No More Learning

c. What does the Future look like in this field?
? Satisfactions?
? Disadvan-
? INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY 307
Alternatives
d. Do you feel that you are "cut out" for this type of work (or profes- sion)?
What Other Things do you feel you might be "cut out" for?
Have you ever seriously considered other Vocations? Had Other dreams?
Under what conditions might you Change (i. e. , from present voca- tion)?
History
e. When did you Decide to be a ?
How didyoucometobeinterestedin____?
What made you decide to be a ?
What did your Parents (father, mother) want you to be? What do your Parents think of ?
How has your father liked his work?
(Get work history if striking jobs, or many changes. )
Wife
f. Does your Wife Work? (If subject is woman: Have you worked since your marriage? ) How do you feel about that? (How does your hus- band? )
z. INCOME
Here, as in the case of vocation, some gross information, e. g. , size of in- come, was gained by means of the questionnaire. The function of the inter- view was to find out the degree of "money-mindedness," the aspirations and fantasies centering around money. Is money per se important, or is it im- portant for what it can give? Of relevance here is the emphasis on status as narcissistic enhancement of one's own person, own power, or own security, which can be realistic or exaggerated. There can be a realistic emphasis on a good life or on exaggerated craving for luxuries; the latter is often observed in those of our subjects who are not rooted in the constructive task of daily living but whose repressed anxieties, aggressions, and infantile cravings call for an escape into a living that is full of excitement. Here again the orientation toward different levels is important. An extreme money-minded- ness as revealed in more concrete and specific contexts often goes hand in hand with denial of the importance of money on a superficial level and often even with an emotional rejection of the "rich. "
The attitude toward charity was also explored in this connection as a pos- sible manifestation of atonement which, in turn, is known to be a reaction to aggression. From a social point of view, charity often has the function of keeping the underprivileged in their place, kindness acting in effect as a humiliating factor.
Another important factor leading to a group of underlying questions is realism vs. autism with respect to thinking and to goal behavior in this field. A considerable discrepancy between fantasies and reality in the attitude to-
? Underlying Questions:
a. Money-Mindedness.
b. AspirationsandFantasies.
c.
1. Status (narcissistic).
2. Power, Manipulation.
3? Security (Realistic versus Neurotic).
4? Charity-Nurturance-GuiltFantasies.
5? Lavish Living, Excitement. (Q. Is a subject with "live dangerously-
win a lot or lose a lot"-attitudes really willing to take chances?
Realistic versus Autistic Thinking.
1. How much distance separates present from aspired status?
2. How well is the path to the goal structured for subject?
3? What are subject's Real Chances of reaching the goal?
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
ward economic goals, combined with lack of a structured path and lack of readiness to work and to postpone pleasure, might make one susceptible to the use of socially destructive behavior as a means of attaining, by a short cut, fulfillment of one's infantile dreams and gratifications. Again, lack of a real readiness to work can be hidden behind general emphasis or overem- phasis on work, especially since work in these cases represents an unpleasant duty. Over and above this, psychoanalysts have claimed that the attitude to- ward money reveals early instinctual fixations and anxieties and the way of dealing with them, e. g. , anal retention or expulsion, or money as a symbol of potency.
Of particular theoretical importance is the set of questions which deals with socioeconomic background, especially the changes in economic level in the family of the subject. Sudden changes either up'fard or downward might be followed by a lack of adaptation in the whole socioeconomic sphere and might make this sphere similar to a "weak organ," especially susceptible to becoming a medium for the acting out of difficulties. This is what H. Hartmann has called the "compliance of social factors," in analogy to Freud's concept of the "compliance of organs" in the occurrence of physical disease. Inquiry was also made into the ways financial matters were handled by the parents. The role of economic frustrations was followed up.
A final question of interest is whether a certain personality structure alone is sufficient to establish a selection from among existing ideologies, e. g. , prej- udice, or if, in addition to that, a special socioeconomic history and condi- tion of the family is required for, or especially conducive to, the acting out of difficulties in the social sphere.
The underlying and manifest questions in the sphere of income are con- tained in the following part of the Interview Schedule.
INTERVIEW ScHEDULE
2. INCOME
? INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY 309
4? Is there a Discrepancy between subject's Fantasies and his Actual Expectations?
d. Determinants in Social Background.
1. Parental Attitudes toward money.
2. Parental Socioeconomic Level (including changes) during subject's
childhood and adolescence.
3? How much Status-Change has (an older) subject experienced since
youth?
4? What Economic Frustrations has subject experienced?
Suggested Direct Questions: Present Frustrations
a. How do you Get Along on (present income)?
Do you have a Car? (What make, model, and year? )
What do you Miss Most that your present income doesn't permit?
Aspirations and Fantasies
b. What would you Do with (Expected Income)? With Desired In- come? )
What would it Make Possible (Enable you to do? )
What would it Mean to you?
c. What is the Most Imponant Thing Money can Give a person?
Some people say that the best things in life are free; others say that when you come right down to it, money is really important. How Important is Money Really?
How much is an adequate income for, say, a family of four?
There's an old saying, "A penny saved is a penny earned"; but then again, some people prefer the idea of "Easy come, easy go. " How do you feel about-that?
Some people like to take Chances: "Win a lot, lose a lot"; then other people are more Cautious about money. What's your attitude?
Realism
d. What's the Likelihood of your making _ _ _ _ ten years from now? How good are your Chances of making ? How do you expect to Reach that income?
What are your Plans for Attaining that income?
History
e. How did you Get Along during the Depression? (If necessary to get a clear picture, inquire as to specific details of living. )
W ere you Out of a Job for any length of time?
What's the Highest Income you've ever had? When was that?
How much did you make on your First Job? (i. e. , the first full-time job
after leaving school. )
f. (If he chooses, the interviewer may obtain at this point-rather than
later under Clinical-information re Parental Socioeconomic Level dur- ing subject's childhood and adolescence. Ask specific questions to get information re type of home, number of rooms, neighborhood, vaca- tions, cars, servants, recreation, entertaining, allowances for children versus necessity for children to work, whether worked, whether father ever out of a job, etc. Get subject's reactions to this-especially to changes in level. )
? g.
(Get at Parental Policies and Attitudes re spending-casualness; display; etc. -saving, consistency of policies, any differences between mother and father, etc. , by special inquiry in connection with discussion of sub- ject's own attitudes, especially those elicited by questions under (c) above. Or, some of the above questions-especially those not asked of subject-may be repeated for the parents. )
3. RELIGION
THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
Religion, perhaps more than the preceding areas, seems to lie at the point of interaction of social and personal factors. The purposes of the underlying questions in this category was to find out whether religion represents to the subject a further effort toward belonging to a privileged group and the explicit acceptance of a set of conventionalized mores and rules of behavior prevalent in a majority group, or whether religion repre- sents a system of more internalized, genuine experiences and values. In the former case religion tends to assume the function of an external authority deciding what is good and what is bad, thus relieving the individual from making his own decisions and assuring him at the same time of membership in a privileged group. The rejection of outgroup religions goes hand in hand with this attitude.
The manifest questions on religion were designed to find out which of the attitudes just described is dominant in the subject. Furthermore, they were aimed at various subtle aspects of these different attitudes. Questions such as that inquiring into the concept of God were introduced to reveal whether God is conceived more directly after a parental image and thus as a source of support and as a guiding and sometimes punishing authority or whether God is seen more as an abstract entity representing general values and prin- ciples. In the former case an attempt was made to ascertain whether the emphasis is more on the punitive or on the nurturant qualities.
An effort was also made to inquire into the reasons for rejection of religion. A rejection of religion on rational and scientific grounds belongs in a dif- ferent syndrome from rejection of religion out of an attitude of sober cynicism and manipulative opportunism. Questions as to the history of the conflict, in the subject, between science and religion were also asked. Areas in which there was a readiness to follow a rational approach were noted, as well as those in which irrational explanations were preferred.
It is of interest for our purposes to ascertain further whether the attitude toward religion is simply taken over from the parents or whether any change has occurred in the direction of rebellion against religious attitudes prevalent in the family or in the direction of an increase and deepening of religious feelings as compared with those of the parents. How did agreement or dif- ference of opinion in the parents with respect to religion influence the out- look of the subject?
The underlying and manifest questions about religion are as follows:
? b.
What is your conception of God?
What is your attitude toward (do you think about) Prayer, the Bible, Immortality?
Do you believe there is conflict between Science and Religion?
Has there been such a conflict in the past?
Is there likely to be in the future? (If No: Inquire whether subject accepts ( r) a rationalized system of belief; ( 2) a dichotomy between science as physical, religion as spiritual; (3) a fundamentalist rejection; or what. )
INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY
3I I
INTERVIEW ScHEDULE
3? RELIGION
Underlying Questions:
a. lngroup-Outgroup feelings (including moralism). (Does subject have
idea of "Good enough for my fathers, so good enough for me"? )
b. Attitudes toward Organized Religion and the Church.
c. Internalization.
d. Philosophical Pattern (personalization; concern re "Beginning," etc. ;
degree of dogmatism and fundamentalism; nature and crudity of wish-
satisfactions).
e. Nature and degree of Supernaturalism. (Including attitudes toward
irrational experiences and toward unusual coincidences. )
f. Role of Ethics (degree of internalization). (Get subject to go into detail
on Christianity, and bring up later in discussing race. )
g. Role of Superego: Internalized Conscience vs. Externalized Authority. h. Special Personality Meanings.
Suggested Direct Questions: Genera/Importance
a. What are your Views on religion?
What does your religion Offer you?
What Appeals to you most in religion?
What is the Most Important Thing in Religion? How Important Should Religion be in a person's life?
Philosophy
lngroup
c. What are the main (most important) differences between your religion and others?
How important are the differences among the various sects?
What do you think of Atheists?
Ethics
History
d. What was the nature of your early Religious Training?
What was the Religious Atmosphere in your Home?
In what ways do you differ from Your Parents in Religion? From your Wife (Husband)?
What does it Mean to be a Christian?
How can you Tell a Christian?
What is the Main Difference between Christians and Other People? What is the Most Important of Christ's Teachings?
? 3I2 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
In what ways did your Parents Differ in Religious Matters? (If subject broke away from parental teachings: Get history; also get reactions to differences with spouse. )
Have you ever Questioned your religious beliefs?
Since data on religion and political ideology had to be excluded from the material presented to the interview raters (see below, Section F, 3), the part of the interview based on the preceding questions will not be taken up for discussion until later in this volume (Chapter XVIII).
4. CLINICAL DATA
In the clinical section of the interview an attempt was made to obtain as much personal data relevant to our problem as was possible in a single sitting and without producing anxieties in the subject. With respect to this area, even more than in the case of the others, the subject had to be unaware of the direction intended by the interview. Care was taken to avoid offering inter- pretations to the subject for which he was not ready and the effect of which could not be followed up and worked out. Here, as in the other sections, the almost general desire of the subjects to talk about themselves in a professional and confidential situation was of great help to the interviewer.
A variety of personal data had been collected by previous techniques. This material, as pointed out above, was at the disposal of the interviewer, who studied it before starting the interview. The first two sheets of the question- naire brought out some gross information about the subject's personal life. Above and beyond that, the type of information which had to be obtained by the interviewer was based on hypotheses as to what aspects of personal life might be expected to influence the pattern of social beliefs and attitudes.
The information gained in the entire clinical area by previous methods is represented in the Schedule below. In view of the length of the clinical part of the interview schedule, the questions are presented and discussed under six major headings, as follows: (a) Family Background: Sociological Aspects; (b) Family Figures: Personal Aspects; (c) Childhood; (d) Sex; (e) Social Relationships; (f) School.
a. FAMILY BAcKGROUND: SociOLOGICAL AsPECTS. T h e sociological aspects of the family background seem of particular relevance in the present context. The national origin of parents was explored in order to find out whether relative "purity" or mixture of national origin is related to prejudice. Al- though this problem was considered important, there was no specific expec- tancy as to the direction of the results.
The group memberships of the parents were to be taken as an indication of how much stress was placed by the family on the idea of "belonging" and of how much the parents considered themselves as individuals or mainly as members of different groups and organizations. The whole socioeconomic picture of the parents, and possibly of the grandparents, the status achieved
? INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY 3I 3
as well as that aspired to, had to be understood in order to throw light on the security or the tensions existing, in this area, within the family.
The underlying and direct questions on the sociological aspects of the family background are presented here.
INTERVIEW ScHEDULE
4a. FAMILY BACKGROUND: SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
Underlying Questions:
a. National Origins of father and mother (not just racial; e. g. , third gen-
eration Polish, German immigrant, etc. ) .
. b. Important Ingroup Memberships of father and mother (e. g. , unions,
Masons, etc. ).
c. Picture of Socioeconomic Status of Parents and Grandparents (as re-
flected in occupation, education, way of life, etc. ), with special attention to Social Mobility.
Suggested Direct Questions: Background
a. Father's and mother's National Antecedents, occupation, education, politics, religion.
Economic
b. Actual Standard of Living of father and mother (Ask specific questions to get clear: cars, servants, housing, entertaining, etc. ; enough to eat, on relief, have to work as child, etc. ).
Ingroups
c. Who were your father's (mother's) Friends mostly?
What Organizations did your father (mother) belong to? How did your father (mother) spend his (her) Spare Time?
b. FAMILY FIGURES: PERSONAL AsPECTS. After the inquiry into the socio- logical aspects of the family background, the personal conception of the family figures by the subject was recorded. The subject's conception of the parent figures could reveal, among other things, whether the picture was dominated by the authoritarian aspects of the parent-child relationship or by a more democratic type of relationship. In this connection the attention of the interviewer was further focused on the ability of the subject to appraise his parents objectively-whether on the more critical or on the more loving side-as contrasted with an inclination to put the parents on a very high plane, exaggerating their strength and virtuousness.
The conceptions concerning the siblings were likewise made the topic of a special inquiry. This was done with the idea in mind that the rivalries con- nected with sibling situations are an important source of the establishment of interpersonal relationships. An attempt was made to record the existing hierarchies in the sibling situation, the attitudes toward older and younger siblings, as well as the preferences, resentments, and envies arising in this connection.
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
The power-relationship between the parents, the domination of the sub- ject's family by the father or by the mother, and their relative dominance in specific areas of life also seemed of importance for our problem. The sources within the family of satisfactions and tensions in general were also
explored.
In this area, dealing with various personal attitudes, especially careful
thought was given to the formulation of the manifest questions regarding \vhich the subject was likely to be sensitive and in conflict. One of the pri- mary functions of these questions was to encourage the subject to talk freely. This was attempted by indicating, for example, that critical remarks about parents were perfectly in place, thus reducing defenses as well as feelings of guilt and anxiety. But since it was obvious that we could by this method never be sure of having obtained a true answer, especially in the case of some individuals-due more often to unintended than to deliberate camouflage- a number of less conspicuous, very specific matter-of-fact questions were also designed to catch general attitudes with as little distortion as possible.
The underlying and manifest questions in this area are as follows: INTERVIEW ScHEDULE
4b. FAMILY FIGURES: PERSONAL ASPECTS
Underlying Questions:
a. Subject's Conception of Parent-Figures and Actuality (i. e. , get basis for
inferring latter): Degree of Critical Objectivity of subject.
b. Same for any important Siblings (Domination by older sibs? Displace-
ment by younger sibs? Which is most important? )
c. Pattern of Power-Relations between Father and Mother (domination-
submission, activity-passivity, etc. ).
Suggested Direct Questions: Images of Father and Mother
a. What sort of Person is your father? (Mother? )
\Vhat things do you Admire most in your Father? (Mother? ) (Require subject to illustrate stereotypes by specific traits and situational examples. )
Assuming most people aren't perfect, what Human Frailties do your father (mother) have?
Which Parent do you Take After; are you most Like; Influenced you Most?
What were his (her) ideals, etc. ?
Power-Relations of Father and Mother
b. How did your parents Get Along together?
In what ways were your Parents most Alike?
In what ways are they Different from each other?
Who Made the Decisions usually? (Get specific information e. g. , re finances, recreation, discipline of children, residence, etc. ). Disagreements arise in every family from time to time; what Bones of Contention did your parents sometimes have?
? INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY 3I 5
Siblings
c. Same initial questions for any Important Si\)lings. Also: Who was your Favorite Brother (Sister)?
What did you Like About him (her)?
What did he (she) Mean to you?
What things did you sometimes Quarrel about?
c. CHILDHOOD. Some attempt was also made to obtain information about the earlier phases of childhood. It has to be kept in mind, however, that in view of the type of inquiry used in this study, no differentiation can be made between real childhood events and present tendencies projected into childhood. The assumption was that both types of material are psychologi- cally relevant as long as the possible duality of sources is not overlooked in the interpretation of the material. Thus, the manifest question, "What were you like as a child? " was asked to get either the subject's idea about himself as a child or the possible description of the type of child he might have been. It was observed that the subject, especially if he were a prejudiced one, often attributed to himself as a child characteristics which at the present time he seemed eager to repress.
The inquiry regarding early memories, wishes, fears, dreams, and so forth had the purpose of getting material which stood out for the subject in con- nection with his childhood and seemed relevant as a basis for inference. Among the underlying questions, the structure of the emotional attachment to the parents seemed of paramount importance. Here we were specifically interested in the parents as objects of cathexis as well as of identification. In the case of a man, it was important to learn whether there was at any time an explicit rebellion against the father, and against what sort of father, or whether there was only passive submission. The assumption behind this question, later proved correct, was that the pattern developed in the rela- tionship to the father tends to be transferred to other authorities and thus becomes crucial in forming social and political beliefs in men. In this con- nection it is of importance to know not only about rebellion against the father but also how far such rebellion is conscious and accepted as such.
Rebellion against, or submission to, the father is only one part of the pic- ture. Another part deals with the question of identification, or the lack of identification, with the father, and thus with the masculine role in general.
The establishment of masculinity in the boy is, of course, also closely connected? with the boy's attitude toward the mother. To what degree was there love for the mother and to what degree identification with the mother? Was such an identification, in its turn, sublimated and accepted by the ego, or was it rejected on the conscious level because the mother symbolized not only something "admirabl~" but at the same time something weak and there- fore contemptible? How did the boy defend himself against the rejected and feared passivity? A compensatory display of "toughness" and ruthless-
? p6 THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
ness is, according to findings from the F scale, correlated with antidemocratic social and political beliefs.
Considerations analogous to those made in the preceding paragraphs were also applied to women.
An attempt was also made to probe into pre-Oedipal fixations, that is, to pay attention to the "orality" and "anality" of the subject and especially to the defense mechanisms with which these and other instinctual problems had been handled. The problem of homosexual tendencies, their degree, and the subject's acceptance or rejection of them was also given consideration. It will be seen to be of rather crucial importance for the social and political orientation of the individual how much passive striving there is in men, and even more important, how much countercathectic defense is built up against it, and how much acceptance and sublimation of masculine identification there is in women. The problem of homosexuality relates to the different ways of failure in resolving the Oedipal conflict. and the resultant regression to earlier phases.
Since, as earlier chapters have indicated, the attitude toward authority is crucial for psychological syndromes related to social and political attitudes, an attempt was made further to find out as much as possible about the type of discipline to which the subject was exposed, and about his reactions to it. Was the discipline consistent or capricious, strict or lenient? Did both parents handle discipline in a similar way or was there much difference be- tween the parents in this respect? Was the matter in question explained to the child and was he included in the discussion of it or did the discipline appear to the child as unintelligible, arbitrary, or overwhelming? Did the parents adhere rigidly to the conventionalized values of their class, with great intolerance toward disobedience and any deviations, especially when the deviations seemed to the. parents to be manifestations of lower-class behavior, or were the values the parents tried to transmit less conventional and more in the nature of internal and humanitarian values for which the child's understanding and cooperation could be secured? Was the reaction of the subject mostly fear of authority, which could be met only by acquies- cence, or could the child grasp the issues involved and feel that the con- sideration of certain convincing social values would assure him of his parents' love? In case of failure, did the child feel that everything was lost and that something very bad might happen, or did he feel that renewed efforts would regain for him the love of his parents, only temporarily lost? It was hypothe- sized that the parents' emotional attitude toward the child, their permissive- ness toward his weakness and immaturity, furnished the model for his future behavior toward objects which he considered as weak.
Since the way in which the parents transmit social values to the child, and the punishment and rewards with which they reinforce them, are decisive for the establishment of the superego, we are led from highly personal
? INTERVIEWS AS APPROACH TO PREJUDICED PERSONALITY 3I 7
problems back to problems 'of social conscience. The effects are mirrored in interpersonal relationships, on a smaller scale in one's private life and on a larger scale in one's public function as a citizen. A person with a mature, integrated, and internalized conscience will certainly take a different stand on moral and social issues than a person with an underdeveloped, defective or overpunitive superego, or a person who still, as in childhood, clings to a set of rules and values only as they are reinforced by an external authority, be it public opinion or be it a leader.
The underlying and manifest questions under the heading of Childhood History and Attitudes follow.
Underlying Questions:
a.
Structure of the Oedipus-Complex: major identifications, loves, hates in relationships to parent-figures and -surrogates. (Formulated especially for men; adapt for women. )
Has there been an underlying trend of rebellion and hostility against the father, or of submission and passivity?
Has the hostility against the father been admitted into the ego?
Was there real identification with the father? (If not, why not? E. g. , was the parent too strong, too weak, not at home, etc. ? )
Was there genuine satisfaction in the relationship with the mother? Was the early attachment with her secure or insecure?
W ere there early signs of ambivalence?
Was she a real love-object?
Did subject ever conceive of himself as her champion, or protector, or ally? Or did he ever feel that she was unworthy, or untrustworthy, etc. ? Was there identification with the mother?
Femininity? How handled: by sublimation, or by overcompensation and reaction-formations, etc. ?
What were the main Pre-Oedipal Fixations, and How Handled? Sub- limations versus Reaction-Formations, projections, etc. Homosexuality? Its level?
Passivity: Accepted in the Ego, or Repressed and Overcompensated? Reaction to Punishment.
I. Fearoflossoflove,leadingtointrospection,understanding,psychol-
ogy, etc. , versus:
2. Fear of authority and of capricious discipline, etc. (Get detailed pic-
b.
c. d.
INTERVIEW ScHEDULE
4c. CHILDHOOD
ture of punishment-and-discipline. )
e. How much Internalization of Superego? Is the dominant trend toward
neurosis or normality-or toward psychopathic-delinquent attitudes?
Suggested Direct Questions: Pre-Oedipal
a. What were you Like as a Child?
What things about your Childhood do you Remember with most Pleasure?
? THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY
With most Satisfaction?
What is your Earliest Memory?
\Vhat things did you W orry about most as a child?
Almost everybody has had some recurrent Bad Dreams; what kinds of bad dreams did you have as a child?
Oedipal Phase
b. Which Parent did you feel Closer To when you were, say, about 6?
Superego and Reaction to Discipline
What about when you were w?