Cerutti, Discours qui a
remporte?
Cult of the Nation in France
ois (esp.
105), whose anonymous author claimed that it made the French more witty and adventurous.
45. For instance, "the most polite and civilized nation": Antoine Court, and Antonie Court de Ge? belin, Le patriote franc? ois et impartial, ou re? ponse a` la lettre de Mr. l'eve^que d'Agen a` Mr. le Contro^leur ge? ne? ral, contre la Tole? rance des Huguenots, en datte du 1 mai 1751, 2 vols. (2d ed. , "Villefranche," 1753), iv; "a spiritual, easy-going politeness" is one of the "traits which have made us fa- mous": Lettre d'un jeune homme a` son ami, 10; "the model of politeness": [Servan], Le soldat citoyen, 16; "French politeness . . . is an almost general quality in the Nation": d'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153. Notes to Pages 147-150
46. Holbach, quoted in Gordon, 76; Servan, 16; Thomas, 333; d'Espiard, I, 153; Sobry, 379; Turgot, discussed in Febvre, "Civilisation" (see Ch. 1, n. 14), 228.
47. See on this subject particularly Roger Chartier, "From Texts to Manners" (see Intro. , n. 18), and Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 86-128.
48. See for instance Rivarol, L'universalite? de la langue franc? aise, 25; d'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, II, 25; [Pichon], La physique de l'histoire, 262-63; Cerutti, quoted in de Baecque, Les e? clats du rire, 160.
49. Montesquieu, 311-2; D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153.
50. Gazon Dourxigne? , Essai, 138.
51. Rivarol, 23.
52. D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, vii.
53. He added that if Asians and Africans stopped keeping women in chains, "they would lose their cruelty, and grow civilized" like the French. Lettre d'un jeune homme, 16.
54. D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153.
55. Gazon-Dourxigne? , 138.
56. Rivarol, 23.
57. Rousseau, Politics and the Arts, 100.
58. Millot, Discours sur le patriotisme franc? ois (see Ch. 2, n. 41), 26, 35.
59. Brie-Serrant, Ecrit adresse? a` l'Acade? mie de Cha^lons-sur-Marne (see Ch. 2,
n. 58), 15.
270
Notes to Pages 150-153
? 60. 61.
62. 63.
64. 65.
Notes to Pages 150-153
66.
67.
68.
69. 70.
71. 72. 73. 74.
75.
Thomas, Essai, 508.
See de Baecque, The Body Politic (see Ch. 2, n. 102), 1-25, 133-56. See also on this subject Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau," and Zizek, "The Politics and Poetics of History" (see Ch. 2, n. 107).
Dussausoy, Le citoyen de? sinteresse? (see Ch. 4, n. 27), 114.
Bouquier quoted in Ozouf, "L'homme nouveau," 134; Millot, Discours sur le patriotisme, 40; "Sur l'influence des mots et le pouvoir de l'usage," by "C. B. , homme libre," in Mercure national et re? volutions de l'europe, journal de? mocratique, 47 (Dec. 14, 1789), 1813; Citoyens franc? ais, quoted in de Baecque, 143; De l'e? galite? des repre? sentants, et de la forme des de? libe? rations aux Etats-Ge? ne? raux de 1789 (n. p. , 1789), 3; Boissy d'Anglas, quoted in Elisabeth Liris, "Eduquer l'homme nouveau," in Boulad-Ayoub, ed. , Former un nou- veau peuple? (see Intro. , n. 11), 303.
Jean-Paul Rabaut de Saint-Etienne, Pre? cis historique de la Re? volution franc? aise, 5th ed. (Paris, 1809), 21.
Charles Chaisneau, Le Panthe? on franc? ais, ou discours sur les honneurs publics de? cerne? s par la nation a` la me? moire des grands hommes (Dijon, 1792), 6; See also Citoyens franc? ais, quoted in de Baecque, 143; Mercier, quoted in Zizek, 131; and other examples given by these two historians.
See for instance Guiraudet, Qu'est-ce que la nation, 63; prospectus to La Feuille villageoise, excerpted in Michel de Certeau, Dominique Julia, and Jacques Revel, Une politique de la langue: La Re? volution franc? aise et les patois (Paris, 1975), 283; "Sur l'influence des mots," 1814.
Henri de Boulainvilliers, Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de France, avec XIV lettres historiques sur les parlements ou e? tats ge? ne? raux (The Hague and Amsterdam, 1727), 69.
Laurent-Pierre Be? renger, Porte-feuille d'un troubadour, quoted in Gossman, Medievalism (see Ch. 1, n. 116), 342. Gossman's work is fundamental on this subject.
Sacy, L'honneur franc? ois.
See [Bachaumont, et al. ], Me? moires secrets (see Ch. 2, n. 64), VII, 182. On the fad for Renaissance clothing, see Clarence D. Brenner, "Henri IV on the French Stage" (see Ch. 1, n. 40), esp. 544; and in general on Henri IV in the eighteenth century, Reinhard, La le? gende de Henri IV (see Ch. 1, n. 38). Quoted in de Baecque, The Body Politic, 140.
Quoted in ibid. , 142.
Quoted in ibid. ; Le Moniteur, August 17, 1793.
Petition pour rendre a` la France son ve? ritable nom (n. p. , n. d. ). The pamphet is signed "par Dupin et Lagrange, re? publicains gaulois. " See Bibliothe`que de la Socie? te? de Port-Royal, Fonds Re? volution 120, no. 45.
On the uses of Hercules as a symbol of masculinity and strength, see Lynn
Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984), 94-116. On earlier French uses of Hercules, and the strong connection seen between him and the Gauls, see Michael Wintroub, "Civilizing the Savage and Making a King," Sixteenth Century Journal, XXIX/2 (1998), 467-96.
76. Pe? tion, quoted in De Baecque, 138-9; anonymous verse anthologized in Poe? sies nationales de la Re? volution franc? aise, 18; Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, Adieux a` l'anne? e 1789 (n. p. , n. d. ), 3.
77. La Passion, la mort, et la re? surrection du peuple ("Je? rusalem," 1789), 5. On this general theme see especially Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau," 132-37. We will see many more examples in the next chapter.
78. Soanen, "Sur l'amour de la patrie" (see Intro. , n. 36), 1280. Similarly, the Jesuit teacher Jean-Baptiste Geoffroy, in his 1744 Latin oration De amore patriae: "we are born men and citizens," 6.
79. Conside? rations sur les diffe? rends des couronnes (see Ch. 3, n. 21), 25.
80.
Cerutti, Discours qui a remporte? le prix de l'e? loquence (see Ch. 2, n. 41), 13-14.
81. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 364. This translation is Maurice
Cranston's.
82. Rousseau, Emile, 38.
83. Quoted in Ozouf, La fe^te re? volutionnaire (see Intro. , n. 81), 474.
84. See the discussion in Dupuy, "Gene`se" (see Intro. , n. 33), 130.
85. Discours sur le patriotisme, 10-11.
86. Ibid. , 82.
87. Ibid. , 85.
88. Joseph-Antoine-Joachim Cerutti, Me? moire pour le peuple (Paris, 1788), 63;
Rabaut quoted in Ozouf, "La formation," 125.
89. Quoted in Ozouf, L'e? cole, 33; in Ozouf, "La formation," 133.
90. Robespierre, July 13, 1793, in James Guillaume, ed. , Proce`s-verbaux du Comite?
d'instruction publique de la Convention, 6 vols. (Paris, 1891-1907), II, 35. This
speech was given on the day of Marat's assassination.
91. Danton, quoted in Julia, Les trois couleurs (see Intro. , n. 11), 123. Recognizing
the implications of his words, Danton continued: "No one respects nature more than I do. But the social interest demands that his loyalties lie there alone . . . you cannot remove your children from the national influence. And what should the reasoning of an individual matter to us in the face of the na- tional reasoning? " Deputy Prieur de la Co^te d'Or similarly told the French people that "your children belong less to you than to the patrie. " Prieur de la Co^te d'Or, Adresse de la Convention Nationale au peuple franc? ais, 16 Prairial An II (Paris, 1794), 3. Lepeletier's report is reproduced in Baczko, ed. , Une e? ducation pour la de? mocratie (see Intro. , n. 11), 345-86.
92. Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, no. 192, 779.
93. Joseph Lavalle? e, Manlius Torquatus, ou la discipline romaine (Paris, 1794), 57.
Notes to Pages 153-157 271
? Notes to Pages 153-157
272
Notes to Pages 157-162
? 94. 95.
96. 97.
98.
99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104.
Notes to Pages 157-162
105.
106.
Quoted in Rivoire, Le patriotisme (see Ch. 1, n. 40), 145.
Lavalle? e, esp. 10-11; Maximilien Robespierre, Rapport fait au nom du comite? de Salut Public Sur les Rapports des ide? es religieuses et morales avec les principes re? publicains, et sur les fe^tes nationales (Paris, 1794), 4.
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, XVIII, 351.
Gilles Boucher-Laricharderie, De l'influence de la Re? volution franc? aise sur le caracte`re national (Paris, An VI), 2. My thanks to Sarah Maza for pointing this work out to me.
Ibid. , 38-49, quotes from 45, 49.
Ibid. , 51.
Ibid. , 76-77.
Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau. "
Quoted in Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne," 249-250.
On this literature, see Introduction, n. 25, p. 222.
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, Dec. 22, 1792, 803; quoted in Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne," 217. See also Albert Mathiez, L'origine des cultes re? volutionnaires, 1789-92 (Paris, 1904), 103.
Inevitably, in the remainder of this chapter, I will rely essentially on second- ary sources. A comprehensive study of revolutionary cultural policies--at least one that takes into account recent research in revolutionary political culture--remains to be written. In the meantime, see the pioneering work of Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class, and Antoine de Baecque's well-informed survey of the eighteenth century in Antoine de Baecque and Franc? oise Me? lonio, Lumie`res et liberte? , III, 7-187, of Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean- Franc? ois Sirinelli, eds. , Histoire culturelle de la France, 4 vols. (Paris, 1998). The National Convention alone, in its Committee on Public Instruction, gen- erated enough paper to fill the six massive volumes edited a century ago by James Guillaume. The standard works on the revolutionary education re- forms are H. C. Barnard, Education and the French Revolution (Cambridge, 1969); Julia, Les trois couleurs du tableau noir; Baczko, ed. , Une e? ducation pour la de? mocratie; R. R. Palmer, The Improvement of Humanity: Education and the French Revolution (Princeton, 1985); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820's (New York, 1993), 163-222. For a recent mise a` point, see Boulad-Ayoub, ed. , Former un nouveau peuple?
Quoted in Barnard, Education, 105.
"Moral education constituted the keystone of all the revolutionary projects": Julia, 194
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, December 22, 1792, 802.
Ibid.
On the connections, see Julia, Les trois couleurs, 93, and 57-69. Jean-Louis
107. 108.
109. 110. 111.
Labarrie`re, "De la vertu du citoyen e? claire? " (see Intro. , n. 11), 66. Other im- portant precedents included reports by the physicians Gilbert Romme and Franc? ois-Xavier Lanthenas, also in Dec. , 1792.
112. Lepeletier, in Baczko, ed. , 352, 362.
113. Ibid. , 351, 371.
114. This point was keenly observed by Georges Dumesnil, La pe? dagogie
re? volutionnaire (Paris, 1883), 220-21.
115. On the revolutionary theater, see Rivoire, Le patriotisme; Emmet Kennedy,
ed. , Theaters, operas and audiences in Revolutionary France: Analysis and Rep-
ertory (Westport, Conn. , 1996); 76.
116. See Jeffrey S. Ravel, The Contested Parterre: Public Theater and French Political
Culture, 1680-1791 (Ithaca, 1999), esp. 191-97.
117. Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, Du the? a^tre, ou nouvel essai sur l'art dramatique (Am-
sterdam, 1773). On Mercier's ideas, see Gregory S. Brown, "Scripting the Pa- triotic Playwright in Enlightenment-Era France: Louis-Se? bastien Mercier's Self-Fashionings, between 'Court' and 'Public,'" Historical Reflections /
Re? flexions historiques 26/1 (2000), 1-27.
118. Edme-Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, La mimographe, ou ide? es d'un honne^te
femme pour la re? formation du The? a^tre National, quoted in Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 78. Other examples of calls for the theater to func- tion as an e? cole des moeurs can be found in Ravel, 191-97. See also the Cheva- lier d'Eon on the subject, quoted in Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 33), 391.
119. These assertions are based on Gregory S. Brown, "Do Plays Make Revolu- tions? " paper presented to the Society for French Historical Studies, Washing- ton, D. C. , March, 1999.
120. L. W. B. Brockliss, French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Cultural History (Oxford, 1987), 164, 166. The same was true of the ballets that accompanied the plays, and the long recited poems, called se? natus-consultus, which sometimes replaced them.
45. For instance, "the most polite and civilized nation": Antoine Court, and Antonie Court de Ge? belin, Le patriote franc? ois et impartial, ou re? ponse a` la lettre de Mr. l'eve^que d'Agen a` Mr. le Contro^leur ge? ne? ral, contre la Tole? rance des Huguenots, en datte du 1 mai 1751, 2 vols. (2d ed. , "Villefranche," 1753), iv; "a spiritual, easy-going politeness" is one of the "traits which have made us fa- mous": Lettre d'un jeune homme a` son ami, 10; "the model of politeness": [Servan], Le soldat citoyen, 16; "French politeness . . . is an almost general quality in the Nation": d'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153. Notes to Pages 147-150
46. Holbach, quoted in Gordon, 76; Servan, 16; Thomas, 333; d'Espiard, I, 153; Sobry, 379; Turgot, discussed in Febvre, "Civilisation" (see Ch. 1, n. 14), 228.
47. See on this subject particularly Roger Chartier, "From Texts to Manners" (see Intro. , n. 18), and Gordon, Citizens without Sovereignty, 86-128.
48. See for instance Rivarol, L'universalite? de la langue franc? aise, 25; d'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, II, 25; [Pichon], La physique de l'histoire, 262-63; Cerutti, quoted in de Baecque, Les e? clats du rire, 160.
49. Montesquieu, 311-2; D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153.
50. Gazon Dourxigne? , Essai, 138.
51. Rivarol, 23.
52. D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, vii.
53. He added that if Asians and Africans stopped keeping women in chains, "they would lose their cruelty, and grow civilized" like the French. Lettre d'un jeune homme, 16.
54. D'Espiard, L'esprit des nations, I, 153.
55. Gazon-Dourxigne? , 138.
56. Rivarol, 23.
57. Rousseau, Politics and the Arts, 100.
58. Millot, Discours sur le patriotisme franc? ois (see Ch. 2, n. 41), 26, 35.
59. Brie-Serrant, Ecrit adresse? a` l'Acade? mie de Cha^lons-sur-Marne (see Ch. 2,
n. 58), 15.
270
Notes to Pages 150-153
? 60. 61.
62. 63.
64. 65.
Notes to Pages 150-153
66.
67.
68.
69. 70.
71. 72. 73. 74.
75.
Thomas, Essai, 508.
See de Baecque, The Body Politic (see Ch. 2, n. 102), 1-25, 133-56. See also on this subject Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau," and Zizek, "The Politics and Poetics of History" (see Ch. 2, n. 107).
Dussausoy, Le citoyen de? sinteresse? (see Ch. 4, n. 27), 114.
Bouquier quoted in Ozouf, "L'homme nouveau," 134; Millot, Discours sur le patriotisme, 40; "Sur l'influence des mots et le pouvoir de l'usage," by "C. B. , homme libre," in Mercure national et re? volutions de l'europe, journal de? mocratique, 47 (Dec. 14, 1789), 1813; Citoyens franc? ais, quoted in de Baecque, 143; De l'e? galite? des repre? sentants, et de la forme des de? libe? rations aux Etats-Ge? ne? raux de 1789 (n. p. , 1789), 3; Boissy d'Anglas, quoted in Elisabeth Liris, "Eduquer l'homme nouveau," in Boulad-Ayoub, ed. , Former un nou- veau peuple? (see Intro. , n. 11), 303.
Jean-Paul Rabaut de Saint-Etienne, Pre? cis historique de la Re? volution franc? aise, 5th ed. (Paris, 1809), 21.
Charles Chaisneau, Le Panthe? on franc? ais, ou discours sur les honneurs publics de? cerne? s par la nation a` la me? moire des grands hommes (Dijon, 1792), 6; See also Citoyens franc? ais, quoted in de Baecque, 143; Mercier, quoted in Zizek, 131; and other examples given by these two historians.
See for instance Guiraudet, Qu'est-ce que la nation, 63; prospectus to La Feuille villageoise, excerpted in Michel de Certeau, Dominique Julia, and Jacques Revel, Une politique de la langue: La Re? volution franc? aise et les patois (Paris, 1975), 283; "Sur l'influence des mots," 1814.
Henri de Boulainvilliers, Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de France, avec XIV lettres historiques sur les parlements ou e? tats ge? ne? raux (The Hague and Amsterdam, 1727), 69.
Laurent-Pierre Be? renger, Porte-feuille d'un troubadour, quoted in Gossman, Medievalism (see Ch. 1, n. 116), 342. Gossman's work is fundamental on this subject.
Sacy, L'honneur franc? ois.
See [Bachaumont, et al. ], Me? moires secrets (see Ch. 2, n. 64), VII, 182. On the fad for Renaissance clothing, see Clarence D. Brenner, "Henri IV on the French Stage" (see Ch. 1, n. 40), esp. 544; and in general on Henri IV in the eighteenth century, Reinhard, La le? gende de Henri IV (see Ch. 1, n. 38). Quoted in de Baecque, The Body Politic, 140.
Quoted in ibid. , 142.
Quoted in ibid. ; Le Moniteur, August 17, 1793.
Petition pour rendre a` la France son ve? ritable nom (n. p. , n. d. ). The pamphet is signed "par Dupin et Lagrange, re? publicains gaulois. " See Bibliothe`que de la Socie? te? de Port-Royal, Fonds Re? volution 120, no. 45.
On the uses of Hercules as a symbol of masculinity and strength, see Lynn
Hunt, Politics, Culture, and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley, 1984), 94-116. On earlier French uses of Hercules, and the strong connection seen between him and the Gauls, see Michael Wintroub, "Civilizing the Savage and Making a King," Sixteenth Century Journal, XXIX/2 (1998), 467-96.
76. Pe? tion, quoted in De Baecque, 138-9; anonymous verse anthologized in Poe? sies nationales de la Re? volution franc? aise, 18; Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, Adieux a` l'anne? e 1789 (n. p. , n. d. ), 3.
77. La Passion, la mort, et la re? surrection du peuple ("Je? rusalem," 1789), 5. On this general theme see especially Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau," 132-37. We will see many more examples in the next chapter.
78. Soanen, "Sur l'amour de la patrie" (see Intro. , n. 36), 1280. Similarly, the Jesuit teacher Jean-Baptiste Geoffroy, in his 1744 Latin oration De amore patriae: "we are born men and citizens," 6.
79. Conside? rations sur les diffe? rends des couronnes (see Ch. 3, n. 21), 25.
80.
Cerutti, Discours qui a remporte? le prix de l'e? loquence (see Ch. 2, n. 41), 13-14.
81. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oeuvres, III, 364. This translation is Maurice
Cranston's.
82. Rousseau, Emile, 38.
83. Quoted in Ozouf, La fe^te re? volutionnaire (see Intro. , n. 81), 474.
84. See the discussion in Dupuy, "Gene`se" (see Intro. , n. 33), 130.
85. Discours sur le patriotisme, 10-11.
86. Ibid. , 82.
87. Ibid. , 85.
88. Joseph-Antoine-Joachim Cerutti, Me? moire pour le peuple (Paris, 1788), 63;
Rabaut quoted in Ozouf, "La formation," 125.
89. Quoted in Ozouf, L'e? cole, 33; in Ozouf, "La formation," 133.
90. Robespierre, July 13, 1793, in James Guillaume, ed. , Proce`s-verbaux du Comite?
d'instruction publique de la Convention, 6 vols. (Paris, 1891-1907), II, 35. This
speech was given on the day of Marat's assassination.
91. Danton, quoted in Julia, Les trois couleurs (see Intro. , n. 11), 123. Recognizing
the implications of his words, Danton continued: "No one respects nature more than I do. But the social interest demands that his loyalties lie there alone . . . you cannot remove your children from the national influence. And what should the reasoning of an individual matter to us in the face of the na- tional reasoning? " Deputy Prieur de la Co^te d'Or similarly told the French people that "your children belong less to you than to the patrie. " Prieur de la Co^te d'Or, Adresse de la Convention Nationale au peuple franc? ais, 16 Prairial An II (Paris, 1794), 3. Lepeletier's report is reproduced in Baczko, ed. , Une e? ducation pour la de? mocratie (see Intro. , n. 11), 345-86.
92. Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, no. 192, 779.
93. Joseph Lavalle? e, Manlius Torquatus, ou la discipline romaine (Paris, 1794), 57.
Notes to Pages 153-157 271
? Notes to Pages 153-157
272
Notes to Pages 157-162
? 94. 95.
96. 97.
98.
99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104.
Notes to Pages 157-162
105.
106.
Quoted in Rivoire, Le patriotisme (see Ch. 1, n. 40), 145.
Lavalle? e, esp. 10-11; Maximilien Robespierre, Rapport fait au nom du comite? de Salut Public Sur les Rapports des ide? es religieuses et morales avec les principes re? publicains, et sur les fe^tes nationales (Paris, 1794), 4.
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, XVIII, 351.
Gilles Boucher-Laricharderie, De l'influence de la Re? volution franc? aise sur le caracte`re national (Paris, An VI), 2. My thanks to Sarah Maza for pointing this work out to me.
Ibid. , 38-49, quotes from 45, 49.
Ibid. , 51.
Ibid. , 76-77.
Ozouf, "La formation de l'homme nouveau. "
Quoted in Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne," 249-250.
On this literature, see Introduction, n. 25, p. 222.
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, Dec. 22, 1792, 803; quoted in Dupuy, "Gene`se de la Patrie Moderne," 217. See also Albert Mathiez, L'origine des cultes re? volutionnaires, 1789-92 (Paris, 1904), 103.
Inevitably, in the remainder of this chapter, I will rely essentially on second- ary sources. A comprehensive study of revolutionary cultural policies--at least one that takes into account recent research in revolutionary political culture--remains to be written. In the meantime, see the pioneering work of Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class, and Antoine de Baecque's well-informed survey of the eighteenth century in Antoine de Baecque and Franc? oise Me? lonio, Lumie`res et liberte? , III, 7-187, of Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean- Franc? ois Sirinelli, eds. , Histoire culturelle de la France, 4 vols. (Paris, 1998). The National Convention alone, in its Committee on Public Instruction, gen- erated enough paper to fill the six massive volumes edited a century ago by James Guillaume. The standard works on the revolutionary education re- forms are H. C. Barnard, Education and the French Revolution (Cambridge, 1969); Julia, Les trois couleurs du tableau noir; Baczko, ed. , Une e? ducation pour la de? mocratie; R. R. Palmer, The Improvement of Humanity: Education and the French Revolution (Princeton, 1985); and Isser Woloch, The New Regime: Transformations of the French Civic Order, 1789-1820's (New York, 1993), 163-222. For a recent mise a` point, see Boulad-Ayoub, ed. , Former un nouveau peuple?
Quoted in Barnard, Education, 105.
"Moral education constituted the keystone of all the revolutionary projects": Julia, 194
Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, December 22, 1792, 802.
Ibid.
On the connections, see Julia, Les trois couleurs, 93, and 57-69. Jean-Louis
107. 108.
109. 110. 111.
Labarrie`re, "De la vertu du citoyen e? claire? " (see Intro. , n. 11), 66. Other im- portant precedents included reports by the physicians Gilbert Romme and Franc? ois-Xavier Lanthenas, also in Dec. , 1792.
112. Lepeletier, in Baczko, ed. , 352, 362.
113. Ibid. , 351, 371.
114. This point was keenly observed by Georges Dumesnil, La pe? dagogie
re? volutionnaire (Paris, 1883), 220-21.
115. On the revolutionary theater, see Rivoire, Le patriotisme; Emmet Kennedy,
ed. , Theaters, operas and audiences in Revolutionary France: Analysis and Rep-
ertory (Westport, Conn. , 1996); 76.
116. See Jeffrey S. Ravel, The Contested Parterre: Public Theater and French Political
Culture, 1680-1791 (Ithaca, 1999), esp. 191-97.
117. Louis-Se? bastien Mercier, Du the? a^tre, ou nouvel essai sur l'art dramatique (Am-
sterdam, 1773). On Mercier's ideas, see Gregory S. Brown, "Scripting the Pa- triotic Playwright in Enlightenment-Era France: Louis-Se? bastien Mercier's Self-Fashionings, between 'Court' and 'Public,'" Historical Reflections /
Re? flexions historiques 26/1 (2000), 1-27.
118. Edme-Nicolas Restif de la Bretonne, La mimographe, ou ide? es d'un honne^te
femme pour la re? formation du The? a^tre National, quoted in Boe? s, La lanterne magique (see Intro. , n. 44), 78. Other examples of calls for the theater to func- tion as an e? cole des moeurs can be found in Ravel, 191-97. See also the Cheva- lier d'Eon on the subject, quoted in Dziembowski, Un nouveau patriotisme (see Intro. , n. 33), 391.
119. These assertions are based on Gregory S. Brown, "Do Plays Make Revolu- tions? " paper presented to the Society for French Historical Studies, Washing- ton, D. C. , March, 1999.
120. L. W. B. Brockliss, French Higher Education in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: A Cultural History (Oxford, 1987), 164, 166. The same was true of the ballets that accompanied the plays, and the long recited poems, called se? natus-consultus, which sometimes replaced them.
