No More Learning



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MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
waterways of the tanks which are made in the centre of these buildings, the
water is always issuing gracefully, and from the edge of their platforms,. . . . it
is falling into the tank below, in the form of a cascade. In the niches, flower
vases of gold and silver, full of golden flowers, are placed during the day time,
and at night, white wax candles, which look like stars amid fleecy clouds, are
lighted inside the veil of water. 1
This imaginative treatment of the private portions of the fort and
of the palaces wherein the emperor took his ease differed, however,
from the more sedate character of the official portion where he held
durbars and conducted publicly the affairs of state. The Diwan-i-
‘Am or "Hall of Public Audience” is an expansive columned hall
of sandstone with its central bay occupied by a large and stately
ihrone of marble carved and inlaid in the manner of the time. The
wall at the back of the throne is also embellished with inlaid decora-
tion, in the form of pietra dura, but much of this ornamentation differs
inaterially, both in design and technique, from that in any other
Mughul building. One scene particularly is a characteristically occi-
dental representation of Orpheus sitting under a tree and fiddling
to a circle of listening animals. It has now become clear that this
and several of the surrounding panels of birds and foliage were
criginally fashioned in Italy, and in the course of commercial rela-
tions found their way to India to be acquired as objects of art by
someone at the Mughul court. The artistic character of these pieces
suggested their inclusion in the scheme of decoration at the back
of the throne, where, surrounded by other panels of obviously
Indian handiwork, their exotic appearance has given rise to some
speculation.
Almost contemporary with the building of the fort at Delhi was
the construction of the Jami' Masjid, which, as already shown, was
an essential part of the scheme of Shah Jahan's new capital. This
grand mosque, the largest and most eminent in all India, was begun
in A. D. 1644, but was not completed until fourteen years later. In
the meantime a somewhat similar congregational mosque was being
erected under the emperor's patronage at Agra, which, although not
on the same majestic scale as the Delhi example, was nevertheless
a structure of considerable size and importance. Both mosques are
planned according to tradition and follow the same broad principles
as regards arrangements and general style. But given all these com-
mon factors they show in the most marked manner how widely two
buildings of the same type may be made to differ in effect. Nothing
could be more severely dignified or imperious in appearance than
the Jami' Masjid at Delhi, or more suitable for its purpose, as it
was obviously designed primarily for the ceremonial attendance of
the emperor and his retinue, the imposing royal portal on the east
with its arcading effectually screening the congregation within from
1 Amal-i-Salih, fols. 580-83 (Delhi Fort, Arch. Survey of India, 1929).


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MOSQUES AT DELHI AND AGRA
559
outside observation. An example of the highest type of religious
architecture, precise and perfect, it forms a noble pile; the endless
flights of steps before each entrance, the lofty white domes and
tapering minarets with the broad arch of the façade are admirably
disposed. The courtyard, 325 feet side, is in keeping with the great
scale of the rest of the building, while the cloisters around the three
sides and the symmetrical range of arches comprising the sanctuary
are of the same generous proportions. But in spite of its great size,
the orderly distribution of its parts and its undeniable grandeur, the
building as a whole leaves the aesthetic sense only moderately stirred;
it fails to arouse the highest emotions on account of its impersonality
and aloofness. The uncompromising rigidity of its long horizontal
lines, the harsh black and white inlay of its domes and minarets, its
very vastness which necessitates the unending repetition of each
detail, all combine to give this otherwise magnificent structure a
character which never wholly attracts. On the other hand the mosque
at Agra, owing to its humanist values, makes a definitely intimate
appeal. Although it lacks the perfection of the Delhi structure—the
low position and timid contours of the domes are obvious defects-
its free open frontage bringing everything into view, its rippling
succession of kiosks of varying sizes which crown its parapets, the
interesting passages of shadow thrown by its chattris and turrets, the
warm broken colour of its masonry produce an effect of a singularly
pleasing kind. It is a mosque evidently built for the benefit of the
people; its shady cloisters, informal resting-places and alcoved re-
treats are an open invitation to all and sundry to spend a quiet hour
within its precincts.
While at the principal seats of the Mughuls the white marble style
was being maintained, a different phase of building was becoming
manifest in the Punjab, notably at Lahore. This took the form of
brick construction, with occasional sandstone additions, but owing
its distinctive character to the glazed tile decoration with which its
entire surfaces were often covered. The fact that Lahore was situated
in an alluvial plain, and somewhat remote from any outcrop of
stone, partly accounts for this brick and tile development, but not
entirely. Since the days of the Ghaznavid occupation, the Punjab
capital had been inclined to cultivate an independent architectural
tradition, and instinctively to look to the north-west and beyond
for its aesthetic inspiration. In the first half of the seventeenth
century the Safavid art of Persia had attained its zenith, and for a
time Lahore appears to have come under its powerful spell. It was
not that the buildings of the Punjab were exact reproductions of
those of Shah ‘Abbas the Great; they displayed a certain individuality,
but the brick construction was based on that prevailing in Persia,
and the glazed tiles were of the same type as those produced in the
famous kilns of Kashan and other places on the Iranian plateau. The


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560
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
outstanding characteristic of this style of building, both in Persia
and the Punjab, is its accentuation of colour, as it depends almost
entirely for its expression on the brilliant display of patterns in
faience. To such an extent was this colour scheme allowed to dominate
the entire fabric that one of the fundamental principles of good
building has been sacrificed, inasmuch as the designers subordinated
intentionally all constructional emphasis in order to give precedence
to the applied art. Eliminate this ornamentation and the building
becomes a bald arrangement of flat surfaces without shadow or any
form of relief, mouldings and string-courses are at a discount, the
whole structure resolving itself into a mere background on which the
tile-setter was encouraged to squander his art unrestrained. That
such a procedure produced buildings having any claim to architectural
merit is mainly due to the quality of this tile decoration, which is of
the highest order, as the brilliantly designed arabesques in variegated
h! ies lit by the eastern sun produce a vitality of effect disarming all
criticism. In Lahore and its neighbourhood a large number of buildings
were erected in this style during the reign of Shah Jahan, but
owing to the impermanent nature of their construction many of
them are in ruins or have almost entirely disappeared. The
immense mounds of soil from the brick kilns of this period testify
to the importance this industry assumed, so much so that one Buddhu
whose tomb is near Lahore was appointed chief purveyor of bricks
to the royal establishment. But in all these rubbish mounds, several
of which have been excavated, not a trace has been discovered of
the glazed tiles nor are there any definite records of such a craft
ever having existed in this locality in the past. Panels of faience
decorate the exterior of Raja Man Singh's palace at Gwalior, and the
glazed earthenware of Multan and Sindh has long been a thriving
handicraft, but it is clear from their style and technique that both
these are the offspring of an entirely different art tradition. The
Lahore tiles are of a type which is unmistakeable, and are of two
distinct kinds, the "mosaic" and the "square". The former consist
of pieces of a glazed composition cut to the shape and colour of the
design, and are set together like the tesserae of a mosaic; the latter
are usually 6 inches square and the pattern painted on them is
carried across the joints to fill the required space. Exactly similar
glazed decoration of both kinds is seen in profusion in the seven-
teenth-century buildings of Persia and 'Iraq, most of it being made
at the town of Kashan, where the name for it is Kashi, which is
also the name by which this art is commonly known in Lahore.
Some of the designs, notably those in the outer wall of Lahore fort,
are much more Persian than Mughul in character, and include
suggestions of Mithraic symbolism. Chardin, the French traveller,
mentions at this time that Persia supplied India with large quantities
of "earthenware", most probably referring to this trade in glazed


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WAZIR KHAN'S MOSQUE, LAHORE
661
tiles. It seems not unlikely therefore that most if not all of this
decoration was imported in bulk from Kashan.
The finest example of this phase of Mughul buildings is Wazir Khan's
mosque erected in 1634, but there are many others, such as the
Gulabi Bagh, the Chauburji, and 'Ali Mardan Khan's tomb, all at
Lahore, while as far distant as Agra the tomb of Afzal Khan of
Lahore known as the “Chini ka Rauza” is of the same type. The
mosque of Wazir Khan, a most picturesque structure, consists of the
customary arrangement of buildings enclosing a brick-paved court-
yard, with the entrance-gateway, cloisters and sanctuary all in their
accepted positions. Four octagonal minarets rise from the corners,
and the domes which roof the sanctuary and the gateway are of the
w-pi "Lodi” order. Much of the surface decoration, which
comprises not only tiles but in the interior patterns painted in dis-
temper, has become considerably abraded, although sufficient re-
mains to show what a gorgeous glow of colour this building presented
when first erected. The walls are flat except for an occasional cornice,
oriel window, or balcony, and are divided up into shallow sunk
compartments for the reception of the glazed patterns. The fertility
of design and the diversity of colour in the scheme are amazing, and
although in its present state a somewhat vivid yellow is inclined to
predominate, each panel, spandrel and border is in itself a work of
art, rivalling in the brilliancy of its hues the sheen of the blue jays
and green parrots which fit about its walls. There could be no finer
illustration of that ardent desire for a display of exuberant colour
innate in the east than these glazed tile buildings of the Punjab.
All such forms of architectural expression, however, and even those
possessing the formal elegance of the royal palaces, take second place
when compared with that masterpiece of Mughul architecture, the
Taj Mahall. During the first three years of his reign, Shah Jahan
had already provided in the fort at Agra a palace for the accommoda-
tion of his consort, described in the Shah-Jahan Nama as "the
Paradise-like buildings of Her exalted chaste Majesty, the Queen of
the world, the Begam Sahiba", and identified as the Khass Mahall,
the most sumptuous of all edifices up to that time. And as during
life no building was considered too splendid, so on her death it was
fitting that her remains should be enshrined within a monument of
matchless beauty. Architects were therefore summoned to prepare
designs for a mausoleum which to be worthy of her memory should
surpass all others in artistic dignity and stateliness. Of the manner
in which the design was obtained and who was responsible for the
noble building which eventually matured, there are no direct records.
What evidence there is is contradictory. On the one hand, there is
the contemporary statement of Father Manrique, who definitely
1 Langlès, Voyages du Chevalier Chardin (Paris, 1811), N, 165.
1
36


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562
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
affirms that models were prepared and submitted to the emperor by
a certain Geronimo Verroneo, a Venetian, who was residing in the
Mughul capital at the time. On the other hand, indigenous docu-
ments have been preserved containing a detailed account of those
employed on the building, all of whom were Asiatics, with no
indication of any European intervention. And as an answer to the
Jesuit father's contention there is the standing testimony of the Taj
Mahall itself, which shows in all its aspects that it was the natural
evolution of the style, true to tradition and entirely unaffected by
occidental influence. The truth seems to be that Verroneo was in-
vited, as were others, to produce designs, but that prepared by the
Mughul master-builders was the one eventually selected.
Particulars of those who took part in the production of this incom-
parable masterpiece indicate that no effort was spared to obtain the
services of specialists in every phase of the work. Several of these
were indigenous craftsmen from Delhi, Lahore, Multan and similar
art centres of the Mughul empire, while others were drawn from
more distant sources, such as a calligraphist from Baghdad and
another from Shiraz, to ensure that all the inscriptions were correctly
carved or inlaid; a "flower carver" from Bukhara; an expert in
dome construction, Isma'il Khan Rumi, who by his name may have
come from Constantinople; a pinnacle maker from Samarqand, a
master-mason from Qandahar, and, lastly, an experienced garden
planner. The chief supervisor who co-ordinated the entire work was
one Ustad 'Isa, “the best designer of his time”, and, according to
one account, originally an inhabitant of Shiraz. It may be noted
that while the structural portions seem to have been principally in
the hands of Muhammadans, the decoration was mainly the work
of Hindu craftsmen, the difficult task of preparing the pietra dura
specially being entrusted to a group of the latter from Kanauj.
The design finally approved was based largely on the recently
completed tomb of Khan Khanan at Delhi, which in its turn was a
reduced and modified copy of the mausoleum of the emperor
Humayun. But the large edifice enclosing the tomb-chamber of the
Taj Mahall, although the main feature of the composition, is only
a portion of the scheme as a whole. It is supplemented by certain
essential accompaniments leading up to the main building, com-
prising a garden, entrance-gateways, a mosque, and other accessories
that would surround the mausoleum with an appropriate setting.
In the preliminary thought expended on these amenities the Mughul
architect excelled, every need was provided for and no incongruous
changes were afterwards introduced to mar the effect. The result was
that before the actual construction was even begun every minute
detail, useful or ornamental, was correctly specified. Outside the
1 See note, pp. 174-7, vol. II, Travels of Sebastian Manrique, trans. by C. E.
Luard and H. Hosten.


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THE TAJ MAHALL, AGRA
563
precincts of the Taj itself among other annexes were buildings for
the accommodation of visitors, their attendants and conveyances, a
bazar for their maintenance and a forecourt with wide approach
to avoid congestion of traffic. Nothing was omitted; a more com-
flete lay-out it would be impossible to conceive. The position of the
building was also carefully considered. The site selected was on a high
bank of the river at a bend, so that from every point of view there
was a pleasing effect; on the one side its reflections in the water gave
it an added charm, while on the other, from the garden, its white
marble façades stand out clearly, having no background except the
sky. At the same time its proximity to the river demanded special
care in the preparation of the foundations, which it was the practice
of the Mughul builder to support on masonry cylinders sunk in the
soil at close intervals. Some such system was no doubt employed in
the substructure of the terrace, as the entire building including
the
minarets apparently rests on one firm compact bed of masonry. That
the method adopted was a sound one is shown by the condition of
the building, for after three centuries, during which it has suffered
serious neglect, its lines and angles are still as accurate as when first
produced; any deviation from the true in a structure which relies
for much of its beauty on the mathematical precision of its outlines
would of course be fatal.
The whole scheme, including the garden, is laid out in the form
of a rectangle with its long axis lying north and south, the mausoleum
standing at the northern end, a departure from the traditional square
plan with the main building in the centre. This rectangle is enclosed
by a high wall with broad arcaded turrets at each corner, and is
entered on the south side by a monumental gateway, in itself an
admirable composition. Within the enclosure is the conventional
garden, so designed as to comprise an intrinsic part of the architec-
tural effect, the avenue of cypress trees being planted to harmonise
with the lines of the building, and the watercourses with their orna-
mental pools elevated in such a manner as to reflect the most attrac-
tive points of view. At the northern end of the enclosure is a wide
terrace with the mausoleum occupying the centre and balanced by
subsidiary buildings on either side. The latter consist of a mosque
on the west and a corresponding structure of no special religious
significance on the east, but added in order to maintain strict
symmetry. Although naturally intended as the predominating feature
in the scheme, the mausoleum building in itself is remarkable for the
vivid simplicity of both its plan and elevation. It rises almost
abruptly from the high marble terrace, with no noticeable flight of
steps leading up to it, for the stairway is concealed within a passage,
thus unconsciously adding to that atmosphere of reserve in keeping
with its chaste character. The plan is square with chamfered corners,
each side being 186 feet long, so that the width of the façade is equal


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564
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
to the entire height of the building. Its elevation is divided approxi-
mately into two parts of equal height, the lower half consisting of the
rectangular ground storey, the upper half of the great dome and its
accompanying kiosks. Externally each façade of the lower rect-
angular portion is relieved by an arrangement of arched recesses,
and to the rich shadows within these voids the whole structure owes
much of its charm of effect. But its crowning glory is the great dome,
which hangs in the sky like a shapely white cloud, its soaring height
being mainly due to the tall drum at its base. The body of the dome
is spherical, so that it rests on this drum like a ball on a cup, but its
upper curve by means of a carefully calculated tangent gracefully
tapers off into a foliated crest. To give a finish to the whole com-
position as well as to draw the eye of the spectator imperceptibly
from undue concentration on the central structure, at each corner
of the terrace rises a slender minaret.
The interior arrangements of the mausoleum building consist of
a crypt below and a vaulted tomb-chamber above, with other rooms
one in each angle all connected by corridors, light to every part being
obtained by means of perforated grilles set in the arched recesses of
the exterior. At a height corresponding to the parapet of the façade
outside, the tomb chamber is ceiled over so that above this the whole
of the interior of the great dome becomes a hollow space, a notable
illustration of the system of double dome construction. As to the
scheme of decoration, both inside and out, this is everywhere in
keeping with the broad unity of the building and the chaste white
marble of which it is composed. Certain portions are enriched with
patterns carved in low relief, but the principal embellishment is
obtained by arabesques of inlaid coloured stones-pietra dura. Of
the former method the square borders of inscriptions around the
main archways are artistically designed and chiselled, and the dados
in the interior of conventional plant-forms are modelled with exquisite
feeling. But it is in the finished quality of the pietra dura that the
inimitable patience and skill of the Indian inlayer is most plainly
shown, as his share in the decorative effect ranges from the bold
scrollwork in the spandrels above the great arches to the minute
flowers on the cenotaphs and the perforated marble screen which
encloses these. This perforated marble screen is said to have replaced
a gold and jewelled railing, so that it is not part of the original
design, but if a later introduction it shows that the high character
of craftsmanship was maintained. The delicate carving of the marble
into a grille of graceful volutes and the enrichment of each scroll
with inlaid precious stones has produced a work of art of entrancing
beauty, but even this is surpassed by the pietra dura on the cenotaphs
themselves, which is cut with the fineness of a cameo. Diapers and
1 For specimens see plates 25-30, W. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections,
1844, and Journal of Indian Art, 1885, p. 61.


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ARCHITECTURAL TECHNIQUE
565
borders of pendant flowers, sprays of foliage with lilies and other
floral forms either in detached repeats or contained within curved
panels, are evenly distributed over their marble surfaces. So sensi-
tive and yet so firm is the drawing that it resembles the spirited
sweep of a brush rather than the slow laborious cutting of a chisel.
In addition, however, to its artistic merit, the scientific thought
and technical skill expended in the construction of this monument
is remarkable. Particularly is this noticeable in the subtle overhang
of the great dome, which shows that the builders were conversant
with the principles of tension, stress and strain, so that this problem
presented no difficulties. The contrast in the character of the large
dome with the cupolas over the kiosks denotes that two different
traditions here meet in the same building. The main dome by
shape is plainly of Timurid extraction, its remote ancestor being the
Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem; on the other hand the cupolas with
their wide eaves are of indigenous origin, being derived from the
overlapping rings of masonry which formed the vaulted ceiling of
the Hindu temple. For the centering of the dome timber scaffolding
supplemented by brick was employed, as noted by Tavernier.
Although details are lacking, light is thrown on this aspect of the
work from an interesting source, for some of the miniature paintings
of the time depict in a lively manner the various methods then in
use including that of centering? (Figs. 24, 25). The design of the
minarets was suggested by those over the entrance to Akbar's tomb
at Sikandra, although there is a notable difference in their surface
treatment. In the minarets of the Taj the face joints are counter-
sunk, forming a kind of rustication not seen in any other part of the
structure, and so by a subtle contrast in texture aiding in their
detachment from the main building. In this manner by a combina-
tion of the finest art and the most expert construction the Mughul
craftsmen have produced in the Taj Mahall a monument which has
most nearly reached the utmost height of perfection. Added to this
the building owes not a little of its sensuous charm to the extraneous
effects of the atmosphere, and the variations in the light on its marble
surfaces. The marble when first won from the uninspiring mounds
of Makrana is itself of a superb texture—white with a delicate grey
grain. In the course of centuries, mellowed by the sun, and sand-
.
blasted by the red dust of the surrounding country driven into it by
the monsoon rains, it has acquired a patina, almost imperceptible
but sufficient to affect its colour values. The result is that the building
assumes at different times a variety of tints, from a cold grey at
dawn, shimmering white at noon, and suffused with a tender blush
rose in the afterglow, with a wide range of half-tones in between.
1 Book 1, p. 111.
2 Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, Indian Section, No. 1898
(I. S. ), 861117, etc.


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MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
And in the light of the moon another and entirely changed palette
is called into requisition. On some of these occasions, with the
flowers in the garden painting the foreground with their vivid
colourng, it seems as if the hand of nature and the hand of man had
united and done their utmost to produce a spectacle of supremely
moving beauty.
The mausoleum of Shah Jahan's queen, although apparently com-
plete in itself, was intended, however, as only one part of a more
comprehensive architectural scheme. On the opposite side of the
river, where is now the Mahtab Bagh, the emperor planned his own
tomb, a replica of the Taj but in black marble, the two monuments
to be connected by a bridge. Tavernier definitely states that "Shah
Jahan began to build his own tomb on the other side of the river,
but the war which he had with his son interrupted his plan, and
Aurangzib, who reigns at present, is not disposed to complete it”. ?
And in support of this contemporary record there is the testimony
of the cenotaphs themselves and their position in the tomb-chamber
of the Taj. Here Mumtaz Mahall lies proudly in the centre, a fairly
clear proof that the building was intended for her remains alone;
subsequently, and on one side, was inserted the cenotaph of the
emperor, evidently an afterthought because his own separate resting-
place never matured. That Aurangzib's unfilial actions and bigotry
generally were responsible for this project being abandoned there
seems little doubt, and owing to these personal failings humanity
has been deprived of an architectural composition which for romance,
imagination and magnificence would have had no equal. With this
emperor's accession to power the course of the building art under
the Mughuls came to an end. Aurangzib added a few structures,
some of them large and pretentious, to the long series of monuments
erected by this dynasty, but compared with those of his predecessors
they are decidedly inferior. The sudden decline of the art towards
the middle of the seventeenth century may be traced to several causes.
There is the obvious reason that at this time the Mughul empire itself
had begun to totter, and with it the cultural activities patronised by
the dynasty suffered neglect. Associated with this political and
artistic decadence was the personality of Aurangzib himself, whose
philistinism and narrowness of outlook were largely responsible for
the disintegration. On the other hand, the decline of the style may
have been due to the natural progress of events. Under Shah Jahan
the country had experienced a period of unrestrained production,
during which its exponents had reached the summit of achievement.
The usual sequence to such a condition is a marked reaction, of
which art history provides several notable instances, including among
others that of the great schools of painting in Europe of the seven-
teenth century, whose finest efforts were followed by an interval of
1 Tavernier, 1, 110, 111,


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AURANGABAD
567
profound exhaustion. And so it was with the architecture of the
Mughuls. It had endured its golden age, run its course, and even
before the reign of Aurangzib had begun to show signs of decadence.
The shallow elegance of some of Shah Jahan's later buildings, as
for example the Machhi Bhawan in Agra fort, is a forecast of what
was about to take place. Its energies dissipated by the very number
and grandeur of its conceptions, with nothing further possible, a
period of sterility was inevitable. It is questionable whether any
human power, even that of vigorous imperial patronage, could have
changed the course of destiny or prolonged its life another span.
One of the few large buildings of Aurangzib's reign, but one which
fully illustrate the change that was then taking place, is far removed,
however, from the majority of the Mughul monuments, as it is in
the Deccan. Near the town of Aurangabad, now in the Nizam's
dominions, this emperor caused to be erected in 1679 by “'Ata-ullah,
Chief Architect", the mausoleum of his wife Rabi'a-ud-Daurani.
A frank copy of the Taj Mahall, although approximately only half
its size, it shows in the thirty years that intervened the extent to
which taste had deteriorated and the style become impoverished.
With inadequate knowledge the architect had evidently endeavoured
to improve on the proportions of the Taj, and also to enrich it with
considerable superfluous ornament. The result, as would be expected,
is a very mediocre production, the relation of height to width being
unpleasing, leading to a loss of dignity and a congestion of the struc-
tures around the base of the dome. Almost every arch is demeaned
with miniature cusps, the cornices garnished by insipid mouldings,
and the surfaces are aggravated by spiritless arabesques. Those out-
standing qualities of simplicity and breadth which make the Taj so
profound and satisfying have been disregarded, and meaningless
efforts at embellishment have been applied all over the building.
But although the structure as a whole shows such marked evidences
of debasement, the same cannot be said of some of the applied art
with which it is decorated. The fine quality of some of the accessories
proves that good craftsmen were still available. The octagonal screen
of white marble enclosing the sarcophagus is carved in a perforated
pattern equal in workmanship to that of the previous reign, while
some of the designs in bas relief are exquisitely modelled. But the
finest ornament is in metal, some of the doors being of beaten brass
with bold floral panels and borders hammered and chiselled in
masterly fashion. The hand of the craftsman was still effective, it was
the spirit of the art that had declined.
Owing perhaps to being in one of the Mughul cities of Hindustan,
and not so distantly situated as the previous monument, fewer defects
are observable in the Badshahi mosque at Lahore. Its production
was the work of Fidai Khan Kula, Aurangzib's Master of Ordnance,
whose engineering experience enabled him to plan and erect a


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MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
building of sound construction and great size. But even his technical
skill could not build to withstand the earthquake which in 1840
shattered its four minarets, the principal feature of the design. With-
out these the building loses much of its effect, but there is a certain
dignity in its broad quadrangle leading up to the facade of the
sanctuary, a scheme in red sandstone laced with marble. The three
bulbous domes are well-proportioned, and rise into a grand mass of
white marble above the western wall, which presents an almost
unbroken surface of masonry of imposing appearance. As a contrast
to the excess of decoration in the mausoleum referred to above this
mosque marks the other extreme; its ornamentation, although boldly
conceived, is sparingly introduced, so that the general impression it
conveys is uninteresting, the attempt at economy of detail defeating
its own purpose. Another and entirely opposite example of the
Mughul style, as manifested in the time of Aurangzib, is the mosque
at Benares, the minarets of which dominate the city with their slender
prettiness but entirely lack stability or strength. It illustrates with
the other buildings executed during this emperor's reign the incon-
sistent nature of the art and the extent to which it had fallen away
from its previous standard towards the end of the seventeenth century.
The final state of the style in the eighteenth century is seen in the
tomb of Safdar Jang, a large and pretentious structure erected in
Delhi as late as 1753. As it is situated a comparatively short distance
from the mausoleum of the emperor Humayun it is an easy matter
to compare the two monuments, the first and the last of their kind.
A period of nearly two hundred years separates the one from the
other, and the change that has taken place is illuminating. They
represent the extremes of their style, that of the emperor expressing
in every line its power and exultant vitality, and that "dew of the
morning" which marks the beginning of every new movement.
the other hand, the tomb of Safdar Jang seems to be striving by
artificial means to reproduce the original vigour, while in reality it
is enfeebled and decadent. Gone are the balanced proportions with
broad simple planes, and in their place is an ostentatious and affected
structure, each part embarrassed with repetitions of weak and taste-
less motifs. It was a final effort to recapture the old spirit of the
Mughul style as seen in the royal tombs when the dynasty was a
living force; but by this time the art had gone beyond any hope of
recall.
During this period, while the building art of the Mughuls was
pursuing its course in Hindustan, a somewhat independent develop-
ment of the style established itself in Sind, when that part of the
country was eventually incorporated in the empire under Akbar.
Lower Sind, where most of the buildings are found, lies in the direc-
tion of an art current which very early set in from the west, a stream
of no great strength but which persisted intermittently for several


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SIND
569
centuries. It brought with it first the influence of the Arab culture,
such as it was in so remote a possession, and afterwards that of Persia.
Buildings in brick therefore are characteristic of the towns of Sind,
a method of construction which continues all along the Indus and
beyond to Multan, encouraged by the alluvial formation of the
country. Such a monochromatic prospect which this vast plain
presents cries out for colour, so that it became the custom to decorate
all buildings with brilliant schemes of glazed tiles. This method of
ornamentation was probably first introduced by the Arabs, and was
revived later by intercourse with Persia at a time when that country
was enriching all its larger towns with brick buildings covered with
patterns in coloured faience. Sind tiles are, however, not copies of
the Persian model, nor are they similar even to those of the Punjab,
a much nearer neighbour. They have a special character which is
easily recognised. Most of the patterns are geometrical, and where
foliage is interposed it is of a strictly conventional order. In technique
a
the tiles are rarely square or rectangular but cut in geometrical
shapes corresponding to the details of the design. With such a long
tradition for brick and glaze it seems an anomaly to find in the town
of Tatta, once the old capital of lower Sind, a group of tombs con-
structed entirely of stone and carved in a style which suggests that
of Akbar's buildings at Fathpur Sikri. Most of these tombs appear
to have been erected when the country was first included within the
empire of the Mughuls under Mirza 'Isa Tarkhan, who was governor
of Tatta between A. D. 1627 and 1644. Some of the graves, however,
bear an earlier date, and it is therefore fairly evident that the influence
of Akbar's expansive building operations at the end of the sixteenth
century found an echo in this rather distant part of his dominions.
The most important of the tombs at Tatta is that of 'Isa Tarkhan
himself, a two-storeyed building standing on a raised platform in the
centre of an enclosed courtyard. Its chief architectural feature is a
double arcade surrounding the building, each pillar of which is a
monolith, those of the inner row, together with the interior walls,
being elaborately carved. The general character of the structure has
much of the temperament of Akbar's capital, and this especially
applies to the low relief patterns with which all the surfaces are
profusely adorned. But as with the tiles this carving is not a servile
imitation although it has the same manipulative texture as that at
Fathpur Sikri, yet none the less expressing the individuality of the
local artizans, who seem to have speedily acquired a marked aptitude
in the use of the chisel.
This phase of sandstone building in Sind endured only, however,
for a time, for in the reign of Shah Jahan the builders returned again
to their customary creations in brick and tile. In 1644 this emperor
caused to be begun at Tatta a Jami' Masjid, one of the largest
buildings in Sind and decorated with the finest type of coloured


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670
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
glaze. It occupies a rectangle of 305 feet by 170 feet, the plan being
remarkable for the great depth of its aisles and for two small square
courtyards that are placed on each side of the entrance hall.
sisting of large flat surfaces unrelieved by any serious attempt at
contrasting planes or mouldings, it relies for effect on an unlimited
display of broken colour, every portion of the interior being covered
with tiles. From floor to ceiling and right up into the main dome
geometrical patterns are crowded together, with panels of inscrip-
tions along the cornice and arabesques in the spandrels. The principal
colours are two varieties of blue, light and dark, and white, while the
minute character of the workmanship may be judged by the smallness
of the tiles, many of them being only half an inch wide, over a
hundred being used in a square foot of pattern so that it resembles
a mosaic. But with all this expenditure of skilled labour in the pro-
duction of the colour scheme the general appearance of the building
arouses little enthusiasm, and although the prodigality of the decora-
tion has its attractions there is such a surfeit of it that it becomes
cloying. Other buildings, chiefly tombs of this type, are found in
various parts of Sind, at Haidarabad, Khudabad and Sukkur, but
most of these were erected after the period of the Mughul ascendancy.
Distinct in character from the architecture of the Mughuls, but
simultaneous with that dynasty during the first century of its rule,
a provincial style prevailed in a part of the Deccan represented by
a large and important group of buildings of pronounced appearance
and rare architectural merit. This independent development of the
art of building was due to the power and artistic patronage of the
sultans of the 'Adil Shah dynasty, who, until absorbed into the
Mughul empire in the middle of the seventeenth century, made their
capital at Bijapur one of the most magnificent cities in the whole
of India. Unlike Akbar's capital at Fathpur Sikri, with which many
of its buildings were contemporary, instead of being the result of an
autocratic impulse to provide an architectural setting for the pageantry
of the court, Bijapur grew out of a real need for a large town, strongly
fortified, essential for the permanent accommodation of its rulers and
their retinue, and from which the province could be properly
administered. It consists therefore of a wide circular area enclosed
by a wall having a citadel towards the centre, and the remainder
of the space occupied with all the constituent buildings of a state
capital, such as palaces, mosques, tombs, mint and gateways. Com-
pared also with the cities of the Mughuls bright with red sandstone
and white marble, the capital of the 'Adil Shahs, constructed almost
entirely of a local trap, dark brown in colour, presents in spite of its
many fine monuments a somewhat monotonous and sombre effect.
Attributing to themselves a Turkish origin denoted by the crescent-
finial surmounting several of the state buildings, the 'Adil Shahs
brought into the style of these structures a new and vigorous infusion,


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THE GOL GUMBAZ, BIJAPUR
671
with remarkable results. This is shown in the wide range of their
types of building, combined, with a knowledge of construction which
equals, if it does not exceed, that of the master-masons of the Mughuls.
As an instance of the versatility of the Bijapur workmen, the contrast
between the majestic proportions and breadth of treatment of the
Gol Gumbaz, Muhammad Adil Shah's tomb, and the exquisite detail
of the miniature Mihtar Mahall, is noteworthy. The former building
is a tour de force, as its dome, in some of its dimensions, is one of the
largest of its kind, the total area that it covers being over eighteen
thousand square feet. Under Muhammad (1627-56), the 'Adil Shah
dynasty reached the height of its power, a circumstance which is
marked by this immense mausoleum, unquestionably the most
striking monument in Bijapur, and one of the most impressive in
the whole of India. Seen in the gathering dusk of evening its great
bulk rises above the surrounding plain like mountain scenery rather
than the product of the puny hand of man. The Gol Gumbaz is.
however, only the central portion of a considerable architectural
complex which was intended to include a mosque, a gateway and
musicians' gallery, a hostel and other annexes essential to a royal
tomb, all disposed within an extensive walled enclosure. Some of
these buildings still exist, but it is doubtful whether the entire scheme
was ever quite completed, the bareness of the interior of the mauso-
leum, which was evidently intended to be decorated, being a signi-
ficant omission. The design of the tomb building itself is comparatively
simple as it encloses one chamber only, but this is a hall of noble
proportions, and like the Pantheon at Rome and the Basilica of
Constantine one of the largest single cells ever erected. Externally,
apart from the vast size of the dome, the most arresting features are
the octagonal turrets which project at each angle, and the ponderous
bracketed cornice below the parapet. The wall space between these
is relieved only by three sunk arches, and it is here that the design
seems to have been left unfinished; a little detail judiciously applied
would have given more interest to these façades. Above the corbelled
cornice is an arcade, and the parapet is surmounted by ornamental
crenellations, while as in all the domes at Bijapur the low drum is
encircled by a foliated band. In the interior, except for the wooden
pavilion in the centre under which the cenotaph is placed, the only
other noticeable features in this great bare hall are the tall pointed
arches supporting the dome. And in the arrangement of these arches
the builder showed his consummate skill in solving a difficult problem
of construction in a scientific and at the same time artistic manner.
The intention of the building required him to lay out the foundations
of the hall on a square plan, and, as the walls gained height, gradually
to change this square so that the summit of the walls finished in a
circle; on this circular cornice he could readily construct his dome.
By an ingenious combination of eight intersecting arches, the foot


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672
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
of each standing within the square plan but its plane set at an angle,
the corner was bridged over, the whole construction eventually
forming a broad circular gallery or platform of masonry some 24 feet
wide and more than 100 feet from the ground. With this platform
as a base the builders proceeded to erect the huge inverted bowl of
the dome. The materials used for this purpose were bricks and mortar,
and a noticeable fact is the great thickness of the mortar between
each course, so much so that the dome may be described as con-
sisting of a hollow mass of concrete reinforced with layers of brick
set in level courses. Of a somewhat similar composition most large
domes have been built, as for instance that of St Sophia and also the
Pantheon, and here may be suspected slight evidence in support of
that Turkish attribution to which the 'Adil Shah dynasty laid claim,
as this method of construction was probably derived from Ottoman
sources. Another indication that the builders of Bijapur may have
sought far and wide for inspiration is shown by the device of inter-
secting arches referred to above, which made the raising of this
great dome in such a manner a practical expedient. For probably
the only other example of this particular system by which a dome
may be supported is in the cupola of the mihrab vestibule at Cordova
in Spain erected considerably over six hundred years before.
The Gol Gumbaz, however, is a building which depicts the Bijapur
style in what may be termed its masculine aspect, while its colossal
size is perhaps its most distinctive characteristic. For the opposite
of all these qualities there is the comparatively small edifice known
as the Mihtar Mahall erected in 1620, one of those rich gems of the
builder's art which the Indian's mind at times found such delight in
producing, and in the decoration of which his most skilled craftsmen
expended their ungrudging care. Although called a mahall, or palace,
this structure is really a gateway to the inner courtyard of a mosque
which lies a little way behind it. But it is something more than a
mere entrance, for it is a tall graceful building with an upper storey
containing an assembly room, and above this again is an open
terrace surrounded by a high wall with oriel windows and a per-
forated parapet. On each side of the façade are two slender orna-
mental minarets of a type characteristic of the Bijapur style, but it
is the projecting balcony window filling in the entire space between
that is the most striking feature. It is thrown out from the wall on
a series of closely set carved brackets, and the wide eaves-board is
supported by struts of stone so finely wrought with the chisel as to
have every appearance of wood. Perhaps in its imitation of other
and more plastic materials, and its delicate prettiness as a whole,
this charming little structure is open to criticism; it conveys the
impression that its designer had been commissioned to prepare a
miniature masterpiece complete in every detail regardless of time
or cost, and had been allowed a free hand in the matter. The manner


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SUNNOT
JAMI MASJID, BIJAPUR
573
in which he played with the stone as if it were clay in reproducing
mouldings, joggled joints, and particularly the sunk coffers in the
ceiling of the ground storey, show the exuberance of his fancy and
the sheer delight he took in his task.
One of the first buildings of importance to be erected in the city
of Bijapur, and thus illustrating the style in its formative state, was
the Jami' Masjid begun by 'Ali 'Adil Shah I about 1565. Never quite
finished it still lacks the frontage of the courtyard and two minarets
which were to complete this portion of its outer façade. An endeavour
was made by the Mughul emperor Aurangzib to supply this deficiency,
and under his orders an eastern entrance gateway was added, but
on this side of the structure much still remains to be done. The
exterior shows a large rectangular building of plain aspect but
powerful proportions rising at its western end into a low square
battlemented tower supporting a fine dome. As usual this dome is
over the central prayer hall of the sanctuary, and it is in the remark-
able depth of space covered by the sanctuary that this mosque differs
from many others. This arcaded prayer hall consists of five aisles
separated by piers, thus dividing the whole into a series of square
bays of wide pointed arches; the effect of this great expanse, with its
perspective of piers and arches, is very impressive. The appearance
of the entire building is forceful and uninvolved, a consummation
achieved by the correct relation of its parts and the skilful subordina-
tion of the lesser to the larger forms of the composition. Ornament
has been sparingly introduced and then only to enrich a shadow or
emphasise a line, as may be seen in the cusping of the central arch
of the façade, the elaboration of the brackets between the arches,
and other features that called for decorative accentuation. All the
surfaces have been treated to a coat of plaster, the interior walls
having been furnished with a layer of very fine quality which has
mellowed to a pleasing creamy tint. Amidst this display of austere
refinement, on the removal of a heavy protecting curtain covering
the central bay containing the principal mihrab, it is surprising to
find this particular space embellished with the most gorgeous array
of patterns in colour and gold. Although there is much to admire
in this unexpected blaze of colour, which depicts arcades and
minarets, lamps, arabesques and inscriptions all conventionally
treated, it is not in exact harmony with its surroundings and is the
work of a later hand.
That the Bijapur master-masons could, however, produce a highly
ornate type of architecture on a large scale is shown by the Ibrahim
Rauza, a group of buildings erected towards the end of the sixteenth
century. The Rauza consists of the tomb of Sultan Ibrahim II
together with its mosque, the two structures confronting one another
on a raised terrace, the whole being contained within the usual
square-walled enclosure. Rivalling even the finest buildings of the
3
1


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574
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
Mughuls in this respect, the premeditated completeness of this
mausoleum and its appurtenances is astonishing, every detail of the
scheme from the lettering of the inscriptions to the stone hooks in
the stables having evidently been determined before the first stone
was laid. Great ingenuity has been shown by the manner in which
the designer has disposed the two main structures, each widely
different in plan and purpose, so that together they form a sym-
metrical unity. Both are arcaded edifices with wide eaves on carved
brackets, ornamented minarets at each angle as turrets, and each is
surmounted by a bulbous dome. The mausoleum, as was intended,
is the more important building, and on this the workmen have
exercised their exceptional artistic ability, so that in design, con-
struction and ornamentation it leaves little to be desired. Enclosed
within a double verandah the tomb-chamber is square in shape with
a flat coffered ceiling composed of stones set together edge to edge,
having apparently no means of support, but evidently with concealed
joggled joints. Above this ceiling is the vaulted void of the double
dome, a large empty upper-storey chamber entered from the roof but
having no particular use. The mosque which faces the tomb across
a courtyard is in the same ornate style but slightly modified, and
consists of an open arcaded prayer chamber of three pillared aisles
with a deeply sunk mihrab in the western wall. Where, however, both
these buildings excel is in the individual character of the carved
decoration, which, like the Bijapur architecture itself, denotes the
presence of a definite school. The substance of this ornamentation
is similar to that found in all Islamic art, but certain factors have
been introduced, such as a special kind of bracket supporting a
medallion, which are as original as they are graceful. Unlike the
somewhat hybrid designs which satisfied the Mughuls, the Deccani
patterns exhibit little extraneous influence; they are clearly the
creation of the fertile imagination of the Bijapur craftsmen. Equally
distinctive are the buildings themselves, the typical features of which
may be readily recognised. These consist of the bulbous dome with
its foliated drum, the tall slender turret or pinnacle in the form of
an ornamental minaret, and the almost invariable preference for
the pier instead of the pillar. In their methods the Bijapur builders
were often bold and daring, but this adventurous spirit was accom-
panied by no little engineering experience and scientific knowledge.
This has been already noticed in referring to the technical skill
displayed in the construction of the Gol Gumbaz and the ceiling of
the Ibrahim Rauza, but it is similarly shown in the immense size
and spread of some of the archways, as for instance that of the Gagan
Mahall and a viaduct which leads to the Athar Mahall. These
mahalls are two of the several palaces built in or near the citadel
and illustrate the secular buildings of the 'Adil Shahs, but none of
them compares in architectural character with their mosques and


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KHANDESH
678
tombs, nor are they in the same class as the noble marble pavilions
of the Mughuls.
One other style of building of a quasi-independent order mani-
fested itself in the Deccan both before and during the Mughul
ascendancy, in the state of Khandesh. Here in the local capitals
of Burhanpur and Thalner several monuments were erected in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries by the Faruqi dynasty; later, in the
seventeenth century, the Mughul governors were responsible for a
number of tombs of a particular kind. The geographical position of
this comparatively small state, surrounded as it was by a number of
powerful kingdoms each with its own form of artistic expression,
rendered it specially liable to external influences. These show them.
selves unmistakably in the character of many of its buildings. Yet
although these borowings are discernible they do not entirely dominate
the style, as the architecture of Khandesh in some of its phases dis-
plays certain originality. One of the first buildings erected by the
Faruqi rulers was a large palace on a commanding situation above
the Tapti river at Burhanpur, followed by a group of tombs at the
same place and another group at Thalner, all dating from the first
half of the fifteenth century. Although the palace is now in ruins,
enough remains to indicate that this edifice, and perhaps more notice-
ably the tombs, owed not a little of their appearance to similar
buildings being then raised in the neighbouring city of Mandu, the
capital of Malwa. The tombs of the founders of the Faruqi dynasty,
such as that of Nasir Khan (1399-1437) at Burhanpur, and Miran
Mubarak I (deceased 1457) at Thalner, show a marked affinity to
the more famous mausoleum of Hushang at Mandu in the solidity
of their effect and proportions generally. The Khandesh masons
have, however, endeavoured to lighten the mass of the structure by
the introduction of projecting openings on each side of the central
doorway, and have also provided more height by raising the dome
on a well-proportioned drum, which, together with other features,
constructive and decorative, give these Faruqi tombs an air of no
little distinction. At a later date two mosques were erected at
Burhanpuur, the Jami' Masjid built by 'Ali Khan in 1588 being the
larger and more important, while the Bibi-ki-Masjid is better designed.
The former is a comparatively plain structure, the fifteen pointed
arches comprising its façade being flanked by two lofty minarets, a
simple conception, but the symmetry and disposition of its parts has
been carefully considered. It is not unlikely that the construction
of this building was interrupted by the subjection of the state by
Akbar, its completion being undertaken by the Mughuls, so that its
final appearance may not be as originally intended. As an example
of a coherent composition the Bibi-ki-Masjid is much superior, but
it is too obviously dictated by similar structures in Ahmadabad and
Champaner to be commended for its originality, although the minarets


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676
MONUMENTS OF THE MUGHUL PERIOD
are a departure from the Gujarati type, particularly the projecting
windows and rounded cupolas. The concluding phase of the style,
when it came under the influence of the Mughuls, is seen in the tomb
of Shah Nawaz Khan, one of its provincial governors in the seven-
teenth century. Much of this building is frankly a composite con-
ception displaying elements acquired from a variety of sources. Its
square design in two storeys is suggestive of some of the royal tombs
of the Ahmad Shah dynasty, the pinnacles are those introduced by
Firuz Tughluq but ornamented with foliations from Bijapur, and,
finally, the whole is surmounted by a "Lodi" dome. Yet these attri-
butions are combined with no little skill, and the general appearance
of the structure is not unattractive. At the same time it is clear
that the style had no further resources of its own, and could only be
maintained by appropriating the ideas of others. In such circum-
stances it naturally follows that no more buildings of any consequence
were erected in Khandesh.


## p. 577 (#617) ############################################

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
A. HISTORICAL
HURGESS, J. The Chronology of Modern India, Edinburgh, 1913.
ELLIOT, H. M. and DowSON, J. The History of India, as told by its own His-
torians. 8 vols. 1867-77.
HODIVALA, S. H. Historical Studies in Mughul Numismatics. Calcutta, 1923.
KEENE, H. G. Fall of the Moghul Empire. 1887.
LANE-POOLE, S. Mediaeval India under Muhammadan rule. 1902.
B. NUMISMATIC
Catalogues of Mughul coins in Museums :
British Museum. By S. Lane-Poole. 1892.
Calcutta. By H. Nelson Wright. 1908.
Lahore. By R. B. Whitehead. 1914.
Lucknow. By C. J. Brown. 2 vols. 1920.
Numismatic Supplement to the Journal, Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta,
from 1904.
Index to Num. Supp. I-xv. Allahabad, 1912.
WHITEHEAD, R. B. Coins of Nadir Shah and the Durrani Dynasty. 1934.
CHAPTER I
BABUR
1. ORIGINAL SOURCES
Memoirs of Babur :
Turki text.
(a) Edited by N. Ilminski. 1857.
(b) Facsimile of Hyderabad Codex, edited by A. S. Beveridge. 1905.
Persian Versions.
(a) By Payandah Hasan.
(b) By Mirza Abdu'r-Rahim.
European translations.
(a) By J. Leyden and W. Erskine of `Abdu'r-Rahim's Persian version.
1826. Revised by Sir L. King. 1921.
(b) By A. Pavet de Courteille, from Ilminski's text. 1871.
(c) By A. S. Beveridge, from the Hyderabad Codex. 1921.
Tarikh-i-Rashidi. By Muhammad Haidar Dughlat.
Translation of the Persian text by N. Elias and E. Denison Ross.