history of
the leaps from Leucate. It is remarkable that no
mention is made in this account of the fate of Sappho,
although many instances are cited of those who had
made the hazardous experiment. All these negative
authorities would seem to more than counterbalance
the testimony of Ovid, who, in one of his Hero'ides,
confounds the female who was enamoured of Phaon
with the lyric poetess. --According to Strabo (452),
Menander made Sappho to have been the first that
ever took the leap. (Menandri, Reliq. , ed. Mcineke,
p. 105. ) Now Menander lived in tho fourth century
before our era, and the existence of the Sappho, there-
fore, who threw herself from the rock of Leucate, may
he traced up as far at least as three centuries prior to
the Christian era. It does not, however, go back as
far as the fifth century, since Herodotus, who flourish-
ed at that period, makes no mention cf the tragic end
of the Mytilcnian poetess: the natural inference,
therefore, is, that Sappho of Mytilene did not leap
from the promontory of Leucate, and that Sappho
of Eresus, who did, was not born when Herodotus
wrote his history. --Visconti has the merit of having
been the first modem writer who suspected that the
episode of Phaon and the catastrophe at Leucate be-
longed rather to the second than the first Sappho.
(Iconogr. Grera, vol. 1, p. 81, seqq. ) His suspicions
would have been changed into certainty if ho could
have foreseen the discovery of the ancient medal,
brought to light after his decease, and which so fully
establishes the existence of a second Sappho, a native
of Eresus. (Biogr. itniv. , vol. 40, p. 398. -- Com-
pare the remarks of Weleker, Sappho von einem herr-
Mchcndcn vorurlheil befreyt, Gott. , 1816, 8vo. )
Sa raceni, or, more correctly, A rraceni, a name first
belonging to a people in Arabia Felix, and derived
most probably from that of the town Arra. The ap-
plication of the name Saraceni to all the Arabians,
and thence to all Mohammedans, is of comparatively
recent origin. Ammianus Marcellinus employs the
term in question as having been used by others before
him. (Ammtaius Marcell. , 14, 4; 22, 15; 23, 6;
*4, 2. )
? ? Sardanapalos, the last king of Assyria, infamous
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? SARDINIA.
SARDINIA.
fc-orc the interior of the mountain ranges, and dt {real
damage to vessels along these shores. Hence proba-
b>- Ue appellation of ? ? Insani Monies" and hence,
too, the language of Claudian {Bell. Gildon. , v. 512),
"Insanos vnfamat navita monies.
" Along the whole
range, therefore, of the eastern coast, although so con-
veniently situated for intercourse with Italy, the an-
cients had but one harbour, Olbia, and that far to the
north; and in modern days, too, no place of any im-
portance is found along this part of Sardinia. The
Mountain atmosphere was healthy, but the rugged na-
ture of the ranges and the wild cnaracter ot the in-
habitants forbade any attempts at cultivation. In the
western and southern parts, on the other hand, tho soil
was fertile and well cultivated, but the climate very
unhealthy. Thus Mela remarks (2,7), " ul fecunda ita
pane pi ttilens insula. " The noxious effects of the
climate were still more sensibly felt by strangers than
by natives. Hence, whenever the Romans wished to
designate a particularly unhealthy region, they named
Sardinia; and so greatly did they dread the effects of
its climate, that they never ventured to keep a stand-
ing force in it for any length of time. (Cie , ep. ad
Quint. , fratrem, 2, 3. --Straio, 225. ) The principal
causes of this unhealthiness were the pools of stag-
nant water in the hollows of the island, and the want
of northerly winds. These winds were kept off, as
Pausaniaa believed (10, 17), by the mountains of Cor-
sica and even of Italy. The Insani Monies also
contributed their share in producing this. (Claudian,
Bell. Gildonic, v. 512, stqq. )--The fertility of the
island is attested by all the ancient writers; neither
wan it infested by any snakes, nor by any beasts of
prey. Rome obtained her supplies of grain not only
/ro n Sicily, but also from Sardinia; large quantities
of salt, too, as in modern times, were manufactured
or the western and southern coasts. The ancient
writers speak of mines, and Solinus (c. 11) of silver
ones: tho names of various places in the island indi-
eat: a mining country, as Metalla, Insula Plumbaria,
Ac. ; and Ptolemy makes mention of several mineral
springs and baths. Two products of the ialand, how-
ever, deserve particular notice. One of these is its
wool. Numerous herds of cattle were reared in the
island, as might be expected among a people who paid
little attention to, and derived little subsistence from
agriculture. (Diod. , 5, 15. ) It must oe remarked,
however, that the animals chiefly killed for food were
of a mongrel kind, begotten between a sheep and a
goat, and called musmones. (Plin , 8, 49. --Pausan. ,
10, 17. ) They were covered with a long and coarse
hair, and their skins served for the common clothing
of the mountaineers, whom Livy hence styles Pelliti.
In winter they wore the hair inward. {Lilian, H. A. ,
16, 31. ) In war they had small bucklers covered
With these skins. They were named from this attire
Maslrucali; and the Maslrucali Latrunculi were of-
ten very dangerous antagonists for the Romans. The
other remarkable product of Sardinia was a species
of wild parsley (apiastrum), called by Solinus herba
Sardonic. It grew very abundantly around springs
and wet places. Whoever ate of it died, apparently
Jaughing; in other words, the nerves became con-
tracted, and the lips of the sufferer assumed the ap-
pearance of an involuntary and paim'il laugh. Hence
the expression Sardonicus risus. (Pausan. , 10, 17.
--Solin. , c. 11. --Plin. , 20, 11. ) It must bo remark-
? ? ed, however, that the phrase utiSnot 2ap<56i><ov oc-
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? BAR
<<A R
will is surmounted with a parapet. Each nuraghe is
divided into three chambers or stories, the communi-
cation to which is effected by a kind of spiral ascent
in the side wall. (Mimant, Histoire de Sardaigne,
Paris, 1825. --De la Marmora, Voyage en Sardaigne,
Paris, 1826. --Petit Radel, Notices sur Us Nuraghcs
ie la Sardaigne, Paris, 1826. ) The author last cited
regards the nuraghes as of Cyclopian or Pelasgic ori-
gin, and carries back the period of their construction
to the 15th century before the Christian era. (Man-
nert, Geogr. , vol. 9, pt. 2, p. 468. --Balbi, Abrigi de
Geographie, p. 294. )
Sardis or Sprues (the Ionic forms of the name are
oi SufxSir and Xupdicc, the ordinary Greek form is
a: Supdeif/), a city of*Lydia, the ancient capital of
tho monarchs of the country. It was situate at the
foot of Mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, which
ran thiough the place; and on one of the elevations
of the mountain, comprehended within the circuit of
the city, waa the site of a strong citadel. According
to Herodotus (1, 84), a concubine of Males, king of
Lydia, had brought forth a young lion, and the mon-
arch was informed by the Telmessian diviners, that if
this animal were carried by him quite round the works
of the city, Sardis should be for ever impregnable.
The young lion was brought to every other pari of the
place except the steep side of the citadel which faced
Mount Tmolus, this latter part being neglected as al-
together insuperable and inaccessible; and yet by this
very part it was subsequently taken. This legend,
combined with the statement of Joannes Lydus {de
Mens. , p. 42), that Sardis was an old Lydian word
denoting *' the Year," has led Creuzer to give an as-
tronomical turn to the whole tradition. (Creuzer und
Hermann, Briefe, p. 10G, in 7iotis. )--Sardis was said
to have been destroyed by the Cimmerians during their
inroad into Asia (Strabo, 627), but to havo been soon
ifter rebuilt and strongly fortified: it is to this latter
period, no doubt, that the legend above mentioned re-
fers. As the capital of Crcesus, king of Lydia, it is
frequently mentioned in Herodotus, and the historian
relate* the manner in which it fell into the hands of
Cyrus, the citadel having been surprised on the very
side that was deemed inaccessible. The city retained
its size and importance under the Persian dominion.
Herodotus (7, 31) names it, by way of distinction,
'? the city of the Indians'' (ruv Atduv to daw), and
it became tho seat of the Persian satraps, as it had
been of the Lydian kings. The fortifications, how-
ever, must havo been destroyed by its new masters,
since otherwiso the Greeks could not have so easily
penetrated into the place in the expedition which pre-
ceded the Persian war. From the account of Herod-
otus (5, 100), the citadel alone would appear to have
remained. And yet, with all its greatness, Sardis
could not have been in these early times a well-built
city; at least the greater part of the houses would
seem to have been constructed of reeds, according to
the account of Herodotus, and even those which were
built with bricks were roofed with reeds. One of
these, on this occasion, was set on fire by a soldier,
and immedistely the flame spread from house to house,
and consumed the whole city. The temple of Cybele
also suffered in the conflagration, and it was this cir-
cumstance that gave Xerxes a pretext for destroying
the temples of Greece. --The city and acropolis sur-
rendered, at a later day, on the approach of Alexander
? ? after the battle of the Granicus. He encamped by the
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? SAR
SAT
mg la Strabo, it formed the harbour of that town, which
was also common to tne inland cities of Nola, Acerrc,
and Nuceria. The same writer adds, that it was navi-
gable for the space of eighteen miles; a circumstance
which will scarcely be found applicable to the present
stream; whence we should be led to conclude that a
considerable change has taken place in its course.
(Strabo, 247. ) The Pelasgi, who occupied this coast
at an early period, are said to have derived the name
of Sarrastes from thia river. (Cramer's Anc. Italy,
To! . 3, p. 180. )
Saron, a king of Troezene, unusually fond of hunt-
ing. He was drowned in the sea. while pursuing a
atag which had taken to the water, and divine hon-
ours were paid him after death. According to one ac-
count, he gave name to the Sinus Saronicus. Saron
built a temple to Diana at Troezene, and instituted
festivals in honour of her, called from himself Saronia.
(Pausan. , 2, 30. --Mela, 2, 3. )
SaronIcds Sinds, now the Gulf of Engia, a bay
>>f the ^Egean Sea, lying to the southwest of Attica,
and northeast of Argolis, and commencing between
the promontoriea of Sunium and Scylleum. Some
suppose that this part of the sea received its name
from Saron, who was drowned there, or from a small
river which discharged itself on the coast. Pliny,
however, makes the name lo bave come from the for-
ests of oak which at one time covered the shores of
the gulf, the term oapavic, in early Greek, signifying
"an oak. " (Pliny, 4, 9. -- Compare Schol. ad Cal-
tim, H. in Jon. , 22 )
Sarpkdon, I. a son of Jupiter by Europa, the daugh-
ter of Agenor. He was driven from Crete by his broth-
er Minos (rid. Rhadamanthus), and thereupon retired to
Lycia, where he aided Cilix against the people of that
country, and obtained the sovereignty of a part of it.
Jupiter is said to have bestowed upon him a life of
treble duration. (Apollod. , 3, 1, 2. -- Heyne, ad loc. )
--IE. A son of Jupiter and Laodamia the daughter of
Bcllerophon. He was king of Lycia, and leader with
Glaucus of the Lycian auxiliaries of Priam. The char-
acter of Sarpedon is represented as the most faultless
and amiable in the Iliad. He was by birth superior
to all the chiefs of either side, and his valour was not
unworthy of his descent. The account of his conflict
with Patroclus; the concern of Jupiter at his perilous
situation: the deliberation of the god whether he should
avert the hostile decrees of fate; and the subsequent
description of his death, are among the most striking
of all the episodes of the Iliad. (Horn. , II. , 16, 419,
ieqq. )--III. A promontory of the same name in Cili-
cia, beyond which Antiochus was not permitted to sail
by a treaty of peace which he had made with the Ro-
mans. (Liry, 38, 38". --Mela, I, 13. )
Sarra, the earlier Latin name for the city of Tyre.
The*Oriental form was 7ior or Sor. for which the
Carthaginians said Tsar or Sar, and the Romans, re-
ceiving the term from those, converted it into Sarra,
whence they also formed the adjective Sarranvs,
equivalent to "Tyrian. " (Virg. , Georg. , 2, 506. --
Sealiger, ad Paul. Diac. , s. v. Sarra. ) Servius erro-
neously deduces the appellation from Sor, which, ac-
cording to him, is the Phoenician name for the murex,
or shellfish that yielded the purple. (Serv. ad Virg. ,
I. c. ) The Greek name Tvpoc proceeds probably from
an Aramaic pronunciation, Tor. (Gesenius, Hear.
I*x. , vol. 2, p. 672, ed. Leo)
? ? Sarrastis, a people of Campania on the Sarnus.
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? SAT
3 AT
mien unable to make head against his powerful adver-
sary. --W. Pompeius, a writer in the reign of Trajan.
He was greatly esteemed by Pliny the younger, who
speaks of him with great warmth and approbation as an
historian, a poet, and an orator. Pliny always con-
sulted the opinion of Salurninus before he published
his compositions. (Plin. , Epist. , 1, 8. --Id. , 1, 16. )
Satuhnus (called by the Greeks Koovoc), a son of
Coelus or Uranus, and Terra, or the goddess of the
earth. Terra bore to Uranus a mighty progeny, the
Titans, six males and six females. The youngest of
the former was Saturn. These children were hated
by their father, who, as soon as they were born, thrust
them out of his sight into a cavern of Earth. (Vblcker,
Myth, der lap. , 283. -- Compare Apollud. , 1, 1, 3. )
Earth, grieved at this unnatural conduct, produced
"the substance of hoary oteel," and, forming from it a
sickle, roused her children, the Titans, to rebellion
against their father; but fear seized on them all
except Saturn, who, lying in wait with the sickle with
which his mother had armed him, mutilated his unsus-
pecting father. The drops which fell on the earth
from the wound gave birth to the Erinnyes, the Giants,
and the Melian nymphs. (Hes? Thcog. , 155,stqq. )--
After this, Saturn obtained his father's kingdom, with
the consent of his brethren, provided he did not bring
up any male children. Pursuant to this agreement,
Saturn always devoured his sons as soon as born, be-
cause, as some observe, he dreaded from them a retal-
iation of his unkindness to his father, till his wife
Rhea, unwilling to see her children perish, concealed
from her husband the birth of Jupiter, Neptune, and
Pluto, and, instead of the children, she gave him large
stones, which he immediately swallowed, without per-
ceiving the deceit. The other Titans having been in-
formed that Saturn had concealed his male children,
made war against him, dethroned and imprisoned him
with Rhea; and Jupiter, who was secretly educated
in Crete, was no sooner grown up, than he flew to de-
liver his father, and to place him on his throne. Sat-
urn, unmindful of his son's kindness, conspired against
him; but Jupiter banished him from his throne, and the
father fled for safely into Italy, where the country re-
tained the name of Latium, as being the place of his
eynccalmcnt (from lateo, "to lie concealed"). Janus,
who was then King of Italy, received Saturn with
marks of attention.
