Greenfeld,
Nationalism
(see Intro.
Cult of the Nation in France
Brunot, II, 21.
138. Brun, Recherches historiques, 426.
139. Queen Jeanne d'Albret had a Calvinist catechism and the psalms translated
into Be? arnais, and recruited Be? arnais preachers. Though short-lived, her ef- forts so strengthened Be? arnais that the kingdom, fully integrated into France in 1620, resisted French more fiercely than any other Occitan region (the Es- tates used a bastard Be? arnais for their deliberations right down to 1789). See Andre? Armengaud and Robert Lafont, eds. , Histoire de l'Occitanie (Paris, 1979), 483-86; Franc? ois Pic, "A propos de l'emploi de l'occitan par la
288
Notes to Pages 193-202
? 140.
141. 142. 143. 144.
145.
Notes to Pages 193-202
146. 147.
148.
1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
re? forme: Le cate? chisme bilingue franc? ais-be? arnais de Jean-Raymond Merlin,"
Bulletin de l'Association d'e? tude sur l'humanisme, la re? forme et la renaissance (France du centre et du sud-est), VI/11 (1980), 38-45; Brun, L'introduction de la langue franc? aise, 28, 34.
After the fall of the Jacobins and the reestablishment of Catholicism, Gre? goire succeeded in getting a law passed to the effect that only the "sacra- mental formulae" would remain in Latin. On this debate, and Gre? goire's cru- cial role in it, see Brunot, IX, pt. I, 374-78, 396-97. At this date, of course, the French constitutional church was disavowed by the Vatican.
See above all Van Kley, Religious Origins (see Intro. , n. 65).
Brunot, V, 25-28.
For a summary of these issues, see Sepinwall, 75-79.
Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs (see Ch. 2, n. 18), 85; cf. Marie-He? le`ne Huet, Rehearsing the Revolution: The Staging of Marat's Death, 1793-1797, trans. Robert Hurley (Berkeley, 1992), 49-58.
Carla Hesse, "La preuve par la lettre: Pratiques juridiques au tribunal re? volutionnaire de Paris (1793-1794)," Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, LI/ 3 (1996), 629-42.
Gre? goire, in de Certeau et al, 303.
Chabot to Gre? goire, Sept. 4, 1790, in Gazier, 73; Fonvielhe to Gre? goire, un- dated, in BN NAF 2798, fol. 44v.
Quoted in Merle, 295.
Conclusion
See, for instance, Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 13), 44; Hugh Seton-Watson, Nation and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Na- tions and the Politics of Nationalism (New York, 1977), 107.
Results from Library of Congress Catalogue at catalog. loc. gov.
On the army as a "school of Jacobinism" and, a fortiori, of republican Frenchness during Year II, see Jean-Paul Bertaud, La Re? volution arme? e: Les soldats-citoyens et la Re? volution franc? aise (Paris, 1979), 194-229.
On the republican heritage in nineteenth- and twentieth-century French na- tionalism, and a comparison with Germany, see Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass. , 1992).
See Thiesse, La cre? ation des identite? s nationales (see Intro. , n. 14), which now provides the best general guide to the phenomenon. Her work builds above all on Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. , The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983). On France, see also the work of Poulot, Muse? e, nation, patrimoine (see Ch. 4, n. 10).
See de Certeau et al. (see Ch. 5, n. 66), esp. 160-69.
7. The crucial works here are Thiesse, Ils apprenaient la France (see Ch. 4, n. 35), and Chanet, L'e? cole re? publicaine et les petites patries (see Ch. 6, n. 42).
8. See Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barre`s et le nationalisme franc? ais (Paris, 1972); Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, 1992); and, for an example of Maurras's writings, Charles Maurras, Mai^tres et te? moins de ma vie d'esprit: Barre`s, Mistral, France, Verlaine, More? as (Paris, 1954).
9. Maurice Barre`s, Les de? racine? s (Paris, 1911).
10. Journal officiel de l'Etat franc? ais, Dec. 27, 1941, quoted in Michel Baris, Langue
d'oi? l contre langue d'oc de la prise de Montse? gur (1244) a` la loi Deixonne (1951)
(Lyon, 1978), 98; cf. Chanet, 203-41.
11. See Yardeni, La conscience nationale (see Intro. , n. 12); R. Bu? tler, Nationales
und universales Denken im Werke Etienne Pasquiers (Basel, 1948).
12. Jules Michelet, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1879), and Histoire de la Re? volution
franc? aise, 2 vols. (Paris, 1852), I, 21-41.
13. Tallien quoted in Brubaker, 7. See also Jean-Pierre Gross, "La politique
militaire franc? aise de l'An II et l'e? veil du nationalisme," History of European
Ideas, XV/1 (1992), 347-53.
14. See Wahnich, L'impossible citoyen (see Intro. , n. 33), 127-31.
15. For an extended treatment of this aspect of French nationalism and its com-
parison with German citizenship practices, see Brubaker, Citizenship and Na-
tionhood.
16. On the situation of Alsace, see Bell, "Nation-Building and Cultural Particu- larism" (see Ch. 2, n. 101).
17. Quoted in Albert Soboul, "La Re? volution franc? aise: Proble`me national et re? alite? s sociales," in Pierre Vilar, ed. , Actes du Colloque Patriotisme et Nationalisme en Europe a` l'e? poque de la Re? volution franc? aise et de Napole? on (Paris, 1973), 29-58, at 34.
18. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation? " in Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds. , Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford, 1996), 42-55, quote from 53.
19. Many of them also cite Renan's stress on patrimony. See Jacques Chirac,
speech to the Institut des Hautes Etudes de De? fense Nationale, cited in Le Monde, May 31, 2000; also Interior Minister Jean-Pierre Cheve`nement in dia- logue with German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer, cited in Le Monde, June 21, 2000. In recent years in Le Monde, see also, for instance, the following arti- cles: Roger-Pol Droit, "Questions de frontie`res," Le Monde des Livres, Sept. 16, 1996; Eric Melchior and Je? ro^me Sulim, "Thiers, Ce? line, Brasillach: non, nous n'assumons pas! " Le Monde, Feb. 15, 1997; Serina Guillaume, "Une re? flexion ne? cessaire," Le Monde, Oct. 18, 1997; Albrecht Sonntag, "Le football: Ciment des nations," Le Monde, June 4, 1998; Alain Bergounioux et al. , preliminary document of the Parti Socialiste on Europe, discussed in Michel Noblecourt,
Notes to Pages 202-205 289
? Notes to Pages 202-205
290
Notes to Pages 206-210
? 20. 21. 22.
23. 24.
Notes to Pages 206-210
25. 26.
27. 28.
29. 30.
31.
32. 33. 34.
"Le PS a` la recherche d'une position equilibre? e sur la construction europe? enne," Le Monde, Feb. 3, 1999; Jean-Philippe Vincent, "Renan et la Corse," Le Monde, June 4, 1999; Cle? ment Je? ro^me, "France et Allemagne, demain," Le Monde, September 24, 1999; Cullin Michel, "Jo? rg Haider en que^te d'une nouvelle identite? nationale," Le Monde, Feb. 17, 2000. Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, Dec. 22, 1792, 803.
Greenfeld, Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 21), 11, 89-188.
Here I take issue with Thiesse, especially in La cre? ation des identite? s nationales and her attempt to present French nationalism as fundamentally little differ- ent from other European varieties.
See Stuart J. Woolf, Napoleon's Integration of Europe (London, 1991).
See Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (see Intro. , n. 28), 3-22, quote from 9. To be sure, these same bourgeois observers could also perceive the urban lower classes as dangerous and alien, but with the difference that the urban poor tended to be seen less as pure creatures of nature lacking in social organiza- tion, than as members of a corrupt, debauched form of society. In this sense, the distinction recapitulates the early modern distinction between "savages" and "barbarians. " See the classic analysis of Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses a` Paris pendant la premie`re moitie? du XIXe sie`cle (Paris, 1958).
See Woloch, The New Regime (see Ch. 5, n. 106), 197-222.
Weber, 68, 303-38. See also Antoine Prost, L'enseignement en France, 1800- 1967 (Paris, 1968).
Quoted in Weber, 332-33.
See Jacques and Mona Ozouf, "La Tour de la France par deux enfants," and Pierre Nora, "Lavisse, instituteur national," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire (see Intro. , n. 33), I, 277-301 and 239-75.
See Chanet, esp. 216-23.
Most recently on this subject, see Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Re- publican Idea of Empire in France and West Arica, 1895-1930 (Stanford, 1997). "Let us regard ourselves, you and I, in these cantons, as if we were in China or in Turkey, even though we are in the middle of Christianity, where one sees practically nought but pagans," a priest from the diocese of Nantes wrote to a colleague in 1731. Quoted in Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 104. For a sustained analysis of the comparison, see Dominique Deslandres, "Le mode`le franc? ais d'inte? gration socio-religieuse, 1600-1650: Missions inte? rieures et premie`res missions canadiennes," Ph. D. diss. , Universite? de Montre? al (1990).
See Conklin, 102-4, 135-36.
See ibid. , 142-173, 246-56.
On these points, see above all Ge? rard Noiriel, The French Melting Pot: Immi-
Notes to Pages 210-216 291
? gration, Citizenship and National Identity, trans. Geoffroy de Laforcade (Min- neapolis, 1996), esp. 1-90, 189-226. Nora's remarks quoted on 3. For some criticisms of Noiriel, see David A. Bell, "Forgotten Frenchmen," Times Liter- ary Supplement, Jan. 24, 1997.
35. For a comparison of French and German citizenship laws, see Brubaker, Citi- zenship and Nationhood.
36. See Ge? rard Noiriel, "Franc? ais et e? trangers," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire, pt. III, I, 275-76.
37. See esp. Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993). For commentary in the American media, see for instance Roger Cohen, "Lacking Barricades, France Is in a Funk," The New York Times, Dec. 29, 1996, sect. 4, p. 5; Howard LaFranchi, "The Two Faces of France," The Christian Science Monitor, July 25, 1994, 9; "The Declining Glory of France," cover story, Newsweek, European ed. , May 9, 1994.
38. Nora. ed. , Les lieux de me? moire. For comments on this work see Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past" (see Intro. , n. 27), and Bell, "Paris Blues" (see Intro. , n. 27).
39. Paul Yonnet, Voyage au centre du malaise franc? ais (Paris, 1993). Notes to Pages 210-216
40. Henri Mendras (with Alistair Cole), Social Change in Modern France: Towards
a Cultural Anthropology of the Fifth Republic (Cambridge, 1991), 15.
41. Ibid. , 16, and more generally 15-22. See also Henri Mendras, La fin des
paysans (rev. ed. Paris, 1984).
42. The poll was cited in the Toronto Star, July 26, 1998. The figure of 38% was far
higher than that in any other European country.
43. Quoted in The Independent (London), April 30, 1995, 17. The remark was
made in 1991.
44. Pierre Nora, "De la Re? publique a` la Nation" in Les lieux de me? moire, I, 559-
67.
45. Franc? ois Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, Elborg Forster, trans.
(Cambridge, 1981), 1-79; Franc? ois Furet, Jacques Julliard, and Pierre Rosan-
vallon, La Re? publique du centre: La fin de l'exception franc? aise (Paris, 1988).
46. See Mendras, Social Change, 91-106.
47. See ibid. , 226-46.
? ? Note on Internet Appendices and Bibliography
It is, regrettably, impossible to publish a full bibliography and extensive ap- pendices in this book. However, the Internet has enabled scholars to pro- vide longer appendices and bibliographies than were ever normally in- cluded in academic books, albeit at the cost of physically separating this material from the text of the book itself.
I have therefore placed the following material on my own permanent web site, www. davidbell. net:
French Quotations: The original French for all citations that appear in this book in translation.
Appendix I: Ten selected engravings of "illustrious Frenchmen" (includ- ing Joan of Arc and Marie de Medicis) done after paintings by Philippe Champaigne and Simon Voue? t in the Palais Royal (now destroyed), ini- tially published in Marc Vulson de la Colombie`re, Les portraits des hommes illustres franc? ois, Qui sont peints dans la galerie du Palais Cardinal de Richelieu, avec leurs principales Actions, Armes & Deuises (Paris, 1668), dis- cussed in Chapter 4.
Appendix II: The full text, including four engravings, of Antoine- Le? onard Thomas, Jumonville (Paris, 1759), discussed in Chapter 3.
Appendix III. The full text and a translation into English of Antoine- Hyacinthe Sermet, Discours prounounc? at dabant la legiou de Sant-Ginest, Pel. R. . P. Sermet, Exproubincial des Carme? s Descausse? s, Predicaire? ourdinari del Rey, &c. (Toulouse, 1790), discussed in Chapter 6.
Bibliography. A comprehensive guide to primary and secondary sources pertaining to patriotism and national identity in early modern and revolu- tionary France, and all other works cited in this volume.
292
? Index
Index
Index
? Absolutism, see Monarchy, French Acade? mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres,
224-5
Acade? mie Franc? aise, 5-6, 11, 65, 67, 111,
121, 123-4, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138 Academies, provincial, 111
Achilles, 126
Acomb, Frances, 237
Ader, Guillaume, 189
Africans, 86, 95, 98, 104-5, 209, 213, 256,
269
Agier, Pierre-Jean, 71
Aguesseau, Henri-Franc? ois d', chancellor of
France, 31, 51-53, 57, 61-2, 66-7, 107,
111-2, 117, 125, 141, 239, 242 Aix-en-Provence, Jacobin club of, 195
Albi, Jacobin club of, 182
Albret, Jeanne d', queen of Navarre, 287 Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 111, 236 Alexander the Great, 126
Alsace, 9, 74, 171, 173, 175, 177-8, 183, 197,
205, 274-5
America, French and British policies in, 46 American Indians, see Indians, American American Revolution, see War of American
Independence
Anderson, Benedict, 23, 181-2 Angiviller, Charles-Claude de Flahaut,
comte de la Billarderie d', 109-111, 116,
123, 127, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138 Anglomania, see England, French views of Anglophobia, see England, French views of Anne of Austria, queen of France, 127 Anne? e Litte? raire, 89-90
Antraigues, Emmanuel comte d', 71
Arabs, see North Africans
Arcq, Philippe Auguste de Sainte-Foix, chevalier d', 63
Argenson, Rene? -Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, marquis d', 11, 125
Aristotle, 143
Army, French, 201
Arnauld, Antoine (pe`re), 102
Arnault, Antoine-Vincent, 157
ARTFL (Project for American and French
Research on the Treasury of the French Language), 12. See also Nation, statistics on usage of word
Assas, Louis, chevalier d', 84, 119 Assimilation, 207-17. See also Civilizing
Mission
Astros, Jean-Ge? raud d', 187
Astruc, Jean, 135
Aubigne? , Agrippa d', 30
Aublet de Maubuy, Jean-Zorobabel, 113-4,
120, 127-8
Auch, Jacobin club of, 187
Augustus, 134
Aulard, Alphonse, 51, 239
Austria, 90, 101
Auvigny, Jean du Castre d', see Du Castre Azeglio, Massimo d', 198, 201
Babel, Tower of, 177
Bachaumont, Louis Petit de, see Me? moires
secrets
Baculard d'Arnaud, Franc? ois-Thomas- Marie de, 93
Baecque, Antoine de, see De Baecque, Antoine
Baker, Keith Michael, 25, 29, 60, 220, 227, 231
293
294 Index
? Barbarians, 84-87, 90, 94, 98-106; compared to savages, 86-7
Barbier, Edmond-Jean-Franc? ois, 44, 89 Bare`re, Bertrand, 82, 100-1, 105, 153, 156,
169, 175, 177-9, 184, 186, 278 Barre`s, Maurice, 202
Basques and Basque language, 169, 175,
178, 186
Basset de la Marelle, Louis, 67
Bastille, fall of, 153
Bathilde, queen of France (636-680), 133 Baumier, 119
Bayard, Pierre, 80, 107, 109-111, 115, 147,
152
Bayle, Pierre, 28
Be? arn, 74, 274, 287
Beausobre, Louis de, 63, 66
Becker, Carl, 120
Bell, Daniel, 231
Belle-Isle, Charles-Louis-Auguste Fouquet,
duc de, 135
Belloy, see Buirette de Belloy
Be? ranger, Pierre-Jean de, 152
Be? re? govoy, Pierre, 210
Bibliothe`que Nationale de France, 225, 251 Bignon, see Heince
Billaud-Varenne, Jacques-Nicolas, 140, 158 Biographies, collective, 80, 103, 108, 111-7,
121, 124, 126, 130-9. See also "Cult of
Great Men"
Blanqui, Adolphe, 208
Blin, Pierre, 260
Bodin, Jean, 95, 143
Boissy d'Anglas, Franc? ois, comte de, 156 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, 45 Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon, see Louis-
Napoleon
Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon Bonnet, Jean-Claude, 107, 116, 120, 122,
259-60
Bossuet, Jacques-Be? nigne, 27, 67, 111, 245 Boucher-Laricharderie, Gilles, 159 Boulainvilliers, Henri, comte de, 24-5, 57-
8, 151
Bove? , Jose? , 212
Brassard, volunteer translator, 186
Breton language, see Brittany
Brewer, John, 234
Britain, see Great Britain
Brittany and Breton language, 15, 73, 161,
169, 173, 175, 177, 183, 185-6, 188-90,
206, 213, 228, 274, 286
British Museum, 46
Brockliss, L. W. B. , 164
Brubaker, Rogers, 288, 289
Bruno, G. (Augustine Fouille? e), 208 Brunot, Ferdinand, 278, 281
Brutus, Junius, 126, 157-8
Bucquet, Jean-Baptiste-Michel, 135
Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc, comte de, 96,
98, 134, 145
Buirette de Belloy, Pierre, and Le sie`ge de
Calais, 45, 50, 63-4, 67, 98-9, 104, 109,
116, 119, 122-3, 163-4, 244 Burgundy, Louis, duke of, 57 Byng, John, admiral, 84
Caesar, Julius, 126
Calas Affair, 55
Calvinism, 28, 38, 47-48, 193-4, 287 Cambon, abbe? , 186
Camus, Armand-Gaston, 70
Canada, 46, 96
Canon of great men, see "Cult of Great
Men"
Carlet, Pierre, 132
Carthage, 84-5, 100-1, 103
Casanova, Giacomo, 9, 77
Cassini, Jean-Dominique, 111
Castan, Yves, 190
Castilhon, Jean-Louis, 140-2, 150, 224 Catalan language, see Roussillon and
Catalan language
Catholicism, 8, 17, 24, 38, 43-49, 61,
93, 101-4, 119-21, 128, 154-9, 161-8. 182-97, 203, 213, 284; and education, 163; and language, 182-97; and periodical press, 165; and theater, 164; in relation to cosmopolitanism, 47-9, 93-4. See also Civil Constitution of the Clergy; Counter-Reformation; Missionaries; Nation, construction of compared to construction of church; Religion, civil
Catholic League, 83, 102
Catholic Reformation, see Counter-
Reformation
Catinat de la Fauconnerie, Nicolas de,
marshal of France, 107, 111-2, 121 Cerutti, Joseph-Antoine, 148, 154, 156, 165
Index 295
? Chabot, Franc? ois, 186, 195
Chaisneau, abbe? Charles, 151 Cha^lons-sur-Marne, Academy of, 63, 150,
155
Champaigne, Philippe de, 112, 292 Chantreau, Pierre-Nicolas, 14, 50, 62, 76 Character, national, see National character Charlemagne, 135, 138
Charles V, king of France, 112
Charles IX, king of France, 31-32
Charles Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie), 47 Charpentier, Franc? ois, 123
Chaussard, Pierre-Jean-Baptiste, 146 Che? nier, Marie-Joseph, 14, 30-32, 158, 199,
201
Chevalier, Louis, 61
Cheve`nement, Jean-Pierre, 228
Chevert, Franc? ois de, 135, 138
China and Chinese, 149
Chinard, Gilbert, 257
Chirac, Jacques, 205, 214
Choiseul, Etienne-Franc? ois, duc de, 88, 90,
123
Choudhury, Mita, 254
Christianity, see Religion
Church, Catholic, see Catholicism Church, William Farr, 233
Citizens or citizenship, 26, 36-37, 51, 53,
154-9, 195, 204-5, 210
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 183-4,
194, 282
Civil Religion, see Religion
Civilization, concept of, 25-26, 32, 36, 40-
41, 53, 56, 94, 128, 149, 199, 216, 235; contrasted with concept of patrie, 40-41, 128, 149
"Civilizing Mission," 96, 103, 209
Class, social, see Social classes
Climate, 95-96, 98, 105, 144-5, 148, 151,
157
Cloots, Anacharsis, 96, 100
Clovis, king of France, 138
Clovis II, king of France, 133
Coffee houses, 34
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 34, 96, 112, 123 Collection of Heroic and Civic Actions of
French Republicans, 137
Collective biographies, see Biographies,
collective
Colley, Linda, 9, 20, 46, 222
Colonies, French, 208-10, 212-3 Come? die Franc? aise, 11, 63, 65, 163-4. See
also Theater
Commerce, 26
Commune of Paris, see Paris, Commune of Concepts, Foundational, see Foundational
Concepts
Conde? , Louis II de Bourbon, prince de, 111 Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas,
marquis de, 41, 167
Constituent Assembly, see National
Assembly
Constitution, French, 25, 56, 58, 68, 71-2,
152, 156, 199
Convention, National, 1-4, 14, 82, 100-1,
103, 136-7, 153, 156-8, 160, 163, 175,
178, 195-6, 272, 278
Cooper, James Fenimore, 78
Corday, Charlotte, 138
Corneille, Pierre, 111
Corsica, 175, 178. See also Italy and Italian
language
Cosmopolitanism, 44-9, 65, 82, 88, 90, 95,
97; in relation to Catholicism, 47-9, 93-
4. See also Universalism Coulon de Jumonville, Joseph, see
Jumonville, Joseph Coulon de Counter-Reformation, 8, 119, 161, 187-90,
196-7, 222. See also Catholicism;
Missionaries
Counter-Revolution, 169, 173, 178, 183,
186-7, 205. See also Nationalism, right-
wing
Coyer, abbe? Gabriel-Franc? ois, 61-3, 69, 216 Crow, Thomas, 260
Crown, French, see Monarchy, French "Cult of Great Men," 16, 80, 107-139, 164,
199; and classical antiquity, 122-5; and French monarchy, 122-5; and religion, 119-21; and republicanism, 125-8; in French Revolution, 120, 124, 136-9; provincial, 118-9. See also Collective biographies; Eulogies; Painting; Sculpture
Danton, Georges, 156, 271 Darigrand, Edme-Franc? ois, 62 Darnton, Robert, 114, 265
David, Jacques-Louis, 125, 157-8, 166 De Baecque, Antoine, 150, 272
296 Index
? De-Christianization, see Religion, interiorization of
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
(1789), 14, 155
Deeds and Heroic Actions, see Faits et actions
he? roi? ques
Degeneration, 74. See also Regeneration Dentzel, Georges-Fre? de? ric,177
Des Autelz, Guillaume de, 38
Descartes, Rene?
138. Brun, Recherches historiques, 426.
139. Queen Jeanne d'Albret had a Calvinist catechism and the psalms translated
into Be? arnais, and recruited Be? arnais preachers. Though short-lived, her ef- forts so strengthened Be? arnais that the kingdom, fully integrated into France in 1620, resisted French more fiercely than any other Occitan region (the Es- tates used a bastard Be? arnais for their deliberations right down to 1789). See Andre? Armengaud and Robert Lafont, eds. , Histoire de l'Occitanie (Paris, 1979), 483-86; Franc? ois Pic, "A propos de l'emploi de l'occitan par la
288
Notes to Pages 193-202
? 140.
141. 142. 143. 144.
145.
Notes to Pages 193-202
146. 147.
148.
1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
re? forme: Le cate? chisme bilingue franc? ais-be? arnais de Jean-Raymond Merlin,"
Bulletin de l'Association d'e? tude sur l'humanisme, la re? forme et la renaissance (France du centre et du sud-est), VI/11 (1980), 38-45; Brun, L'introduction de la langue franc? aise, 28, 34.
After the fall of the Jacobins and the reestablishment of Catholicism, Gre? goire succeeded in getting a law passed to the effect that only the "sacra- mental formulae" would remain in Latin. On this debate, and Gre? goire's cru- cial role in it, see Brunot, IX, pt. I, 374-78, 396-97. At this date, of course, the French constitutional church was disavowed by the Vatican.
See above all Van Kley, Religious Origins (see Intro. , n. 65).
Brunot, V, 25-28.
For a summary of these issues, see Sepinwall, 75-79.
Maza, Private Lives and Public Affairs (see Ch. 2, n. 18), 85; cf. Marie-He? le`ne Huet, Rehearsing the Revolution: The Staging of Marat's Death, 1793-1797, trans. Robert Hurley (Berkeley, 1992), 49-58.
Carla Hesse, "La preuve par la lettre: Pratiques juridiques au tribunal re? volutionnaire de Paris (1793-1794)," Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales, LI/ 3 (1996), 629-42.
Gre? goire, in de Certeau et al, 303.
Chabot to Gre? goire, Sept. 4, 1790, in Gazier, 73; Fonvielhe to Gre? goire, un- dated, in BN NAF 2798, fol. 44v.
Quoted in Merle, 295.
Conclusion
See, for instance, Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 13), 44; Hugh Seton-Watson, Nation and States: An Enquiry into the Origins of Na- tions and the Politics of Nationalism (New York, 1977), 107.
Results from Library of Congress Catalogue at catalog. loc. gov.
On the army as a "school of Jacobinism" and, a fortiori, of republican Frenchness during Year II, see Jean-Paul Bertaud, La Re? volution arme? e: Les soldats-citoyens et la Re? volution franc? aise (Paris, 1979), 194-229.
On the republican heritage in nineteenth- and twentieth-century French na- tionalism, and a comparison with Germany, see Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, Mass. , 1992).
See Thiesse, La cre? ation des identite? s nationales (see Intro. , n. 14), which now provides the best general guide to the phenomenon. Her work builds above all on Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, eds. , The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge, 1983). On France, see also the work of Poulot, Muse? e, nation, patrimoine (see Ch. 4, n. 10).
See de Certeau et al. (see Ch. 5, n. 66), esp. 160-69.
7. The crucial works here are Thiesse, Ils apprenaient la France (see Ch. 4, n. 35), and Chanet, L'e? cole re? publicaine et les petites patries (see Ch. 6, n. 42).
8. See Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barre`s et le nationalisme franc? ais (Paris, 1972); Herman Lebovics, True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900-1945 (Ithaca, 1992); and, for an example of Maurras's writings, Charles Maurras, Mai^tres et te? moins de ma vie d'esprit: Barre`s, Mistral, France, Verlaine, More? as (Paris, 1954).
9. Maurice Barre`s, Les de? racine? s (Paris, 1911).
10. Journal officiel de l'Etat franc? ais, Dec. 27, 1941, quoted in Michel Baris, Langue
d'oi? l contre langue d'oc de la prise de Montse? gur (1244) a` la loi Deixonne (1951)
(Lyon, 1978), 98; cf. Chanet, 203-41.
11. See Yardeni, La conscience nationale (see Intro. , n. 12); R. Bu? tler, Nationales
und universales Denken im Werke Etienne Pasquiers (Basel, 1948).
12. Jules Michelet, Jeanne d'Arc (Paris, 1879), and Histoire de la Re? volution
franc? aise, 2 vols. (Paris, 1852), I, 21-41.
13. Tallien quoted in Brubaker, 7. See also Jean-Pierre Gross, "La politique
militaire franc? aise de l'An II et l'e? veil du nationalisme," History of European
Ideas, XV/1 (1992), 347-53.
14. See Wahnich, L'impossible citoyen (see Intro. , n. 33), 127-31.
15. For an extended treatment of this aspect of French nationalism and its com-
parison with German citizenship practices, see Brubaker, Citizenship and Na-
tionhood.
16. On the situation of Alsace, see Bell, "Nation-Building and Cultural Particu- larism" (see Ch. 2, n. 101).
17. Quoted in Albert Soboul, "La Re? volution franc? aise: Proble`me national et re? alite? s sociales," in Pierre Vilar, ed. , Actes du Colloque Patriotisme et Nationalisme en Europe a` l'e? poque de la Re? volution franc? aise et de Napole? on (Paris, 1973), 29-58, at 34.
18. Ernest Renan, "What Is a Nation? " in Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, eds. , Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford, 1996), 42-55, quote from 53.
19. Many of them also cite Renan's stress on patrimony. See Jacques Chirac,
speech to the Institut des Hautes Etudes de De? fense Nationale, cited in Le Monde, May 31, 2000; also Interior Minister Jean-Pierre Cheve`nement in dia- logue with German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer, cited in Le Monde, June 21, 2000. In recent years in Le Monde, see also, for instance, the following arti- cles: Roger-Pol Droit, "Questions de frontie`res," Le Monde des Livres, Sept. 16, 1996; Eric Melchior and Je? ro^me Sulim, "Thiers, Ce? line, Brasillach: non, nous n'assumons pas! " Le Monde, Feb. 15, 1997; Serina Guillaume, "Une re? flexion ne? cessaire," Le Monde, Oct. 18, 1997; Albrecht Sonntag, "Le football: Ciment des nations," Le Monde, June 4, 1998; Alain Bergounioux et al. , preliminary document of the Parti Socialiste on Europe, discussed in Michel Noblecourt,
Notes to Pages 202-205 289
? Notes to Pages 202-205
290
Notes to Pages 206-210
? 20. 21. 22.
23. 24.
Notes to Pages 206-210
25. 26.
27. 28.
29. 30.
31.
32. 33. 34.
"Le PS a` la recherche d'une position equilibre? e sur la construction europe? enne," Le Monde, Feb. 3, 1999; Jean-Philippe Vincent, "Renan et la Corse," Le Monde, June 4, 1999; Cle? ment Je? ro^me, "France et Allemagne, demain," Le Monde, September 24, 1999; Cullin Michel, "Jo? rg Haider en que^te d'une nouvelle identite? nationale," Le Monde, Feb. 17, 2000. Re? impression de l'ancien Moniteur, Dec. 22, 1792, 803.
Greenfeld, Nationalism (see Intro. , n. 21), 11, 89-188.
Here I take issue with Thiesse, especially in La cre? ation des identite? s nationales and her attempt to present French nationalism as fundamentally little differ- ent from other European varieties.
See Stuart J. Woolf, Napoleon's Integration of Europe (London, 1991).
See Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen (see Intro. , n. 28), 3-22, quote from 9. To be sure, these same bourgeois observers could also perceive the urban lower classes as dangerous and alien, but with the difference that the urban poor tended to be seen less as pure creatures of nature lacking in social organiza- tion, than as members of a corrupt, debauched form of society. In this sense, the distinction recapitulates the early modern distinction between "savages" and "barbarians. " See the classic analysis of Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses a` Paris pendant la premie`re moitie? du XIXe sie`cle (Paris, 1958).
See Woloch, The New Regime (see Ch. 5, n. 106), 197-222.
Weber, 68, 303-38. See also Antoine Prost, L'enseignement en France, 1800- 1967 (Paris, 1968).
Quoted in Weber, 332-33.
See Jacques and Mona Ozouf, "La Tour de la France par deux enfants," and Pierre Nora, "Lavisse, instituteur national," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire (see Intro. , n. 33), I, 277-301 and 239-75.
See Chanet, esp. 216-23.
Most recently on this subject, see Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Re- publican Idea of Empire in France and West Arica, 1895-1930 (Stanford, 1997). "Let us regard ourselves, you and I, in these cantons, as if we were in China or in Turkey, even though we are in the middle of Christianity, where one sees practically nought but pagans," a priest from the diocese of Nantes wrote to a colleague in 1731. Quoted in Chartier, Cultural Origins (see Intro. , n. 32), 104. For a sustained analysis of the comparison, see Dominique Deslandres, "Le mode`le franc? ais d'inte? gration socio-religieuse, 1600-1650: Missions inte? rieures et premie`res missions canadiennes," Ph. D. diss. , Universite? de Montre? al (1990).
See Conklin, 102-4, 135-36.
See ibid. , 142-173, 246-56.
On these points, see above all Ge? rard Noiriel, The French Melting Pot: Immi-
Notes to Pages 210-216 291
? gration, Citizenship and National Identity, trans. Geoffroy de Laforcade (Min- neapolis, 1996), esp. 1-90, 189-226. Nora's remarks quoted on 3. For some criticisms of Noiriel, see David A. Bell, "Forgotten Frenchmen," Times Liter- ary Supplement, Jan. 24, 1997.
35. For a comparison of French and German citizenship laws, see Brubaker, Citi- zenship and Nationhood.
36. See Ge? rard Noiriel, "Franc? ais et e? trangers," in Nora, ed. , Les lieux de me? moire, pt. III, I, 275-76.
37. See esp. Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, 1993). For commentary in the American media, see for instance Roger Cohen, "Lacking Barricades, France Is in a Funk," The New York Times, Dec. 29, 1996, sect. 4, p. 5; Howard LaFranchi, "The Two Faces of France," The Christian Science Monitor, July 25, 1994, 9; "The Declining Glory of France," cover story, Newsweek, European ed. , May 9, 1994.
38. Nora. ed. , Les lieux de me? moire. For comments on this work see Englund, "The Ghost of Nation Past" (see Intro. , n. 27), and Bell, "Paris Blues" (see Intro. , n. 27).
39. Paul Yonnet, Voyage au centre du malaise franc? ais (Paris, 1993). Notes to Pages 210-216
40. Henri Mendras (with Alistair Cole), Social Change in Modern France: Towards
a Cultural Anthropology of the Fifth Republic (Cambridge, 1991), 15.
41. Ibid. , 16, and more generally 15-22. See also Henri Mendras, La fin des
paysans (rev. ed. Paris, 1984).
42. The poll was cited in the Toronto Star, July 26, 1998. The figure of 38% was far
higher than that in any other European country.
43. Quoted in The Independent (London), April 30, 1995, 17. The remark was
made in 1991.
44. Pierre Nora, "De la Re? publique a` la Nation" in Les lieux de me? moire, I, 559-
67.
45. Franc? ois Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution, Elborg Forster, trans.
(Cambridge, 1981), 1-79; Franc? ois Furet, Jacques Julliard, and Pierre Rosan-
vallon, La Re? publique du centre: La fin de l'exception franc? aise (Paris, 1988).
46. See Mendras, Social Change, 91-106.
47. See ibid. , 226-46.
? ? Note on Internet Appendices and Bibliography
It is, regrettably, impossible to publish a full bibliography and extensive ap- pendices in this book. However, the Internet has enabled scholars to pro- vide longer appendices and bibliographies than were ever normally in- cluded in academic books, albeit at the cost of physically separating this material from the text of the book itself.
I have therefore placed the following material on my own permanent web site, www. davidbell. net:
French Quotations: The original French for all citations that appear in this book in translation.
Appendix I: Ten selected engravings of "illustrious Frenchmen" (includ- ing Joan of Arc and Marie de Medicis) done after paintings by Philippe Champaigne and Simon Voue? t in the Palais Royal (now destroyed), ini- tially published in Marc Vulson de la Colombie`re, Les portraits des hommes illustres franc? ois, Qui sont peints dans la galerie du Palais Cardinal de Richelieu, avec leurs principales Actions, Armes & Deuises (Paris, 1668), dis- cussed in Chapter 4.
Appendix II: The full text, including four engravings, of Antoine- Le? onard Thomas, Jumonville (Paris, 1759), discussed in Chapter 3.
Appendix III. The full text and a translation into English of Antoine- Hyacinthe Sermet, Discours prounounc? at dabant la legiou de Sant-Ginest, Pel. R. . P. Sermet, Exproubincial des Carme? s Descausse? s, Predicaire? ourdinari del Rey, &c. (Toulouse, 1790), discussed in Chapter 6.
Bibliography. A comprehensive guide to primary and secondary sources pertaining to patriotism and national identity in early modern and revolu- tionary France, and all other works cited in this volume.
292
? Index
Index
Index
? Absolutism, see Monarchy, French Acade? mie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres,
224-5
Acade? mie Franc? aise, 5-6, 11, 65, 67, 111,
121, 123-4, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138 Academies, provincial, 111
Achilles, 126
Acomb, Frances, 237
Ader, Guillaume, 189
Africans, 86, 95, 98, 104-5, 209, 213, 256,
269
Agier, Pierre-Jean, 71
Aguesseau, Henri-Franc? ois d', chancellor of
France, 31, 51-53, 57, 61-2, 66-7, 107,
111-2, 117, 125, 141, 239, 242 Aix-en-Provence, Jacobin club of, 195
Albi, Jacobin club of, 182
Albret, Jeanne d', queen of Navarre, 287 Alembert, Jean le Rond d', 111, 236 Alexander the Great, 126
Alsace, 9, 74, 171, 173, 175, 177-8, 183, 197,
205, 274-5
America, French and British policies in, 46 American Indians, see Indians, American American Revolution, see War of American
Independence
Anderson, Benedict, 23, 181-2 Angiviller, Charles-Claude de Flahaut,
comte de la Billarderie d', 109-111, 116,
123, 127, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138 Anglomania, see England, French views of Anglophobia, see England, French views of Anne of Austria, queen of France, 127 Anne? e Litte? raire, 89-90
Antraigues, Emmanuel comte d', 71
Arabs, see North Africans
Arcq, Philippe Auguste de Sainte-Foix, chevalier d', 63
Argenson, Rene? -Louis de Voyer de Paulmy, marquis d', 11, 125
Aristotle, 143
Army, French, 201
Arnauld, Antoine (pe`re), 102
Arnault, Antoine-Vincent, 157
ARTFL (Project for American and French
Research on the Treasury of the French Language), 12. See also Nation, statistics on usage of word
Assas, Louis, chevalier d', 84, 119 Assimilation, 207-17. See also Civilizing
Mission
Astros, Jean-Ge? raud d', 187
Astruc, Jean, 135
Aubigne? , Agrippa d', 30
Aublet de Maubuy, Jean-Zorobabel, 113-4,
120, 127-8
Auch, Jacobin club of, 187
Augustus, 134
Aulard, Alphonse, 51, 239
Austria, 90, 101
Auvigny, Jean du Castre d', see Du Castre Azeglio, Massimo d', 198, 201
Babel, Tower of, 177
Bachaumont, Louis Petit de, see Me? moires
secrets
Baculard d'Arnaud, Franc? ois-Thomas- Marie de, 93
Baecque, Antoine de, see De Baecque, Antoine
Baker, Keith Michael, 25, 29, 60, 220, 227, 231
293
294 Index
? Barbarians, 84-87, 90, 94, 98-106; compared to savages, 86-7
Barbier, Edmond-Jean-Franc? ois, 44, 89 Bare`re, Bertrand, 82, 100-1, 105, 153, 156,
169, 175, 177-9, 184, 186, 278 Barre`s, Maurice, 202
Basques and Basque language, 169, 175,
178, 186
Basset de la Marelle, Louis, 67
Bastille, fall of, 153
Bathilde, queen of France (636-680), 133 Baumier, 119
Bayard, Pierre, 80, 107, 109-111, 115, 147,
152
Bayle, Pierre, 28
Be? arn, 74, 274, 287
Beausobre, Louis de, 63, 66
Becker, Carl, 120
Bell, Daniel, 231
Belle-Isle, Charles-Louis-Auguste Fouquet,
duc de, 135
Belloy, see Buirette de Belloy
Be? ranger, Pierre-Jean de, 152
Be? re? govoy, Pierre, 210
Bibliothe`que Nationale de France, 225, 251 Bignon, see Heince
Billaud-Varenne, Jacques-Nicolas, 140, 158 Biographies, collective, 80, 103, 108, 111-7,
121, 124, 126, 130-9. See also "Cult of
Great Men"
Blanqui, Adolphe, 208
Blin, Pierre, 260
Bodin, Jean, 95, 143
Boissy d'Anglas, Franc? ois, comte de, 156 Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, 45 Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon, see Louis-
Napoleon
Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon Bonnet, Jean-Claude, 107, 116, 120, 122,
259-60
Bossuet, Jacques-Be? nigne, 27, 67, 111, 245 Boucher-Laricharderie, Gilles, 159 Boulainvilliers, Henri, comte de, 24-5, 57-
8, 151
Bove? , Jose? , 212
Brassard, volunteer translator, 186
Breton language, see Brittany
Brewer, John, 234
Britain, see Great Britain
Brittany and Breton language, 15, 73, 161,
169, 173, 175, 177, 183, 185-6, 188-90,
206, 213, 228, 274, 286
British Museum, 46
Brockliss, L. W. B. , 164
Brubaker, Rogers, 288, 289
Bruno, G. (Augustine Fouille? e), 208 Brunot, Ferdinand, 278, 281
Brutus, Junius, 126, 157-8
Bucquet, Jean-Baptiste-Michel, 135
Buffon, George-Louis Leclerc, comte de, 96,
98, 134, 145
Buirette de Belloy, Pierre, and Le sie`ge de
Calais, 45, 50, 63-4, 67, 98-9, 104, 109,
116, 119, 122-3, 163-4, 244 Burgundy, Louis, duke of, 57 Byng, John, admiral, 84
Caesar, Julius, 126
Calas Affair, 55
Calvinism, 28, 38, 47-48, 193-4, 287 Cambon, abbe? , 186
Camus, Armand-Gaston, 70
Canada, 46, 96
Canon of great men, see "Cult of Great
Men"
Carlet, Pierre, 132
Carthage, 84-5, 100-1, 103
Casanova, Giacomo, 9, 77
Cassini, Jean-Dominique, 111
Castan, Yves, 190
Castilhon, Jean-Louis, 140-2, 150, 224 Catalan language, see Roussillon and
Catalan language
Catholicism, 8, 17, 24, 38, 43-49, 61,
93, 101-4, 119-21, 128, 154-9, 161-8. 182-97, 203, 213, 284; and education, 163; and language, 182-97; and periodical press, 165; and theater, 164; in relation to cosmopolitanism, 47-9, 93-4. See also Civil Constitution of the Clergy; Counter-Reformation; Missionaries; Nation, construction of compared to construction of church; Religion, civil
Catholic League, 83, 102
Catholic Reformation, see Counter-
Reformation
Catinat de la Fauconnerie, Nicolas de,
marshal of France, 107, 111-2, 121 Cerutti, Joseph-Antoine, 148, 154, 156, 165
Index 295
? Chabot, Franc? ois, 186, 195
Chaisneau, abbe? Charles, 151 Cha^lons-sur-Marne, Academy of, 63, 150,
155
Champaigne, Philippe de, 112, 292 Chantreau, Pierre-Nicolas, 14, 50, 62, 76 Character, national, see National character Charlemagne, 135, 138
Charles V, king of France, 112
Charles IX, king of France, 31-32
Charles Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie), 47 Charpentier, Franc? ois, 123
Chaussard, Pierre-Jean-Baptiste, 146 Che? nier, Marie-Joseph, 14, 30-32, 158, 199,
201
Chevalier, Louis, 61
Cheve`nement, Jean-Pierre, 228
Chevert, Franc? ois de, 135, 138
China and Chinese, 149
Chinard, Gilbert, 257
Chirac, Jacques, 205, 214
Choiseul, Etienne-Franc? ois, duc de, 88, 90,
123
Choudhury, Mita, 254
Christianity, see Religion
Church, Catholic, see Catholicism Church, William Farr, 233
Citizens or citizenship, 26, 36-37, 51, 53,
154-9, 195, 204-5, 210
Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 183-4,
194, 282
Civil Religion, see Religion
Civilization, concept of, 25-26, 32, 36, 40-
41, 53, 56, 94, 128, 149, 199, 216, 235; contrasted with concept of patrie, 40-41, 128, 149
"Civilizing Mission," 96, 103, 209
Class, social, see Social classes
Climate, 95-96, 98, 105, 144-5, 148, 151,
157
Cloots, Anacharsis, 96, 100
Clovis, king of France, 138
Clovis II, king of France, 133
Coffee houses, 34
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 34, 96, 112, 123 Collection of Heroic and Civic Actions of
French Republicans, 137
Collective biographies, see Biographies,
collective
Colley, Linda, 9, 20, 46, 222
Colonies, French, 208-10, 212-3 Come? die Franc? aise, 11, 63, 65, 163-4. See
also Theater
Commerce, 26
Commune of Paris, see Paris, Commune of Concepts, Foundational, see Foundational
Concepts
Conde? , Louis II de Bourbon, prince de, 111 Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas,
marquis de, 41, 167
Constituent Assembly, see National
Assembly
Constitution, French, 25, 56, 58, 68, 71-2,
152, 156, 199
Convention, National, 1-4, 14, 82, 100-1,
103, 136-7, 153, 156-8, 160, 163, 175,
178, 195-6, 272, 278
Cooper, James Fenimore, 78
Corday, Charlotte, 138
Corneille, Pierre, 111
Corsica, 175, 178. See also Italy and Italian
language
Cosmopolitanism, 44-9, 65, 82, 88, 90, 95,
97; in relation to Catholicism, 47-9, 93-
4. See also Universalism Coulon de Jumonville, Joseph, see
Jumonville, Joseph Coulon de Counter-Reformation, 8, 119, 161, 187-90,
196-7, 222. See also Catholicism;
Missionaries
Counter-Revolution, 169, 173, 178, 183,
186-7, 205. See also Nationalism, right-
wing
Coyer, abbe? Gabriel-Franc? ois, 61-3, 69, 216 Crow, Thomas, 260
Crown, French, see Monarchy, French "Cult of Great Men," 16, 80, 107-139, 164,
199; and classical antiquity, 122-5; and French monarchy, 122-5; and religion, 119-21; and republicanism, 125-8; in French Revolution, 120, 124, 136-9; provincial, 118-9. See also Collective biographies; Eulogies; Painting; Sculpture
Danton, Georges, 156, 271 Darigrand, Edme-Franc? ois, 62 Darnton, Robert, 114, 265
David, Jacques-Louis, 125, 157-8, 166 De Baecque, Antoine, 150, 272
296 Index
? De-Christianization, see Religion, interiorization of
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
(1789), 14, 155
Deeds and Heroic Actions, see Faits et actions
he? roi? ques
Degeneration, 74. See also Regeneration Dentzel, Georges-Fre? de? ric,177
Des Autelz, Guillaume de, 38
Descartes, Rene?
