Owing to the rising
influence
of the Western
Powers there began, with Mahmud II, the aston-
ishing attempt to alter Turkey according to the
pattern of the unified Western States.
Powers there began, with Mahmud II, the aston-
ishing attempt to alter Turkey according to the
pattern of the unified Western States.
Treitschke - 1915 - Germany, France, Russia, and Islam
So far
as the history of that region goes, the south-east
coast of Europe and the north-west coast of
Asia have always belonged to the same Greek
civilization. It was and is an enigma how a new
Power could ever arise in Stamboul which should
not at the same time be master of the most valu-
able strip of Asia Minor.
It is astounding with what cleverness the
Osmans in their great period knew how to utilize
this favourable position and those dissensions in
Europe. Although they had only the vaguest
conception of the geographical positions and the
history of the heathen countries, they yet divined,
with the fine sense for power peculiar to Orientals,
where in each case they had to look for their allies.
Correct insight and diplomatic tact, those ancient
privileges of masterful aristocracies, were also a
heritage among the ruling race in the Balkan
Peninsula. As the behever in the Koran may
regard every treaty of peace with the heathen
merely as a revocable armistice, the Porte dealt
with the Western countries with imperturbable
calm. She understood how to expect everything
from time, and waited patiently, with the fatalistic
quietness of the Moslem, until the hour came to
tear up all treaties and to let loose against the
Giaours the still unbroken, fierce natural forces
of the Janissaries and Spahis. Since France first
drew the great Suleiman into the quarrels of
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 19
Christendom, the Turks began to perceive that
they were at least welcome to one of the Christian
Powers; and thenceforth the State of the Osmans
has so often and so unctuously been praised by
the wiseacre statesmen of the Western countries
as an indispensable weight in the scales of Euro-
pean balance, that we ought not to be surprised if
to-day all the supports of the Turkish Empire,
the valis, mullahs, and ulemas, the black and the
white eunuchs, the odalisques, and the seraglio
boys, are all penetrated by the glad belief that
Allah's wonderful mercifulness has struck the
stupid Franks' eyes with an incurable blindness.
With good reason in truth has Machiavelli
eulogized the proud beginnings of the Osman
State; because that which represented policy
to the Florentine, namely, skill in governing, in
maintaining and enhancing the power of the State,
was practised here with a rare cleverness. But
with this skill the Turks' political capacity has
always ended; their Empire, even at its great
period, lacked all moral substance, just like
Machiavelli's ideal State. Might was self-interest ;
the question as to what moral purposes it should
aim at was never put. It was thought a matter
of course that the State should exist for the
benefit of the rulers; and if we inquire what the
ruling skill of that long series of strong statesmen
and generals has brought forth for the well-being
and civilization of mankind, only one answer is
possible : Nothing, simply nothing. When the con-
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? 20 Turkey and the Great Nations
quering Mohammed bestrode the desert palace of
the Comneni, the feeling of the transitoriness of
earthly greatness overcame him, and he uttered
the verse of the Oriental poet :
Before the gates in Emperors* castles
The spider, as chamberlain, is weaving curtains,
And in Afrasiab's columned halls
Echoes the cry of the nesting owl.
He did not imagine he was predicting the fate
of his own Empire. Like a huge avalanche,
Turkish despotism fell upon those blessed lands
which once witnessed the classic age of Christian
Church history. The interior of the Peninsula is
to-day as Httle known as the deserts of Australia ;
it was not till Diebitsch's expedition to Adrianople
that science gained some sort of notion of the
formation of Balkan mountain ranges. The rise
of the Turkish power compelled the Western
countries to brace themselves to vigorous action.
As the Osman occupied the flower of the com-
mercial centres in the Mediterranean, the Euro-
pean sought the sea route to India. In the fight
with the Asiatics arose the new Austria, which dis-
covered a firm bond of unity for its polyglot
nations in the fighting renown they had won
together. In so far even the Osman Empire has
borne witness to the truth that every great his-
torical phenomenon leaves some positive result
in the course of human development. But where
are the traces of the civilizing work of the
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 21
Turks themselves? What remained in Hungary
after the long one hundred and fifty years
during which the Pashas dwelt on the Koenigs-
burg at Buda? A few crude mutilations of
beautiful Christian churches and the warm baths
of Ofen. What now reminds one of the domina-
tion of the Crescent in Greece? Hardly any-
thing but the ruins of destroyed Christian
habitations. The ruination of the system of gov-
ernment did not consist in the brutal outrages of
individual magnates -- because the impaling and
drowning in sacks, the violating and pillaging, and
similar amusements customary to the country, did
not, according to Oriental standard, happen too
frequently -- but in that indescribable intellectual
laziness, in that profound slumber of the soul,
which was always peculiar to the Osmans even in
the days of their warlike greatness, and caused
them to appear as barbarians even in the eyes of
the Arabs. Just as the Turk truly loves only
three vocations, the career of a soldier, an official,
or a priest, his State has never shown any under-
standing of art or science or commerce. His
political economy, if the expression be allowed,
simply pursued the purpose of assuring comfortable
provision for the ruling race ; he therefore lightened
the taxes on imports and increased those on
exports -- just as in the Spain of Philip H, which
exhibits altogether several striking similarities to
the State of the Crescent.
And that idiotic system, which destroyed Spain's
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? 22 Turkey and the Great Nations
Empire in a few decades, has been burdening the
Balkan lands for nearly five hundred years ! The
Osmans, even in the glory of their victories and
in the superabundance of pillaged wealth, were
an Asiatic cavalry horde which never became
at home on the soil of Western civilization, and
never got beyond the standpoint of nomadic
warriors. A national migration which fell asleep
encamped over the Christian peoples of the
south-east. The Turkish Empire always re-
mained a mighty foreign despotism to the Rayahs.
The venal Fanariots might fawn for the favours
of the Osmanli, and the petty chieftains of the
Bosniaks, abjuring their fathers' faith, might join
the ruling nation's plundering campaign; but the
masses of the Southern Slavs have for five hundred
years been bewailing, in innumerable songs and
tales, the battle on the field of the Amsel as the
fatal day for the ancient freedom; the masses of
the Greeks have never ceased imploring God's
vengeance for that day of shame when the con-
queror rode into the Hagia Sophia and his horse's
hoofs violated the most beautiful God's house in
Eastern Christendom. Likewise, the conscience of
the European world has never recognized the ex-
istence of the Turkish realm as a morally justified
necessity. The conscience of nations knows of no
superannuation of what is wrong. War and con-
quest are only means towards the right ; they can
only prove that the victor possesses the mcral
superiority whereon the right to rule is based, but
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 23
they alone cannot base a right to rule on physical
domination. As long as the victor has not proved
that his power is countenanced by the moral
forces of history, his success remains an injustice
which may be expiated, an actuality which may
be abolished by other actualities. Dense weeds
have long been growing over the countless deeds of
violence which were needful for the foundation of
the governmental unity of all Europe's great
nations. The wrong done during the agitations
for unity among the Germans and Italians is nowa-
days, after but a few years, hardly felt, because
the nations' sense of right says to itself that those
revolutions only buried the dead and exalted the
living. But those wounds which a mentally sterile
Asiatic horde inflicted on Christian civilization still
bleed after five hundred years as if the blows had
fallen yesterday. And they will never scar over
so long as Europe still possesses free and cour-
ageous men who, unmoved by Russophobia and
English cant, dare to call the historic unrighteous-
ness by its true name; and however much self-
complacent narrow-heartedness may mock, it has
finally ever been idealism which has divined the
tendency of history.
But, however firmly and securely all the institu-
tions of the old Turkish Empire fitted together,
the State lacked what has been lacking in all theo-
cracies, capability of development. Its might
rested on the Osmans' governing skill and the
Rayahs' servility. If one of those two supports
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? 24 Turkey and the Great Nations
began to waver, inevitable decay would threaten
the State, and the natural progress of European
culture soon threaten both at the same time. A
powerful movement of economic and intellectual
life, in which Turkey took no part, gradually
strengthened the military and political forces of
the neighbouring Christian States to such a degree
that the balance of power was entirely displaced.
The Crescent lost the rich provinces on the other
side of the Danube by humiliating defeats, whilst
the Western countries regained full consciousness
of their superiority. The Osman Empire dropped
to a second-rate Power, and the name of Turk,
instead of being a bogey for children, became their
butt. The age of the Revolution next woke up
even the Rayah nations. Since then the decline
of the ruling people has been slowly and steadily
accomplishing itself, like the operation of na-
tural laws, whilst the national masses have con-
tinually grown in development. The strengthening
self -consciousness, and the increasing well-being
of the Rayahs, daily widen the gulf between the
rulers and subjects, and make reconciliation and
assimilation quite unthinkable. The Osmanli
are decaying, body and soul. Their generative
strength is being extinguished in the sodomy and
voluptuousness of the harem. Of the great
features of the national character almost nothing
remains but pride, fatalistic confidence, and inca-
pacity for any sympathy ; only now and then do the
bravery and the clever ruling sense of better days
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 25
break through the thick veil of measureless idleness
which has pitched its camp on the souls of the
satiated masters.
Orderliness and resolute manliness likewise
vanished with the might of the Empire; the wild
greed for plunder, which under the great Sultans of
old dared to satisfy itself only on the Rayahs, has
now for a long time done so shamelessly on the
State itself: "The Padishah's treasure is a sea,
and he who does not draw from it is a pig. " The
Rayahs, on the other hand, are indebted to Christen-
dom for the still tolerable purity of their domestic
life, and therewith their reproductiveness, which is
generally decisive in such racial struggles. What
really lives and works in Turkey is Christian.
Since the peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji the Greeks
have almost monopolized the traffic of the ^gean
Sea ; their wealth is growing, not only in the har-
bours of their small kingdom, in Patras, and at
Syra, but they are also multiplying and flour-
ishing in the coastal towns of Asia Minor, in
Smyrna, Aivalu, and Pergamos, whilst the Turks
are growing poorer and vanishing. It is true
the Rumanian and the Southern Slav are many
miles from being able to compete with the
activity of the exceedingly astute Greek, but
they also are far more energetic than the Turk.
The Osmans themselves admit that "by Allah's
will the Giaours become rich, and we poor"; the
gloomy prediction of the ultimate triumph of the
Cross lives in their nation, and many a distinguished
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? 26 Turkey and the Great Nations
Turk prudently orders his grave on safe Asiatic
soil. Sooner or later, in this instance as in that of
Poland's aristocratic Republic, the historical law
shall be fulfilled, which enjoins on our toiling
century that there is no longer a place in Europe
for a race of horsemen and consumers of income.
Let us not be led astray by the darling assurance
of English tourists that the Turk is nevertheless
the only gentleman among the inhabitants of the
Peninsula. That he certainly is. He who would
spend a pleasant hour with coffee and chibouk, will
undoubtedly find himself more comfortable in the
society of the dignified, distinguished, clean, and
honourable Turks than among the greedy vulture-
faces of the Rayahs. The truth is, the vices
of masters are different from those of servants;
dirt, servility, and thorough-going mendacity flour-
ish only in a state of slavery. But can supe-
riority in the social decencies be decisive in great
historical struggles? The slave-lords of Virginia
and Carolina assuredly displayed in casual inter-
course pleasanter social manners than the hard-
faced farmers and business men of the North,
or even than the negroes. And yet the German
people will always gladly remember that we did
not, like the English, let ourselves be so seduced by
a superficial preference for the gentlemen of the
South as to defend an unworthy cause, but with
moral earnestness we acknowledged the better
right of the North. In like manner, the Turks'
quiet dignity should not deceive us as to the fact
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 27
that the industry of the Greeks and the reproduc-
tiveness of the Slavs are leaving effete Osmandom
far behind in every respect. The Rayahs' Ortho-
dox faith is certainly the immaturest of all forms
of Christianity. He who judges merely by fleeting
impressions of travel will probably assign a higher
place to the Mohammedans' strict monotheism
than to the picture-worship of many a crude
Rayah tribe, which regard their crucifix almost in
the same way as the negroes their fetiches; and if
the tourist has also witnessed in the grave-church
at Jerusalem the way in which the Turkish cavasses
enforce peace with their sticks between the brawl-
ing, raging adherents of the religion of love, he
thinks himself justified in condemning the whole
of Oriental Christendom. He who, on the other
hand, surveys the concatenation of centuries,
cannot but admit that even there in the East, as
everywhere else, Christian civilization disposes of
an endless power of rejuvenation and self -renewal,
whilst all the peoples of Islam infallibly reach a
point at last at which the word of the Koran is ful-
filled. "Change is innovation, innovation is the
path to hell. " Even the most intellectually gifted
of all the Mohammedan nations, which founded the
glorious State of the Ommiads and created the
wonderful edifices of Granada and Cordova,
suddenly stood still at a certain point in its path
as if bewitched ; and this congelation of Islam gave
the Spanish Christians the power and the right to
conquer the Ommiads, although at the time of
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? 28 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Cid they were even more inferior to the Moors
than the Rayahs are to-day to the Osmans.
The Turks, for their part, have already long gone
past the zenith of the culture attainable by their
capacities ; in the case of the Greeks, however, and
even of the Serbs, Bulgarians, and Rumanians,
only a biassed mind can dispute that they are no
longer to-day what they were a century ago ; their
strength, after a long, death-like slumber, is again
unmistakably, if slowly, resurrecting. The in-
crease among the Franks at the Bosphorus is also
becoming a peril to the Osman Empire. Under
the protection of their Ambassadors they form
States within the State; besides how could it be
possible to subject Europeans to Turkish juris-
diction? Their privileged position shatters re-
spect for the authorities, even as their practically
almost complete freedom from taxation damages
the State revenue; and compared with the seven-
teen Embassies which attack the " Sick Man " with
advice, threats, intrigues of every kind, the Sul-
tan appears to his own subjects almost like an
irresponsible person whom Europe has put
under observation.
With their strength, likewise grew the Rayahs'
self-consciousness, which often seems wearisome
to us Germans, and still oftener absurd, because
national pride is generally wont to be the more
bragging and boastful in inverse ratio to a nation's
might and deeds. But we must not on that
account misunderstand either the necessity of
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 29
this persistent national agitation, or its connection
with the decisive forces of the century. Was it not
altogether natural that the reawakening impulse
towards culture should again hold the mother
language in honour, the basis of all culture-- that
Bulgaria found her Karadzic, Greece her Rhigas
and the long series of her national apostles; that
the Serbs learnt to value their fine old national
poetry, and that the great actions of their fathers,
real and imaginary, were again eulogized every-
where? You may believe as much as you please of
Fallmerayer's brilliant hypotheses, which, in point
of fact, only partially survive a strict scientific
investigation, but the Neo-Greeks have absorbed
the Slav and Skypetarian elements, which their
nationality embraces, and filled them with Greek
culture; a strong national self -consciousness has
grown up in them as the result of hard struggles
and the memories of an ancient past ; they possess
living traditions, a civilized tongue, and a consider-
able literature; in short, they are a small nation
still extremely immature, but of indestructibly
developed individuality. A paltry cunning it is,
worthy of the demagogic judges of the late-
lamented Bundestag, that would try to explain this
persistent change in the popular life simply as
arising from the machinations of Russian agents !
There certainly was, and is, no lack of such agents,
although Liberal pessimists have garbled astound-
ing stories even on that point. Why, how long
is it since Bakunin was considered by the whole
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? 30 Turkey and the Great Nations
Liberal world to be a Russian spy; and who will
nowadays defend that idiotic supposition? The
Russians' despotic methods of government and
energetic patriotism brought it about that in
former years almost every educated Russian
communicated of his own free will or by command
to the Government, the observations he had
gathered together during his travels in Europe;
that old custom has assuredly not become quite
obsolete to-day. That Pan-Slavist fanatics carry
on their intrigues among all the South- Slav popu-
lations is beyond doubt; and if we consider the
strange personality of Mr. Wesselitzky Bogidar-
ovic, who first appeared as a Russian secret agent,
and then as a Bosnian leader of rebels, the question
forces itself even upon childlike temperaments,
whether the connections of such people do not
extend to very high circles in Petersburg. Only
do not let any one imagine that a long-lasting
national agitation could be kept going by these
means. If the Russians in Petersburg and Mos-
cow build a few Bulgarian schools for their kins-
men and Orthodox Believers, where is the wrong
in it? And would those schools flourish and have
influence if self-consciousness and a tendency to
education had not long been awakened in the
Bulgarian nation?
Perhaps there was yet another way whereby the
domination of the ruling people could have been
maintained amid the growing strength of the Ra-
yahs. The Empire might perhaps have kept alive,
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 31
if it further developed, according to the altered
circumstances, the well-tried, shrewd system of
separating the nations and churches, extended the
privileges of individual peoples and creeds, and
carefully protected the Christians from the inter-
ference of Mohammedan officials by a well-assured
provincial independence. This way was full of
danger; it might easily have led to the formation
of semi-sovereign tributary states. In order to
adopt it the Porte must needs have possessed
an unusual measure of self-knowledge and self-
denial. Meanwhile it was the only possible one,
and it was therefore always recommended by
Russia, the best judge of Turkish conditions; be-
cause the old truth, that the might of empires is
maintained by the same methods as created them,
is even more true of unchangeable theocracies
than of other states. But as the Porte cherished
a well-grounded suspicion of Russian advice,
it at last, after long inactivity, chose the method
which was directly opposed to the views of Peters-
burg.
Owing to the rising influence of the Western
Powers there began, with Mahmud II, the aston-
ishing attempt to alter Turkey according to the
pattern of the unified Western States. Sultan
Mahmud created an army on the European model,
Rashid Pasha the mechanism of a uniformly
centralized government, the Hatti-Shereef of
Gulhane and Abdul -Mejid's Hat-Humayum
promised equality of justice to all subjects of the
Great Lord, Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha introduced
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? 32 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Neo-Napoleonic phrase into the blessed Turk-
ish Empire and announced that the time for
grandes agglomerations nationales had also arrived
for the East, that a unified Ottoman nation must
be created. Lastly, the enlightened Neo-Turk-
dom has likewise drunk to-day of the Constitu-
tional poison -- which acts upon such peoples like
brandy on the Redskins -- and demands a national
Parliamentary Council side by side with the
Sultan.
There is, unfortunately, merely a trifle lacking
for such a national council: viz. , a nation. The
Greeks and Slavs are not Turks; they can not
and will not be Turks; and the Turks can never
seriously allow them to be so. These so-called
reform-politics, which have now been trying for
several decades to abolish the racial hatreds and
religious fanaticisms of the Eastern world by a few
crumbs fallen from the table of Parisian constitu-
tion-makers, are nothing but a gigantic falsehood ;
and the patronage bestowed now by France, now
by England, on Turkish enlightenment, simply
shows that these Western Powers, in their self-com-
placent ignorance, have become quite incapa-
ble of understanding a foreign population. In
order to foresee the fate of the Neo-Turkish
reforms only a little honesty is needed, certainly
not any seer's gift ; for the same problem which is
to-day arising on the Bosphorus occupied the
astute minds of the whole world once before for
many years, when well-meaning diplomats hoped
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 33
to bless the Holy See with a constitution. A
constitutional Sultan is as impossible as a con-
stitutional Pope. Even as the Cardinals could
never recognize a lay council as a power with equal
rights, just so little can the Osman Believer regard
the Rayah as his equal. Although a hat of the
Sultans may sympathetically describe the Chris-
tians as tehah, as subjects, yet, according to God's
word, which the Padishah himself dares not offend,
they remain the rabble. It is again simply throw-
ing sand into the eyes of the Prankish bear when
the highly amusing manifesto of Mussulman pa-
triots announces to-day to Europe's statesmen
the news that the Koran itself enjoins national
assemblies. The Koran says: "Believers shall be
governed by their national Council" -- whilst un-
believers are to bend their brows to the dust
before Believers. In Switzerland, a glorious
history, lived in common, and active participation
in a free and dignified State, gradually developed,
among races with different languages, a common
political feeling, which is hardly inferior to the
natural national pride of the great civilized na-
tions. But where is the moral force in Turkey
which could compass the much-vaunted "fusion
of races"? Language and education, creed and
morality, ancient sacred memories and economic
interests, estrange the masses from the hated
masters. Force alone keeps the deadly enemies
together. Should the longed-for new "Ottoman
nation" base itself on the exalting conscious-
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? 34 Turkey and the Great Nations
ness that *'we are all of us subjects of one of the
most pitiable countries in Europe"? The Sultan
cannot seriously put the Rayahs on a footing of
equality with the dominating race so long as he
cannot rely on their loyalty with some certainty;
but he does not even dare to raise troops from the
Rayahs, and it would be altogether impossible
for the masters and the masses to serve in the
same regiments.
The Moslems cannot honestly recognize a condi-
tion of law which would have even the faintest
likeness to the common law of European States,
so long as a deep spiritual movement has not
radically changed their whole thought and feeling,
down to bodily habits ; and such a reformation can-
not proceed from the enlightenment of the de-
spised Western lands ; it would only be possible if
Allah were again to raise up an inspired Prophet,
who should proclaim a milder form of Islam.
What, however, we see to-day in the Mohammedan
world is the exact opposite of a relaxing of religious
harshness. The Prophet's religion has not been
touched by the decline of the Mohammedan
States. It is still alive, the old proud, strongly
religious, warlike Islam; even nowadays all the
manly and respect-worthy forces of the Turkish
character are rooted in it. Bloody outrages, like
the Sepoys' revolt and Lord Mayo's murder, like
the religious war of the Druses and the massacre
of Salonica, occasionally reveal what primitive
forces are acting underground in the broad terri-
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 35
tones from the Ganges to the Adriatic Sea, ready
to explode violently. Any Sultan who should
seriously try to be a Frank will be wrathfully
opposed by the conscience of the True Believers --
resolute and invincible, as in the case of the der-
vish who cried out to Sultan Mahmud II, on the
bridge of Galata : " Giaour Padishah, are you not
at last weary of your horrors? " The dervish was
strangled, but the crowd of Believers saw a halo
hovering about his corpse. And the people were
right ; for so long as the Koran remains the supreme
law-book of all Islamic States, the introduction of
Western conceptions of law is a degradation and
crime.
It is therefor that all the reform-laws of the last
three Sultans have been simply so many steps
towards destruction. The most perilous time
for a declining State always begins when its
Government tries to better itself, and thereby
itself challenges criticism. The old Bourbon
kingdom did not fall in the prime of its vices, but
under the only king who strove well-meaningly to
abolish the ancient abuses; the Second Empire
did not collapse before its Parliamentary period.
In like manner, the worst days arose for the Osman
Empire when attempts at reform were started.
The experience of half a century shows that Count
Nesselrode was right when (in a remarkable
dispatch of 21st January, 1827) he opined about
Mahmud 11 's innovations that "they are shatter-
ing the ancient power of the State, without setting
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? 36 Turkey and the Great Nations
a new one in its place. " A tragic figure, that
powerful Mahmud, the last great one in Osman
history! He waded in blood over his knees in
order to give his people a better time, and he sank
despairing into his grave, conscious he had made
a failure of life. He was once readily compared
with Peter the Great, and the assassination of the
Janissaries with the annihilation of the Strelitzi.
But the barbarian genius of the North ruled a
people which, despite all its crudity, was docile and
mouldable, and understood how to follow out its
master's bold ideas; whilst from the soul of the
Osman nation the Sultan's Prankish innovations
fell away without a trace, like water from waxed
cloth.
The annihilation of the Janissaries was a momen-
tary gain, because the wild, uncivilized troops
menaced civil peace, but it was a yet greater loss
for the future, for that massacre put a period to the
clever old system which compelled the Rayahs
themselves to fashion their own whips. The
Christians forthwith possessed the forces of their
youthful manhood ; the whole enormous btirden of
war-service and the guarding of subjects now lies
on the shoulders of Osmans alone -- an overstrain
of the powers of the ruling race which can but
benefit the masses. Likewise the Empire's mili-
tary strength gained only slightly by the deed of
violence, as was soon displayed in the campaigns
against Russia and Egypt. In the same way it
was merely a hand-to-mouth measure by which
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 37
the Fanariots lost their influential posts at the
time of the Greek uprising, and the powers of the
Greek Patriarch were limited. The Porte has
since gone further on that alluring path, until
finally it has recently granted a national Head
of the Church to the most numerous of the Rayah-
races, the Bulgarians, and has thus destroyed the
Greeks' ancient ecclesiastical State. This State
in the State, however troublesome though it might
sometimes be, was nevertheless bound by import-
ant interests to the maintenance of the Osman
Empire, and kept the Rayahs together; since it
was abolished, the centrifugal forces working
among the Christian Deoples are completely set
free.
Meanwhile the numberless unkept promises of
freedom on the part of the Sultans had a more
destructive effect than anything else, for they
enhanced the ancient and deadly hatred of the
Rayahs by a further ill-feeling caused by this out-
rageous breach of promise, and degraded the Porte
in Europe's eyes. Who does not know of the
farcical pantomime that took place at the pro-
clamation of the Hatti-Shereef of Gulhane? First
of all the Sultan's Court Astrologer came forward
with his astrolabe in order to calculate the favour-
able hour willed by God, and when Allah spoke
and said, ''Now is the time," the great decree
of liberty was read out which bestowed upon the
Rayahs all the glories of Western toleration and
equality before the law. Of course all these hats,
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? 38 Turkey and the Great Nations
granted to such a people, were so much "paper
written with honey," as the astute Moslems are
wont to say among themselves with amused wink-
ings of the eye. Their enforcement was never
at all earnestly essayed; the Neo-Turkish wor-
shippers of Western countries showed exactly the
same qualities as the Old Believers in the art of
deceiving the Christians. The two friends, Ali
Pasha and Fuad Pasha, are rightly held to be the
noblest and most highly-educated of the youngest
generations of Turkish statesmen. And yet it
was Ali who induced the Cretans to submit by
resounding promises of freedom, and afterwards
forgot all about it; whilst Fuad expressed to the
Christians in Syria his deep regret at the massacre
of the Druses, and then intentionally allowed the
fighters of God to escape. The word of the
Prophet and the natiu-e of the State are in fact
mightier than the outwardly assimilated European
culttu-e. The farce of reform reached its zenith
at the period of the Crimean War. The "Great
Elchi," Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, ruled in
Stamboul, and even to-day we hardly understand
how a statesman so highly gifted and such a judge
of men could have squandered his extraordinary
will-power on such an entirely impossible policy.
He himself perceived, and admitted long ago, his
old mistake. The great Powers admitted the
Turkish Empire, then yet again resurrected,
into the community of European international
law at the very moment when the Porte itself ex-
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 39
hibited a formal testimony to its weakness in the
Humayum hat, and unambiguously showed how
little it deserved to be treated as a European
Power. The new decree of liberty simply repeated
what had already been solemnly promised a
decade and a half previously, and merely proved
that this Government was neither able nor willing
to be just to Christians.
In very truth Turkey left the ranks of independ-
ent States as a result of the Treaty of Paris.
The Porte had to proclaim the hat; it was the
condition of admittance to the European Concert.
It accordingly undertook towards the Great Powers
the duty of reforms, and came under the police
observation of Europe, although the phrasing of
the Treaty did not recognize this inevitable
effect. Turkey to-day is indeed more dependent
than ever; she has already had to suffer the
armed intervention of the Powers in Syria.
What were the consequences of all these legis-
lative experiments, which were so often welcomed
in the English Parliament with the jubilant cry,
"Turkey is saved, and the liberation of the Rayahs
achieved"? The fez has driven out the turban,
the beauties of the seraglio wear Paris fashions,
and doubtless also adorn their walls with a few
bad European lithographs. So that it certainly
happens that a portrait of the Prince of Wales,
with his name under it, is introduced as Napoleon
III to smiling visitors from Pera. Society drinks
champagne, and murders French; Young Turkey
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? 40 Turkey and the Great Nations
brings home a few strong Voltairean phrases from
his years of study in Paris, jeers at the creed of
his fathers, and ennobles the ancient Eastern
viciousness by the virtuous habits of the Closerie
des Lilas. Inconvenient Pashas are no longer got
rid of by the silken string, but they are banished,
and the assassin's dagger is now used only on
quite exceptional occasions. The enlightened
Turkish statesmen have diligently assimilated all
the arts of Napoleonic Press-control; they are
masters in the manipulation of correspondence
and entrefilets; the golden pills kneaded on the
Bosphorus can always find a few obliging patients
in the journalistic circles of London and Paris,
but especially among the industrious Oriental
kin who dominate the Vienna Press. The Porte
strove with even greater success to make an appear-
ance also in the bourses of Europe as a member of
equal standing with the civilized community of
States. The rejuvenated domestic economy of its
Government soon threw into the shade the boldest
deeds of European finance. During about four-
teen years of peace this land, with its measureless
natural resources, burdened itself with a debt of
over five milliards of francs, and finally reached
that unparalleled Budget which, out of ? 18,000,-
000 revenue, put aside two for the Sultan's house-
hold, fifteen for the interest on the National
Debt, and kept only one million for the army,
navy, and officials.
The ancient, humiliating head- tax on the
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 41
Christians was removed ; but as the Rayahs do not
serve in the army, and the Osmanli did not wish
to give them weapons, the ancient tax returned
under the euphonious title of a war contribution,
and the sole result of the reform was the increased
burden on the Christians. A few Christians
were summoned to the district councils, but they
did not dare to open their mouths; the Giaour
remained without rights, since no Osman judge
allowed his evidence to weigh against a Mussul-
man. The oppressive system of tax-farming,
the iltisan, continued, despite all promises, for the
tax-farming is based upon the natural economy;
the Porte possessed neither will nor power to
raise the rough Rayah peasants to a higher degree
of economy, and the commissions of the tax-
farmers remained indispensable to their officials.
Year after year, desperate Christian peasants
make over their property to the moshes, and
receive it back tax-free; the vakuf is driving out
the mulk, the mortmain latifundia threatened
entirely to consume the small, free landed
property. Innumerable revolts of the ill-treated
people proved that even the submissiveness of the
Orientals, which can endure indescribable hard-
ships, found its limit under this regime.
Briefly, the ancient system, the exploitation
of the Rayahs by the master-people and its assist-
ants' assistants, was not altered in the slightest by
the Neo-Turkish reforms, only the ruling power of
the Osmans vanished. The ancient Turkdom com-
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? 42 Turkey and the Great Nations
pelled the admiration of its foes by the strength of
its character; the Neo-Turkish method, with its
unbroken barbarism and the shiny Prankish varnish
over it, resembles that of the deHghted Indian who
has put on a frock-coat over his naked, tattooed
body. The final reason for this incorrigibleness
of the State undoubtedly lies in the ominous fact
that the Oriental theocracy appears in this case at
the same time as the foreign government of a small
minority. Purely Mohammedan States such as
Egypt are in a happier position; they may intro-
duce a few European ideas without endangering
the existence of the Government.
The epoch of reforms was one of ceaseless defeats
and losses for the exterior power of the Empire.
Algiers fell to France ; Egypt won the heredity of its
ruling family and an independent position which
approaches sovereignty; respect for the Porte is
weakened in Mesopotamia, in Arabia it is an
empty name; Servia and Greece gained their
freedom; the Danubian principalities became
unified, and almost quite independent; the estu-
aries of the river first fell to Russia, then to the
management of a European Commission. Of
the 16,000,000 inhabitants of the Balkan Penin-
sula -- that is the calculation of Jakschitsch --
7,500,000 are to-day already entirely or nearly
independent, and the Porte possesses now in
Europe only about 8,500,000 direct subjects.
The provinces are declining or at a standstill,
the power of the Empire is receding to the capital
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 43
more and more. The importance of these facts
is in no way lessened by the fond assurance of the
friends of Turkey that the Rayahs would never
have freed themselves if Europe, especially Russia,
had not supported them. The insinuation is
as brilliant as the assumption; the tree would
not grow if it did not derive nourishment from
the atmosphere and earth. The Rayahs, after
all, do not inhabit a lonely, distant island, but live
in the vicinity of luckier nations allied to them
by race and creed, and so long as the last feehng
of brotherly community does not perish in Christen-
dom, there is always bound to be some European
Power which shall take care of the Rayahs, either
out of self-interest or sympathy. Whether the
Turks were able to put down the revolt of the
Serbs with their own forces or not, it is at least
beyond doubt that Ibrahim Pasha would assuredly
have smashed the rebellious Greeks had not the
European Powers intervened. But that inter-
vention was an obvious necessity; Europe could
not look on indifferently whilst a Christian people
was being annihilated by Egyptian hordes, and
the great English statesman, George Canning,
who, breaking once and for all with the traditions
of a narrow-hearted trading policy, encompassed
this result, will always receive fame for willing
what was necessary. Nowadays, after the Porte
has made and broken such numerous promises, it
has become quite impossible for the Great Powers,
and particularly for Russia, to leave the fate of
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? 44 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Rayahs to be solely determined by the
pleasure of the Turks. Count Nesselrode once
expressed himself very challengingly, but plain-
spokenly and pregnantly, about Russia's relations
to the Christians in Turkey. In a letter to Herr
von Brunnow (ist June, 1853) he referred to the
sympathies and common interests which bound his
Court to the Rayahs and made its interference
in Turkish affairs possible at any time. He
concluded: **We shall hardly be asked to dispense
with this influence in order to dissipate exag-
gerated anxieties. Putting the impossible case,
that we should wish to do so, we should neverthe-
less not be able to do so" -- and, he might have
added, ''even if we ourselves were able to do so,
the Southern Slavs would never believe that the
White Czar had withdrawn his hand from them. "
And on that it all depends. The confident belief
of the Rayahs, supported by facts, that they can-
not be wholly sacrificed by Russia and the other
European Powers, is a spur which is continually
driving them on to new things, is an operative
power in the latest history of the Orient, and will
not be abolished by the strong words of the Eng-
lish Press.
None of the small States which have thus formed
themselves with the help of Europe has hitherto
reached sound political conditions. A strong and
far-seeing absolutism, which should awaken the
country's economic and intellectual forces whilst
at the same time leaving the communities some
? ?
as the history of that region goes, the south-east
coast of Europe and the north-west coast of
Asia have always belonged to the same Greek
civilization. It was and is an enigma how a new
Power could ever arise in Stamboul which should
not at the same time be master of the most valu-
able strip of Asia Minor.
It is astounding with what cleverness the
Osmans in their great period knew how to utilize
this favourable position and those dissensions in
Europe. Although they had only the vaguest
conception of the geographical positions and the
history of the heathen countries, they yet divined,
with the fine sense for power peculiar to Orientals,
where in each case they had to look for their allies.
Correct insight and diplomatic tact, those ancient
privileges of masterful aristocracies, were also a
heritage among the ruling race in the Balkan
Peninsula. As the behever in the Koran may
regard every treaty of peace with the heathen
merely as a revocable armistice, the Porte dealt
with the Western countries with imperturbable
calm. She understood how to expect everything
from time, and waited patiently, with the fatalistic
quietness of the Moslem, until the hour came to
tear up all treaties and to let loose against the
Giaours the still unbroken, fierce natural forces
of the Janissaries and Spahis. Since France first
drew the great Suleiman into the quarrels of
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 19
Christendom, the Turks began to perceive that
they were at least welcome to one of the Christian
Powers; and thenceforth the State of the Osmans
has so often and so unctuously been praised by
the wiseacre statesmen of the Western countries
as an indispensable weight in the scales of Euro-
pean balance, that we ought not to be surprised if
to-day all the supports of the Turkish Empire,
the valis, mullahs, and ulemas, the black and the
white eunuchs, the odalisques, and the seraglio
boys, are all penetrated by the glad belief that
Allah's wonderful mercifulness has struck the
stupid Franks' eyes with an incurable blindness.
With good reason in truth has Machiavelli
eulogized the proud beginnings of the Osman
State; because that which represented policy
to the Florentine, namely, skill in governing, in
maintaining and enhancing the power of the State,
was practised here with a rare cleverness. But
with this skill the Turks' political capacity has
always ended; their Empire, even at its great
period, lacked all moral substance, just like
Machiavelli's ideal State. Might was self-interest ;
the question as to what moral purposes it should
aim at was never put. It was thought a matter
of course that the State should exist for the
benefit of the rulers; and if we inquire what the
ruling skill of that long series of strong statesmen
and generals has brought forth for the well-being
and civilization of mankind, only one answer is
possible : Nothing, simply nothing. When the con-
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? 20 Turkey and the Great Nations
quering Mohammed bestrode the desert palace of
the Comneni, the feeling of the transitoriness of
earthly greatness overcame him, and he uttered
the verse of the Oriental poet :
Before the gates in Emperors* castles
The spider, as chamberlain, is weaving curtains,
And in Afrasiab's columned halls
Echoes the cry of the nesting owl.
He did not imagine he was predicting the fate
of his own Empire. Like a huge avalanche,
Turkish despotism fell upon those blessed lands
which once witnessed the classic age of Christian
Church history. The interior of the Peninsula is
to-day as Httle known as the deserts of Australia ;
it was not till Diebitsch's expedition to Adrianople
that science gained some sort of notion of the
formation of Balkan mountain ranges. The rise
of the Turkish power compelled the Western
countries to brace themselves to vigorous action.
As the Osman occupied the flower of the com-
mercial centres in the Mediterranean, the Euro-
pean sought the sea route to India. In the fight
with the Asiatics arose the new Austria, which dis-
covered a firm bond of unity for its polyglot
nations in the fighting renown they had won
together. In so far even the Osman Empire has
borne witness to the truth that every great his-
torical phenomenon leaves some positive result
in the course of human development. But where
are the traces of the civilizing work of the
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 21
Turks themselves? What remained in Hungary
after the long one hundred and fifty years
during which the Pashas dwelt on the Koenigs-
burg at Buda? A few crude mutilations of
beautiful Christian churches and the warm baths
of Ofen. What now reminds one of the domina-
tion of the Crescent in Greece? Hardly any-
thing but the ruins of destroyed Christian
habitations. The ruination of the system of gov-
ernment did not consist in the brutal outrages of
individual magnates -- because the impaling and
drowning in sacks, the violating and pillaging, and
similar amusements customary to the country, did
not, according to Oriental standard, happen too
frequently -- but in that indescribable intellectual
laziness, in that profound slumber of the soul,
which was always peculiar to the Osmans even in
the days of their warlike greatness, and caused
them to appear as barbarians even in the eyes of
the Arabs. Just as the Turk truly loves only
three vocations, the career of a soldier, an official,
or a priest, his State has never shown any under-
standing of art or science or commerce. His
political economy, if the expression be allowed,
simply pursued the purpose of assuring comfortable
provision for the ruling race ; he therefore lightened
the taxes on imports and increased those on
exports -- just as in the Spain of Philip H, which
exhibits altogether several striking similarities to
the State of the Crescent.
And that idiotic system, which destroyed Spain's
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? 22 Turkey and the Great Nations
Empire in a few decades, has been burdening the
Balkan lands for nearly five hundred years ! The
Osmans, even in the glory of their victories and
in the superabundance of pillaged wealth, were
an Asiatic cavalry horde which never became
at home on the soil of Western civilization, and
never got beyond the standpoint of nomadic
warriors. A national migration which fell asleep
encamped over the Christian peoples of the
south-east. The Turkish Empire always re-
mained a mighty foreign despotism to the Rayahs.
The venal Fanariots might fawn for the favours
of the Osmanli, and the petty chieftains of the
Bosniaks, abjuring their fathers' faith, might join
the ruling nation's plundering campaign; but the
masses of the Southern Slavs have for five hundred
years been bewailing, in innumerable songs and
tales, the battle on the field of the Amsel as the
fatal day for the ancient freedom; the masses of
the Greeks have never ceased imploring God's
vengeance for that day of shame when the con-
queror rode into the Hagia Sophia and his horse's
hoofs violated the most beautiful God's house in
Eastern Christendom. Likewise, the conscience of
the European world has never recognized the ex-
istence of the Turkish realm as a morally justified
necessity. The conscience of nations knows of no
superannuation of what is wrong. War and con-
quest are only means towards the right ; they can
only prove that the victor possesses the mcral
superiority whereon the right to rule is based, but
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 23
they alone cannot base a right to rule on physical
domination. As long as the victor has not proved
that his power is countenanced by the moral
forces of history, his success remains an injustice
which may be expiated, an actuality which may
be abolished by other actualities. Dense weeds
have long been growing over the countless deeds of
violence which were needful for the foundation of
the governmental unity of all Europe's great
nations. The wrong done during the agitations
for unity among the Germans and Italians is nowa-
days, after but a few years, hardly felt, because
the nations' sense of right says to itself that those
revolutions only buried the dead and exalted the
living. But those wounds which a mentally sterile
Asiatic horde inflicted on Christian civilization still
bleed after five hundred years as if the blows had
fallen yesterday. And they will never scar over
so long as Europe still possesses free and cour-
ageous men who, unmoved by Russophobia and
English cant, dare to call the historic unrighteous-
ness by its true name; and however much self-
complacent narrow-heartedness may mock, it has
finally ever been idealism which has divined the
tendency of history.
But, however firmly and securely all the institu-
tions of the old Turkish Empire fitted together,
the State lacked what has been lacking in all theo-
cracies, capability of development. Its might
rested on the Osmans' governing skill and the
Rayahs' servility. If one of those two supports
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? 24 Turkey and the Great Nations
began to waver, inevitable decay would threaten
the State, and the natural progress of European
culture soon threaten both at the same time. A
powerful movement of economic and intellectual
life, in which Turkey took no part, gradually
strengthened the military and political forces of
the neighbouring Christian States to such a degree
that the balance of power was entirely displaced.
The Crescent lost the rich provinces on the other
side of the Danube by humiliating defeats, whilst
the Western countries regained full consciousness
of their superiority. The Osman Empire dropped
to a second-rate Power, and the name of Turk,
instead of being a bogey for children, became their
butt. The age of the Revolution next woke up
even the Rayah nations. Since then the decline
of the ruling people has been slowly and steadily
accomplishing itself, like the operation of na-
tural laws, whilst the national masses have con-
tinually grown in development. The strengthening
self -consciousness, and the increasing well-being
of the Rayahs, daily widen the gulf between the
rulers and subjects, and make reconciliation and
assimilation quite unthinkable. The Osmanli
are decaying, body and soul. Their generative
strength is being extinguished in the sodomy and
voluptuousness of the harem. Of the great
features of the national character almost nothing
remains but pride, fatalistic confidence, and inca-
pacity for any sympathy ; only now and then do the
bravery and the clever ruling sense of better days
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 25
break through the thick veil of measureless idleness
which has pitched its camp on the souls of the
satiated masters.
Orderliness and resolute manliness likewise
vanished with the might of the Empire; the wild
greed for plunder, which under the great Sultans of
old dared to satisfy itself only on the Rayahs, has
now for a long time done so shamelessly on the
State itself: "The Padishah's treasure is a sea,
and he who does not draw from it is a pig. " The
Rayahs, on the other hand, are indebted to Christen-
dom for the still tolerable purity of their domestic
life, and therewith their reproductiveness, which is
generally decisive in such racial struggles. What
really lives and works in Turkey is Christian.
Since the peace of Kutchuk-Kainarji the Greeks
have almost monopolized the traffic of the ^gean
Sea ; their wealth is growing, not only in the har-
bours of their small kingdom, in Patras, and at
Syra, but they are also multiplying and flour-
ishing in the coastal towns of Asia Minor, in
Smyrna, Aivalu, and Pergamos, whilst the Turks
are growing poorer and vanishing. It is true
the Rumanian and the Southern Slav are many
miles from being able to compete with the
activity of the exceedingly astute Greek, but
they also are far more energetic than the Turk.
The Osmans themselves admit that "by Allah's
will the Giaours become rich, and we poor"; the
gloomy prediction of the ultimate triumph of the
Cross lives in their nation, and many a distinguished
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? 26 Turkey and the Great Nations
Turk prudently orders his grave on safe Asiatic
soil. Sooner or later, in this instance as in that of
Poland's aristocratic Republic, the historical law
shall be fulfilled, which enjoins on our toiling
century that there is no longer a place in Europe
for a race of horsemen and consumers of income.
Let us not be led astray by the darling assurance
of English tourists that the Turk is nevertheless
the only gentleman among the inhabitants of the
Peninsula. That he certainly is. He who would
spend a pleasant hour with coffee and chibouk, will
undoubtedly find himself more comfortable in the
society of the dignified, distinguished, clean, and
honourable Turks than among the greedy vulture-
faces of the Rayahs. The truth is, the vices
of masters are different from those of servants;
dirt, servility, and thorough-going mendacity flour-
ish only in a state of slavery. But can supe-
riority in the social decencies be decisive in great
historical struggles? The slave-lords of Virginia
and Carolina assuredly displayed in casual inter-
course pleasanter social manners than the hard-
faced farmers and business men of the North,
or even than the negroes. And yet the German
people will always gladly remember that we did
not, like the English, let ourselves be so seduced by
a superficial preference for the gentlemen of the
South as to defend an unworthy cause, but with
moral earnestness we acknowledged the better
right of the North. In like manner, the Turks'
quiet dignity should not deceive us as to the fact
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 27
that the industry of the Greeks and the reproduc-
tiveness of the Slavs are leaving effete Osmandom
far behind in every respect. The Rayahs' Ortho-
dox faith is certainly the immaturest of all forms
of Christianity. He who judges merely by fleeting
impressions of travel will probably assign a higher
place to the Mohammedans' strict monotheism
than to the picture-worship of many a crude
Rayah tribe, which regard their crucifix almost in
the same way as the negroes their fetiches; and if
the tourist has also witnessed in the grave-church
at Jerusalem the way in which the Turkish cavasses
enforce peace with their sticks between the brawl-
ing, raging adherents of the religion of love, he
thinks himself justified in condemning the whole
of Oriental Christendom. He who, on the other
hand, surveys the concatenation of centuries,
cannot but admit that even there in the East, as
everywhere else, Christian civilization disposes of
an endless power of rejuvenation and self -renewal,
whilst all the peoples of Islam infallibly reach a
point at last at which the word of the Koran is ful-
filled. "Change is innovation, innovation is the
path to hell. " Even the most intellectually gifted
of all the Mohammedan nations, which founded the
glorious State of the Ommiads and created the
wonderful edifices of Granada and Cordova,
suddenly stood still at a certain point in its path
as if bewitched ; and this congelation of Islam gave
the Spanish Christians the power and the right to
conquer the Ommiads, although at the time of
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? 28 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Cid they were even more inferior to the Moors
than the Rayahs are to-day to the Osmans.
The Turks, for their part, have already long gone
past the zenith of the culture attainable by their
capacities ; in the case of the Greeks, however, and
even of the Serbs, Bulgarians, and Rumanians,
only a biassed mind can dispute that they are no
longer to-day what they were a century ago ; their
strength, after a long, death-like slumber, is again
unmistakably, if slowly, resurrecting. The in-
crease among the Franks at the Bosphorus is also
becoming a peril to the Osman Empire. Under
the protection of their Ambassadors they form
States within the State; besides how could it be
possible to subject Europeans to Turkish juris-
diction? Their privileged position shatters re-
spect for the authorities, even as their practically
almost complete freedom from taxation damages
the State revenue; and compared with the seven-
teen Embassies which attack the " Sick Man " with
advice, threats, intrigues of every kind, the Sul-
tan appears to his own subjects almost like an
irresponsible person whom Europe has put
under observation.
With their strength, likewise grew the Rayahs'
self-consciousness, which often seems wearisome
to us Germans, and still oftener absurd, because
national pride is generally wont to be the more
bragging and boastful in inverse ratio to a nation's
might and deeds. But we must not on that
account misunderstand either the necessity of
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 29
this persistent national agitation, or its connection
with the decisive forces of the century. Was it not
altogether natural that the reawakening impulse
towards culture should again hold the mother
language in honour, the basis of all culture-- that
Bulgaria found her Karadzic, Greece her Rhigas
and the long series of her national apostles; that
the Serbs learnt to value their fine old national
poetry, and that the great actions of their fathers,
real and imaginary, were again eulogized every-
where? You may believe as much as you please of
Fallmerayer's brilliant hypotheses, which, in point
of fact, only partially survive a strict scientific
investigation, but the Neo-Greeks have absorbed
the Slav and Skypetarian elements, which their
nationality embraces, and filled them with Greek
culture; a strong national self -consciousness has
grown up in them as the result of hard struggles
and the memories of an ancient past ; they possess
living traditions, a civilized tongue, and a consider-
able literature; in short, they are a small nation
still extremely immature, but of indestructibly
developed individuality. A paltry cunning it is,
worthy of the demagogic judges of the late-
lamented Bundestag, that would try to explain this
persistent change in the popular life simply as
arising from the machinations of Russian agents !
There certainly was, and is, no lack of such agents,
although Liberal pessimists have garbled astound-
ing stories even on that point. Why, how long
is it since Bakunin was considered by the whole
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? 30 Turkey and the Great Nations
Liberal world to be a Russian spy; and who will
nowadays defend that idiotic supposition? The
Russians' despotic methods of government and
energetic patriotism brought it about that in
former years almost every educated Russian
communicated of his own free will or by command
to the Government, the observations he had
gathered together during his travels in Europe;
that old custom has assuredly not become quite
obsolete to-day. That Pan-Slavist fanatics carry
on their intrigues among all the South- Slav popu-
lations is beyond doubt; and if we consider the
strange personality of Mr. Wesselitzky Bogidar-
ovic, who first appeared as a Russian secret agent,
and then as a Bosnian leader of rebels, the question
forces itself even upon childlike temperaments,
whether the connections of such people do not
extend to very high circles in Petersburg. Only
do not let any one imagine that a long-lasting
national agitation could be kept going by these
means. If the Russians in Petersburg and Mos-
cow build a few Bulgarian schools for their kins-
men and Orthodox Believers, where is the wrong
in it? And would those schools flourish and have
influence if self-consciousness and a tendency to
education had not long been awakened in the
Bulgarian nation?
Perhaps there was yet another way whereby the
domination of the ruling people could have been
maintained amid the growing strength of the Ra-
yahs. The Empire might perhaps have kept alive,
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 31
if it further developed, according to the altered
circumstances, the well-tried, shrewd system of
separating the nations and churches, extended the
privileges of individual peoples and creeds, and
carefully protected the Christians from the inter-
ference of Mohammedan officials by a well-assured
provincial independence. This way was full of
danger; it might easily have led to the formation
of semi-sovereign tributary states. In order to
adopt it the Porte must needs have possessed
an unusual measure of self-knowledge and self-
denial. Meanwhile it was the only possible one,
and it was therefore always recommended by
Russia, the best judge of Turkish conditions; be-
cause the old truth, that the might of empires is
maintained by the same methods as created them,
is even more true of unchangeable theocracies
than of other states. But as the Porte cherished
a well-grounded suspicion of Russian advice,
it at last, after long inactivity, chose the method
which was directly opposed to the views of Peters-
burg.
Owing to the rising influence of the Western
Powers there began, with Mahmud II, the aston-
ishing attempt to alter Turkey according to the
pattern of the unified Western States. Sultan
Mahmud created an army on the European model,
Rashid Pasha the mechanism of a uniformly
centralized government, the Hatti-Shereef of
Gulhane and Abdul -Mejid's Hat-Humayum
promised equality of justice to all subjects of the
Great Lord, Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha introduced
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? 32 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Neo-Napoleonic phrase into the blessed Turk-
ish Empire and announced that the time for
grandes agglomerations nationales had also arrived
for the East, that a unified Ottoman nation must
be created. Lastly, the enlightened Neo-Turk-
dom has likewise drunk to-day of the Constitu-
tional poison -- which acts upon such peoples like
brandy on the Redskins -- and demands a national
Parliamentary Council side by side with the
Sultan.
There is, unfortunately, merely a trifle lacking
for such a national council: viz. , a nation. The
Greeks and Slavs are not Turks; they can not
and will not be Turks; and the Turks can never
seriously allow them to be so. These so-called
reform-politics, which have now been trying for
several decades to abolish the racial hatreds and
religious fanaticisms of the Eastern world by a few
crumbs fallen from the table of Parisian constitu-
tion-makers, are nothing but a gigantic falsehood ;
and the patronage bestowed now by France, now
by England, on Turkish enlightenment, simply
shows that these Western Powers, in their self-com-
placent ignorance, have become quite incapa-
ble of understanding a foreign population. In
order to foresee the fate of the Neo-Turkish
reforms only a little honesty is needed, certainly
not any seer's gift ; for the same problem which is
to-day arising on the Bosphorus occupied the
astute minds of the whole world once before for
many years, when well-meaning diplomats hoped
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 33
to bless the Holy See with a constitution. A
constitutional Sultan is as impossible as a con-
stitutional Pope. Even as the Cardinals could
never recognize a lay council as a power with equal
rights, just so little can the Osman Believer regard
the Rayah as his equal. Although a hat of the
Sultans may sympathetically describe the Chris-
tians as tehah, as subjects, yet, according to God's
word, which the Padishah himself dares not offend,
they remain the rabble. It is again simply throw-
ing sand into the eyes of the Prankish bear when
the highly amusing manifesto of Mussulman pa-
triots announces to-day to Europe's statesmen
the news that the Koran itself enjoins national
assemblies. The Koran says: "Believers shall be
governed by their national Council" -- whilst un-
believers are to bend their brows to the dust
before Believers. In Switzerland, a glorious
history, lived in common, and active participation
in a free and dignified State, gradually developed,
among races with different languages, a common
political feeling, which is hardly inferior to the
natural national pride of the great civilized na-
tions. But where is the moral force in Turkey
which could compass the much-vaunted "fusion
of races"? Language and education, creed and
morality, ancient sacred memories and economic
interests, estrange the masses from the hated
masters. Force alone keeps the deadly enemies
together. Should the longed-for new "Ottoman
nation" base itself on the exalting conscious-
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? 34 Turkey and the Great Nations
ness that *'we are all of us subjects of one of the
most pitiable countries in Europe"? The Sultan
cannot seriously put the Rayahs on a footing of
equality with the dominating race so long as he
cannot rely on their loyalty with some certainty;
but he does not even dare to raise troops from the
Rayahs, and it would be altogether impossible
for the masters and the masses to serve in the
same regiments.
The Moslems cannot honestly recognize a condi-
tion of law which would have even the faintest
likeness to the common law of European States,
so long as a deep spiritual movement has not
radically changed their whole thought and feeling,
down to bodily habits ; and such a reformation can-
not proceed from the enlightenment of the de-
spised Western lands ; it would only be possible if
Allah were again to raise up an inspired Prophet,
who should proclaim a milder form of Islam.
What, however, we see to-day in the Mohammedan
world is the exact opposite of a relaxing of religious
harshness. The Prophet's religion has not been
touched by the decline of the Mohammedan
States. It is still alive, the old proud, strongly
religious, warlike Islam; even nowadays all the
manly and respect-worthy forces of the Turkish
character are rooted in it. Bloody outrages, like
the Sepoys' revolt and Lord Mayo's murder, like
the religious war of the Druses and the massacre
of Salonica, occasionally reveal what primitive
forces are acting underground in the broad terri-
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 35
tones from the Ganges to the Adriatic Sea, ready
to explode violently. Any Sultan who should
seriously try to be a Frank will be wrathfully
opposed by the conscience of the True Believers --
resolute and invincible, as in the case of the der-
vish who cried out to Sultan Mahmud II, on the
bridge of Galata : " Giaour Padishah, are you not
at last weary of your horrors? " The dervish was
strangled, but the crowd of Believers saw a halo
hovering about his corpse. And the people were
right ; for so long as the Koran remains the supreme
law-book of all Islamic States, the introduction of
Western conceptions of law is a degradation and
crime.
It is therefor that all the reform-laws of the last
three Sultans have been simply so many steps
towards destruction. The most perilous time
for a declining State always begins when its
Government tries to better itself, and thereby
itself challenges criticism. The old Bourbon
kingdom did not fall in the prime of its vices, but
under the only king who strove well-meaningly to
abolish the ancient abuses; the Second Empire
did not collapse before its Parliamentary period.
In like manner, the worst days arose for the Osman
Empire when attempts at reform were started.
The experience of half a century shows that Count
Nesselrode was right when (in a remarkable
dispatch of 21st January, 1827) he opined about
Mahmud 11 's innovations that "they are shatter-
ing the ancient power of the State, without setting
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? 36 Turkey and the Great Nations
a new one in its place. " A tragic figure, that
powerful Mahmud, the last great one in Osman
history! He waded in blood over his knees in
order to give his people a better time, and he sank
despairing into his grave, conscious he had made
a failure of life. He was once readily compared
with Peter the Great, and the assassination of the
Janissaries with the annihilation of the Strelitzi.
But the barbarian genius of the North ruled a
people which, despite all its crudity, was docile and
mouldable, and understood how to follow out its
master's bold ideas; whilst from the soul of the
Osman nation the Sultan's Prankish innovations
fell away without a trace, like water from waxed
cloth.
The annihilation of the Janissaries was a momen-
tary gain, because the wild, uncivilized troops
menaced civil peace, but it was a yet greater loss
for the future, for that massacre put a period to the
clever old system which compelled the Rayahs
themselves to fashion their own whips. The
Christians forthwith possessed the forces of their
youthful manhood ; the whole enormous btirden of
war-service and the guarding of subjects now lies
on the shoulders of Osmans alone -- an overstrain
of the powers of the ruling race which can but
benefit the masses. Likewise the Empire's mili-
tary strength gained only slightly by the deed of
violence, as was soon displayed in the campaigns
against Russia and Egypt. In the same way it
was merely a hand-to-mouth measure by which
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 37
the Fanariots lost their influential posts at the
time of the Greek uprising, and the powers of the
Greek Patriarch were limited. The Porte has
since gone further on that alluring path, until
finally it has recently granted a national Head
of the Church to the most numerous of the Rayah-
races, the Bulgarians, and has thus destroyed the
Greeks' ancient ecclesiastical State. This State
in the State, however troublesome though it might
sometimes be, was nevertheless bound by import-
ant interests to the maintenance of the Osman
Empire, and kept the Rayahs together; since it
was abolished, the centrifugal forces working
among the Christian Deoples are completely set
free.
Meanwhile the numberless unkept promises of
freedom on the part of the Sultans had a more
destructive effect than anything else, for they
enhanced the ancient and deadly hatred of the
Rayahs by a further ill-feeling caused by this out-
rageous breach of promise, and degraded the Porte
in Europe's eyes. Who does not know of the
farcical pantomime that took place at the pro-
clamation of the Hatti-Shereef of Gulhane? First
of all the Sultan's Court Astrologer came forward
with his astrolabe in order to calculate the favour-
able hour willed by God, and when Allah spoke
and said, ''Now is the time," the great decree
of liberty was read out which bestowed upon the
Rayahs all the glories of Western toleration and
equality before the law. Of course all these hats,
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? 38 Turkey and the Great Nations
granted to such a people, were so much "paper
written with honey," as the astute Moslems are
wont to say among themselves with amused wink-
ings of the eye. Their enforcement was never
at all earnestly essayed; the Neo-Turkish wor-
shippers of Western countries showed exactly the
same qualities as the Old Believers in the art of
deceiving the Christians. The two friends, Ali
Pasha and Fuad Pasha, are rightly held to be the
noblest and most highly-educated of the youngest
generations of Turkish statesmen. And yet it
was Ali who induced the Cretans to submit by
resounding promises of freedom, and afterwards
forgot all about it; whilst Fuad expressed to the
Christians in Syria his deep regret at the massacre
of the Druses, and then intentionally allowed the
fighters of God to escape. The word of the
Prophet and the natiu-e of the State are in fact
mightier than the outwardly assimilated European
culttu-e. The farce of reform reached its zenith
at the period of the Crimean War. The "Great
Elchi," Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, ruled in
Stamboul, and even to-day we hardly understand
how a statesman so highly gifted and such a judge
of men could have squandered his extraordinary
will-power on such an entirely impossible policy.
He himself perceived, and admitted long ago, his
old mistake. The great Powers admitted the
Turkish Empire, then yet again resurrected,
into the community of European international
law at the very moment when the Porte itself ex-
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 39
hibited a formal testimony to its weakness in the
Humayum hat, and unambiguously showed how
little it deserved to be treated as a European
Power. The new decree of liberty simply repeated
what had already been solemnly promised a
decade and a half previously, and merely proved
that this Government was neither able nor willing
to be just to Christians.
In very truth Turkey left the ranks of independ-
ent States as a result of the Treaty of Paris.
The Porte had to proclaim the hat; it was the
condition of admittance to the European Concert.
It accordingly undertook towards the Great Powers
the duty of reforms, and came under the police
observation of Europe, although the phrasing of
the Treaty did not recognize this inevitable
effect. Turkey to-day is indeed more dependent
than ever; she has already had to suffer the
armed intervention of the Powers in Syria.
What were the consequences of all these legis-
lative experiments, which were so often welcomed
in the English Parliament with the jubilant cry,
"Turkey is saved, and the liberation of the Rayahs
achieved"? The fez has driven out the turban,
the beauties of the seraglio wear Paris fashions,
and doubtless also adorn their walls with a few
bad European lithographs. So that it certainly
happens that a portrait of the Prince of Wales,
with his name under it, is introduced as Napoleon
III to smiling visitors from Pera. Society drinks
champagne, and murders French; Young Turkey
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? 40 Turkey and the Great Nations
brings home a few strong Voltairean phrases from
his years of study in Paris, jeers at the creed of
his fathers, and ennobles the ancient Eastern
viciousness by the virtuous habits of the Closerie
des Lilas. Inconvenient Pashas are no longer got
rid of by the silken string, but they are banished,
and the assassin's dagger is now used only on
quite exceptional occasions. The enlightened
Turkish statesmen have diligently assimilated all
the arts of Napoleonic Press-control; they are
masters in the manipulation of correspondence
and entrefilets; the golden pills kneaded on the
Bosphorus can always find a few obliging patients
in the journalistic circles of London and Paris,
but especially among the industrious Oriental
kin who dominate the Vienna Press. The Porte
strove with even greater success to make an appear-
ance also in the bourses of Europe as a member of
equal standing with the civilized community of
States. The rejuvenated domestic economy of its
Government soon threw into the shade the boldest
deeds of European finance. During about four-
teen years of peace this land, with its measureless
natural resources, burdened itself with a debt of
over five milliards of francs, and finally reached
that unparalleled Budget which, out of ? 18,000,-
000 revenue, put aside two for the Sultan's house-
hold, fifteen for the interest on the National
Debt, and kept only one million for the army,
navy, and officials.
The ancient, humiliating head- tax on the
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 41
Christians was removed ; but as the Rayahs do not
serve in the army, and the Osmanli did not wish
to give them weapons, the ancient tax returned
under the euphonious title of a war contribution,
and the sole result of the reform was the increased
burden on the Christians. A few Christians
were summoned to the district councils, but they
did not dare to open their mouths; the Giaour
remained without rights, since no Osman judge
allowed his evidence to weigh against a Mussul-
man. The oppressive system of tax-farming,
the iltisan, continued, despite all promises, for the
tax-farming is based upon the natural economy;
the Porte possessed neither will nor power to
raise the rough Rayah peasants to a higher degree
of economy, and the commissions of the tax-
farmers remained indispensable to their officials.
Year after year, desperate Christian peasants
make over their property to the moshes, and
receive it back tax-free; the vakuf is driving out
the mulk, the mortmain latifundia threatened
entirely to consume the small, free landed
property. Innumerable revolts of the ill-treated
people proved that even the submissiveness of the
Orientals, which can endure indescribable hard-
ships, found its limit under this regime.
Briefly, the ancient system, the exploitation
of the Rayahs by the master-people and its assist-
ants' assistants, was not altered in the slightest by
the Neo-Turkish reforms, only the ruling power of
the Osmans vanished. The ancient Turkdom com-
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? 42 Turkey and the Great Nations
pelled the admiration of its foes by the strength of
its character; the Neo-Turkish method, with its
unbroken barbarism and the shiny Prankish varnish
over it, resembles that of the deHghted Indian who
has put on a frock-coat over his naked, tattooed
body. The final reason for this incorrigibleness
of the State undoubtedly lies in the ominous fact
that the Oriental theocracy appears in this case at
the same time as the foreign government of a small
minority. Purely Mohammedan States such as
Egypt are in a happier position; they may intro-
duce a few European ideas without endangering
the existence of the Government.
The epoch of reforms was one of ceaseless defeats
and losses for the exterior power of the Empire.
Algiers fell to France ; Egypt won the heredity of its
ruling family and an independent position which
approaches sovereignty; respect for the Porte is
weakened in Mesopotamia, in Arabia it is an
empty name; Servia and Greece gained their
freedom; the Danubian principalities became
unified, and almost quite independent; the estu-
aries of the river first fell to Russia, then to the
management of a European Commission. Of
the 16,000,000 inhabitants of the Balkan Penin-
sula -- that is the calculation of Jakschitsch --
7,500,000 are to-day already entirely or nearly
independent, and the Porte possesses now in
Europe only about 8,500,000 direct subjects.
The provinces are declining or at a standstill,
the power of the Empire is receding to the capital
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? Turkey and the Great Nations 43
more and more. The importance of these facts
is in no way lessened by the fond assurance of the
friends of Turkey that the Rayahs would never
have freed themselves if Europe, especially Russia,
had not supported them. The insinuation is
as brilliant as the assumption; the tree would
not grow if it did not derive nourishment from
the atmosphere and earth. The Rayahs, after
all, do not inhabit a lonely, distant island, but live
in the vicinity of luckier nations allied to them
by race and creed, and so long as the last feehng
of brotherly community does not perish in Christen-
dom, there is always bound to be some European
Power which shall take care of the Rayahs, either
out of self-interest or sympathy. Whether the
Turks were able to put down the revolt of the
Serbs with their own forces or not, it is at least
beyond doubt that Ibrahim Pasha would assuredly
have smashed the rebellious Greeks had not the
European Powers intervened. But that inter-
vention was an obvious necessity; Europe could
not look on indifferently whilst a Christian people
was being annihilated by Egyptian hordes, and
the great English statesman, George Canning,
who, breaking once and for all with the traditions
of a narrow-hearted trading policy, encompassed
this result, will always receive fame for willing
what was necessary. Nowadays, after the Porte
has made and broken such numerous promises, it
has become quite impossible for the Great Powers,
and particularly for Russia, to leave the fate of
? ? Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-08-05 01:02 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/loc. ark:/13960/t14m9qp6g Public Domain in the United States / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-us
? 44 Turkey and the Great Nations
the Rayahs to be solely determined by the
pleasure of the Turks. Count Nesselrode once
expressed himself very challengingly, but plain-
spokenly and pregnantly, about Russia's relations
to the Christians in Turkey. In a letter to Herr
von Brunnow (ist June, 1853) he referred to the
sympathies and common interests which bound his
Court to the Rayahs and made its interference
in Turkish affairs possible at any time. He
concluded: **We shall hardly be asked to dispense
with this influence in order to dissipate exag-
gerated anxieties. Putting the impossible case,
that we should wish to do so, we should neverthe-
less not be able to do so" -- and, he might have
added, ''even if we ourselves were able to do so,
the Southern Slavs would never believe that the
White Czar had withdrawn his hand from them. "
And on that it all depends. The confident belief
of the Rayahs, supported by facts, that they can-
not be wholly sacrificed by Russia and the other
European Powers, is a spur which is continually
driving them on to new things, is an operative
power in the latest history of the Orient, and will
not be abolished by the strong words of the Eng-
lish Press.
None of the small States which have thus formed
themselves with the help of Europe has hitherto
reached sound political conditions. A strong and
far-seeing absolutism, which should awaken the
country's economic and intellectual forces whilst
at the same time leaving the communities some
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