No More Learning

But the people of Tentyra track and destroy it in every way. Some
however, as they say of the Psyllians of Cyrenæa, possess a certain
natural antipathy to snakes, and the people of Tentyra have the same
dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury from them, but dive and
cross the river when no other person ventures to do so. When crocodiles
were brought to Rome to be exhibited, they were attended by some of the
Tentyritæ. A reservoir was made for them with a sort of stage on one of
the sides, to form a basking-place for them on coming out of the water,
and these persons went into the water, drew them in a net to the place,
where they might sun themselves and be exhibited, and then dragged them
back again to the reservoir. The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the
back of the fane of Venus is a temple of Isis; then follow what are
called the Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos,[877] a city
common both to the Egyptians and Arabians.

45. Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea near
Berenice,[878] which has no harbour, but good landing-places, because
the isthmus is conveniently situated. Philadelphus is said to be the
first person that opened, by means of his army, this road, which had no
supply of water, and to have provided stations. [879] This he did because
the navigation of the Red Sea was difficult, particularly to those who
set out from the recess of the bay. Experience showed the great utility
of this plan, and at present all the Indian, Arabian, and such Ethiopian
merchandise as is imported by the Arabian Gulf is carried to Coptos,
which is the mart for such commodities. Not far from Berenice is Myos
Hormus,[880] a city with a naval station for vessels which navigate
this sea; at no great distance from Coptos is the city of Apollo, so
that two cities are the boundaries of the isthmus, one on each side. But
at present Coptos and Myos Hormus are in repute, and they are
frequented.

Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their
course by observing the stars, and, like mariners, carried with them a
supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also
obtained by digging to a great depth, and rain-water is found, although
rain rarely falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a
journey of six or seven days.

On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and other precious
stones are found by the Arabians, who dig deep subterraneous passages.

46. Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,

“with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two
hundred men, with horses and chariots,”[881]

according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth;

“not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes
contain. ”[882]

Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes as the
metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still exist, which extend
80 stadia in length. There are a great number of temples, many of which
Cambyses mutilated. The spot is at present occupied by villages. One
part of it, in which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the
country on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium. Here are
two colossal figures near one another, each consisting of a single
stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the other, from the chair, are
fallen down, the effect, it is said, of an earthquake. It is believed,
that once a day a noise as of a slight blow issues from the part of the
statue which remains [CAS. 816] in the seat and on its base. When I was
at those places with Ælius Gallus, and numerous friends and soldiers
about him, I heard a noise at the first hour (of the day), but whether
proceeding from the base or from the colossus, or produced on purpose by
some of those standing around the base, I cannot confidently assert. For
from the uncertainty of the cause, I am disposed to believe anything
rather than that stones disposed in that manner could send forth sound.

Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and hewn out of the
stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and
are worthy of notice. Among the tombs[883] are obelisks with
inscriptions, denoting the wealth of the kings of that time, and the
extent of their empire, as reaching to the Scythians, Bactrians,
Indians, and the present Ionia; the amount of tribute also, and the
number of soldiers, which composed an army of about a million of men.

The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and
philosophers. The former compute the days, not by the moon, but by the
sun, introducing into the twelve months of thirty days each five days
every year. But in order to complete the whole year, because there is
(annually) an excess of a part of a day, they form a period from out of
whole days and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that
period, when collected together, amount to a day. [884] They ascribe to
Mercury all knowledge of this kind. To Jupiter, whom they worship above
all other deities, a virgin of the greatest beauty and of the most
illustrious family (such persons the Greeks call pallades) is dedicated.
She prostitutes herself with whom she pleases, until the time occurs for
the natural purification of the body; she is afterwards married; but
before her marriage, and after the period of prostitution, they mourn
for her as for one dead.

47. Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which both Apollo and
Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an ox there (for worship).

Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this
animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),[885] and next to it,
Latopolis, where Minerva is worshipped, and the (fish) Latus; next, the
city of Eileithyia, and a temple. In the country on the other side of
the river is Hieraconpolis (the city of hawks), where a hawk is
worshipped; then Apollonopolis, the inhabitants of which are at war with
crocodiles.

48. Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia and Egypt.
Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium
in front of Syene; in this island is a city with a temple of Cnuphis,
and a nilometer like that at Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the
banks of the Nile, constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are
marked the greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water
in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously. Upon the
wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the
river, and other degrees of its rising. Those [CAS. 817] who examine
these marks communicate the result to the public for their information.
For it is known long before, by these marks, and by the time[886]
elapsed from the commencement, what the future rise of the river will
be, and notice is given of it. This information is of service to the
husbandmen with reference to the distribution of the water; for the
purpose also of attending to the embankments, canals, and other things
of this kind. It is of use also to the governors, who fix the revenue;
for the greater the rise of the river, the greater it is expected will
be the revenue.

At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer solstice, because
these places lie under the tropical circle,[887] [and occasions the
gnomons to cast no shadows at mid-day]. [888] For on proceeding from the
places in our country, in Greece I mean, towards the south, the sun is
there first over our head, and occasions the gnomons to be without
shadows at noon. When the sun is vertical to us, it must necessarily
cast its rays down wells, however deep they may be, to the water. For we
ourselves stand in a perpendicular position, and wells are dug
perpendicular to the surface.

Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.

49. A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where the boatmen
exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors.

The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a ridge of
rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is level, and thus
capable of receiving the river, but terminating in a precipice, where
the water dashes down. On each side towards the land there is a stream,
up which is the chief ascent for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this
stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat
to the precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.

A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like
Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and equal in size, containing
Egyptian temples, where a bird, which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is
worshipped; but it did not appear to me to resemble in the least the
hawks of our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different
in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was Ethiopian, and
is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor dies, or before its death.
The one shown to us when we were there was sick and nearly dead.

50. We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a very flat
country, a distance of about 100 stadia. [889] Along the whole road on
each side we could see, in many places, very high rocks, round, very
smooth, and nearly spherical, of black hard stone, of which mortars are
made: each rested upon a greater stone, and upon this another: they were
like hermæa. [890] Sometimes these stones consisted of one mass. The
largest was not less than twelve feet in diameter, and all of them
exceeded this size by one half. We crossed over to the island in a
pacton, which is a small boat made of rods, [CAS. 818] whence it
resembles woven-work. Standing then in the water, (at the bottom of the
boat,) or sitting upon some little planks, we easily crossed over, with
some alarm indeed, but without good cause for it, as there is no danger
if the boat is not overloaded.

51. Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a bad species,
and produces no good edible fruit in the places about the Delta and
Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found in the Thebaïs. It is a subject
of surprise how countries in the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering
upon the Delta and Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in
addition to other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is
not inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds of dates
in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and another. The Thebaïc is
firmer, but the flavour is more agreeable. There is an island remarkable
for producing the best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue
to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private
person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to the
governors.

52. Herodotus[891] and other writers trifle very much when they
introduce into their histories the marvellous, like (an interlude of)
music and song, or some melody; for example, in asserting that the
sources of the Nile are near the numerous islands, at Syene and
Elephantina, and that at this spot the river has an unfathomable depth.
In the Nile there are many islands scattered about, some of which are
entirely covered, others in part only, at the time of the rise of the
waters. The very elevated parts are irrigated by means of screw-pumps.

53. Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources
within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It
was also protected on the north by a harbourless coast and the Egyptian
Sea; on the east and west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia,
as I have said before. [892] The remaining parts towards the south are
occupied by Troglodytæ, Blemmyes, Nubæ, and Megabari, Ethiopians above
Syene. These are nomades, and not numerous nor warlike, but accounted so
by the ancients, because frequently, like robbers, they attacked
defenceless persons. Neither are the Ethiopians, who extend towards the
south and Meroë, numerous nor collected in a body; for they inhabit a
long, narrow, and winding tract of land on the river-side, such as we
have before described; nor are they well prepared either for war or the
pursuit of any other mode of life.

At present the whole country is in the same pacific state, a proof of
which is, that the upper country is sufficiently guarded by three
cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever the Ethiopians have ventured
to attack them, it has been at the risk of danger to their own country.
The rest of the forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the
Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For neither are
the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition, nor the surrounding
nations, although their numbers are very large.

Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by
(Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which had revolted,[893]
and took it with a small body of men. He suppressed also in a short time
an insurrection in the Thebaïs, which originated as to the payment of
tribute. At a later period Petronius resisted, with the soldiers about
his person, a mob of myriads of Alexandrines, who attacked him by
throwing stones. He killed some, and compelled the rest to desist.

We have before[894] related how Ælius Gallus, when he invaded Arabia
with a part of the army stationed in Egypt, exhibited a proof of the
unwarlike disposition of the people; and if Syllæus had not betrayed
him, he would have conquered the whole of Arabia Felix.

54. The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part of the forces in
Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who was engaged in war with the
Arabs, invaded the Thebaïs, and attacked the garrison, consisting of
three cohorts, near Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and
Philæ, by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down the
statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than 10,000 infantry
and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men, first compelled them to
retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city. He then sent deputies to demand
restitution of what they had taken, and the reasons which had induced
them to begin the [CAS. 820] war. On their alleging that they had been
ill treated by the nomarchs, he answered, that these were not the
sovereigns of the country, but Cæsar. When they desired three days for
consideration, and did nothing which they were bound to do, Petronius
attacked and compelled them to fight. They soon fled, being badly
commanded, and badly armed; for they carried large shields made of raw
hides, and hatchets for offensive weapons; some, however, had pikes, and
others swords. Part of the insurgents were driven into the city, others
fled into the uninhabited country; and such as ventured upon the passage
of the river escaped to a neighbouring island, where there were not many
crocodiles on account of the current. Among the fugitives, were the
generals of Candace, queen of the Ethiopians in our time, a masculine
woman, and who had lost an eye. Petronius, pursuing them in rafts and
ships, took them all and despatched them immediately to Alexandreia. He
then attacked Pselchis[895] and took it. If we add the number of those
who fell in battle to the number of prisoners, few only could have
escaped.

From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis,[896] a strong city, travelling
over the hills of sand, beneath which the army of Cambyses was
overwhelmed by the setting in of a whirlwind. He took the fortress at
the first onset, and afterwards advanced to Napata. [897] This was the
royal seat of Candace; and her son was there, but she herself was in a
neighbouring stronghold. When she sent ambassadors to treat of peace,
and to offer the restitution of the prisoners brought from Syene, and
the statues, Petronius attacked and took Napata, from which her son had
fled, and then razed it. He made prisoners of the inhabitants, and
returned back again with the booty, as he judged any farther advance
into the country impracticable on account of the roads. He strengthened,
however, the fortifications of Premnis, and having placed a garrison
there, with two years’ provisions for four hundred men, returned to
Alexandreia. Some of the prisoners were publicly sold as booty, and a
thousand were sent to Cæsar, who had lately returned from the
Cantabrians,[898] others died of various diseases.

In the mean time Candace[899] attacked the garrison with an army of many
thousand men. Petronius came to its assistance, and entering the
fortress before the approach of the enemy, secured the place by many
expedients. The enemy sent ambassadors, but he ordered them to repair to
Cæsar: on their replying, that they did not know who Cæsar was, nor
where they were to find him, Petronius appointed persons to conduct them
to his presence. They arrived at Samos, where Cæsar was at that time,
and from whence he was on the point of proceeding into Syria, having
already despatched Tiberius into Armenia. The ambassadors obtained all
that they desired, and Cæsar even remitted the tribute which he had
imposed.




CHAPTER II.


1. In the preceding part[900] of this work we have spoken at length of
Ethiopia, so that its description may be said to be included in that of
Egypt.

In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world adjacent to
the intemperate region, which is not habitable by reason either of heat
or cold, must necessarily be defective and inferior, in respect to
physical advantages, to the temperate [CAS. 821] region. This is
evident from the mode of life of the inhabitants, and their want of what
is requisite for the use and subsistence of man. For the mode of life
[of the Ethiopians] is wretched; they are for the most part naked, and
wander from place to place with their flocks. Their flocks and herds are
small in size, whether sheep, goats, or oxen; the dogs also, though
fierce and quarrelsome, are small. [901] It was perhaps from the
diminutive size of these people, that the story of the Pygmies
originated, whom no person, worthy of credit has asserted that he
himself has seen.

2. They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink is prepared.
They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead. [902] There are no
fruits, except the produce of trees in the royal gardens. Some feed even
upon grass, the tender twigs of trees, the lotus, or the roots of reeds.
They live also upon the flesh and blood of animals, milk, and cheese.
They reverence their kings as gods, who are for the most part shut up in
their palaces.

Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same name as the
island. The shape of the island is said to be that of a shield. Its size
is perhaps exaggerated. Its length is about 3000, and its breadth 1000
stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The
inhabitants are nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen.
There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds of
precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by great hills of
sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher
parts on the south, it is bounded by the confluent[903] streams of the
rivers Astaboras,[904] Astapus,[905] and Astasobas. On the north is the
continuous course of the Nile to Egypt, with its windings, of which we
have spoken before.

The houses in the cities are formed by interweaving split pieces of
palm wood or of bricks. [906] They have fossil salt, as in Arabia. Palm,
the persea[907] (peach), ebony, and carob trees are found in abundance.
They hunt elephants, lions, and panthers. There are also serpents, which
encounter elephants, and there are many other kinds of wild animals,
which take refuge, from the hotter and parched districts, in watery and
marshy districts.

3. Above Meroë is Psebo,[908] a large lake, containing a well-inhabited
island. As the Libyans occupy the western bank of the Nile, and the
Ethiopians the country on the other side of the river, they thus dispute
by turns the possession of the islands and the banks of the river, one
party repulsing the other, or yielding to the superiority of its
opponent.

The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and hardened in the
fire. The women also are armed, most of whom wear in the upper lip a
copper ring. They wear sheep-skins, without wool; for the sheep have
hair like goats. Some go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of
well-woven hair round the loins.

They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause of all things;
another who is mortal, a being without a name, whose nature is not
clearly understood.

In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of
whom are their kings, the common saviours and guardians of all; others
are private persons, esteemed as gods by those who have individually
received benefits from them.

Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to
acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even the sun, and to apply
opprobrious names to him, when they behold him rising, because he
scorches and tortures them with his heat; these people take refuge in
the marshes.

The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis, besides some
other barbaric deity. [909]

Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep them in the
house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster? ). [CAS. 822] Some bury
them around the temples in coffins of baked clay. They swear an oath by
them, which is reverenced as more sacred than all others.

Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for their personal
beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for their courage, or their
riches.

In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and sometimes sent
orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put an end to himself, when
they appointed another king in his place. At last one of their kings
abolished this custom, by going with an armed body to the temple where
the golden shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests.

The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a king is mutilated
in any part of the body, those who are most attached to his person, as
attendants, mutilate themselves in the same manner, and even die with
him. Hence the king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice
on the subject of Ethiopia.

4. To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add these peculiar
products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is called, from which
is obtained the ciborium,[910] and the papyrus, for it is found here and
in India only; the persea (peach) grows here only, and in Ethiopia; it
is a lofty tree, and its fruit is large and sweet; the sycamine, which
produces the fruit called the sycomorus, or fig-mulberry, for it
resembles a fig, but its flavour is not esteemed. The corsium also (the
root of the Egyptian lotus) grows there, a condiment like pepper, but a
little larger.

There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds,
having a peculiar and indigenous character. The best known are the
oxyrynchus,[911] and the lepidotus,[912] the latus,[913] the
alabes,[914] the coracinus,[915] the chœrus, the phagrorius, called also
the phagrus. Besides these are the silurus, the citharus,[916] the
thrissa,[917] the cestreus,[918] the lychnus, the physa, the bous (or
ox), and large shell-fish which emit a sound like that of wailing.

The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon and the Egyptian
asp, having some properties which those in other places do not possess.
There are two kinds, one a span in length, whose bite is more suddenly
mortal than that of the other; the second is nearly an orguia[919] in
size, according to Nicander, the author of the Theriaca.

Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk, which, like the
cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The nycticorax is here peculiar
in its character; for with us it is as large as an eagle, and its cry is
harsh; but in Egypt it is the size of a jay, and has a different note.
The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape
and size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is like a
stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in Alexandreia is full
of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They
are useful, because they pick up all sorts of small animals and the
offal thrown out of the butchers’ and cooks’ shops. They are
troublesome, because they devour everything, are dirty, and with
difficulty prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and what
is not given to them.

5. Herodotus[920] truly relates of the Egyptians, that it is a practice
peculiar to them to knead clay with their hands, and the dough for
making bread with their feet. Caces is a peculiar kind of bread which
restrains fluxes. Kiki (the castor-oil bean) is a kind of fruit sowed in
furrows. An oil is expressed from it which is used for lamps almost
generally throughout the country, but for anointing the body only by the
poorer sort of people and labourers, both men and women.
The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,[921] woven like
those made of rushes, or the palm-tree.

[CAS. 824] Barley beer is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians. It
is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing it differs in
each.

This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired, that they
bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay
the females, as is the custom also among the Jews, who are of Egyptian
origin, as I said when I was treating of them. [922]

According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from the sea, except
the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles;
the dolphin, because it can get the better of the crocodile; the
cestreus, because it is accompanied by the chœri along the bank, in
consequence of some physical affinity subsisting between them. The
crocodiles abstain from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of
a round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to
them. The cestreus runs up the river in spring, when in spawn; and
descends a little before the setting of the pleiad, in great numbers,
when about to cast it, at which time they are taken in shoals, by
falling into inclosures (made for catching them). Such also, we may
conjecture, is the reason why the thrissa is found there.

So much then on the subject of Egypt.




CHAPTER III.


1. We shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining portion of the
whole description of the earth.

We have before said much respecting it; but at present I shall further
describe what suits my purpose, and add what has not been previously
mentioned. [923]

The writers who have divided the habitable world according to
continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a
division into three equal parts. Africa, however, wants so much of being
a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to
Europe, it would not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than
Europe; in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the
inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over with small
habitable parts, which are scattered about, and mostly belonging to
nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of the country, its being a
nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance to settlement in parts which could
be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone.

All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile and the
Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is
fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract, some spots destitute of
water intervene, as those about the Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the
Catabathmus.

The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we imagine
its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base is the coast
opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the Nile to Mauretania and the
Pillars; at right angles to this is a side formed by the Nile to
Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the
right angle is the whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and
Mauretania.

As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned figure, and
lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak
of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest
breadth of the country. In a former[924] part of this work we have said,
that the distance proceeding from Alexandreia southwards to Meroë, the
royal seat of the Ethiopians, is about 10,000 stadia; thence in a
straight line to the borders of the torrid zone and the habitable
country, 3000 stadia. The sum, therefore, may be assumed as the greatest
breadth of Africa, which is 13,000 or 14,000 stadia: its length may be a
little less than double this sum. So much then on the subject of Africa
in general. I am now to describe its several parts, beginning from the
most celebrated on the west.

[CAS. 825] 2. Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by
the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing African
nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side of the strait, at
the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On
proceeding beyond the strait at the Pillars, with Africa on the left
hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the
barbarians Dyris. Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the
foot of the mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the
Coteis. [925] Near it is a small town, a little above the sea, which the
barbarians call Trinx; Artemidorus, Lynx; and Eratosthenes, Lixus. [926]
It lies on the side of the strait opposite to Gadeira,[927] from which
it is separated by a passage of 800 stadia, the width of the strait at
the Pillars between both places. To the south, near Lixus and the
Coteis, is a bay called Emporicus,[928] having upon it Phœnician
mercantile settlements. The whole coast continuous with this bay abounds
with them. Subtracting these bays, and the projections of land in the
triangular figure which I have described, the continent may rather be
considered as increasing in magnitude in the direction of south and
east. The mountain which extends through the middle of Mauretania, from
the Coteis to the Syrtes, is itself inhabited, as well as others running
parallel to it, first by the Maurusii, but deep in the interior of the
country by the largest of the African tribes, called Gætuli.

3. Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas? ),[929]
have invented a great number of fables respecting the sea-coast of
Africa beyond the Pillars. We have mentioned them before, and mention
them now, requesting our readers to pardon the introduction of
marvellous stories, whenever we may be compelled to relate anything of
the kind, being unwilling to pass them over entirely in silence, and so
in a manner to mutilate our account of the country.

It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants’ bay) has a cave
which admits the sea at high tide to the distance even of seven stadia,
and in front of this bay a low and level tract with an altar of Hercules
upon it, which, they say, is not covered by the tide. This I, of course,
consider to be one of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale,
that on other bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient
settlements of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than
three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the Pharusii[930] and the
Nigritæ. These people, they say, are distant thirty days’ journey from
Lynx.

4. Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country,
except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by
rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees of vast size, and the soil
produces everything. It is this country which furnishes the Romans with
tables, formed of one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most
beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles and
other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some suppose that
even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In
a certain river leeches are bred seven cubits in length, with gills,
pierced through with holes, through which they respire. This country is
also said to [CAS. 826] produce a vine, the girth of which two men can
scarcely compass, and bearing bunches of grapes of about a cubit in
size. All plants and pot-herbs are tall, as the arum and
dracontium;[931] the stalks of the staphylinus,[932] the
hippomarathum,[933] and the scolymus[934] are twelve cubits in height,
and four palms in thickness. The country is the fruitful nurse of large
serpents, elephants, antelopes, buffaloes, and similar animals; of lions
also, and panthers. It produces weasels (jerboas? ) equal in size and
similar to cats, except that their noses are more prominent; and
multitudes of apes, of which Poseidonius relates, that when he was
sailing from Gades to Italy, and approached the coast of Africa, he saw
a forest low upon the sea-shore full of these animals, some on the
trees, others on the ground, and some giving suck to their young. He was
amused also with seeing some with large dugs, some bald, others with
ruptures, and exhibiting to view various effects of disease.

5. Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is the country
of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which, for the most part,
is badly inhabited. Iphicrates[935] says, that camel-leopards are bred
here, and elephants, and the animals called rhizeis,[936] which in shape
are like bulls, but in manner of living, in size, and strength in
fighting, resemble elephants. He speaks also of large serpents, and says
that even grass grows upon their backs; that lions attack the young of
the elephants, and that when they have wounded them, they fly on the
approach of the dams; that the latter, when they see their young
besmeared with blood, kill them; and that the lions return to the dead
bodies, and devour them; that Bogus king of the Mauretanians, during his
expedition against the western Ethiopians, sent, as a present to his
wife, canes similar to the Indian canes, each joint of which contained
eight chœnices,[937] and asparagus of similar magnitude.

6. On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are Zelis[938] a
city and Tingis,[939] then the monuments of the Seven Brothers,[940] and
the mountain lying below, of the name of Abyle,[941] abounding with
wild animals and trees of a great size. They say, that the length of the
strait at the pillars is 120 stadia, and the least breadth at
Elephas[942] 60 stadia. On sailing further along the coast, we find
cities and many rivers, as far as the river Molochath,[943] which is the
boundary between the territories of the Mauretanians and of the
Masæsyli. Near the river is a large promontory, and Metagonium,[944] a
place without water and barren. The mountain extends along the coast,
from the Coteis nearly to this place. Its length from the Coteis to the
borders of the Masæsylii[945] is 5000 stadia. Metagonium is nearly
opposite to New Carthage. [946] Timosthenes is mistaken in saying that it
is opposite to Massalia. [947] The passage across from New Carthage to
Metagonium is 3000 stadia, but the voyage along the coast to Massalia is
above 6000 stadia.

7. Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of
which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this
time to live like nomades. They bestow care to improve their looks by
plaiting their hair, trimming their beards, by wearing golden ornaments,
cleaning their teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see
them [CAS. 828] touch one another as they walk, lest they should
disturb the arrangement of their hair.

They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and ride on
the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes. They have also
swords. The foot-soldiers present against the enemy, as shields, the
skins of elephants. They wear the skins of lions, panthers, and bears,
and sleep in them. These tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for
the most part the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and
resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which are
small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a switch. They
have collars[948] made of cotton or of hair, from which hangs a
leading-rein. Some follow, like dogs, without being led.

They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with broad heads.
Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their cloak is a skin, as I
have said before, which serves also as a breastplate.

The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near the western
Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots
also, armed with scythes. The Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with
the Mauretanians in passing through the desert country, as they carry
skins filled with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses.
Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,[949] passing through places
abounding with marshes and lakes. Some of them are said to live like the
Troglodytæ, in caves dug in the ground. It is said that rain falls there
frequently in summer, but that during the winter drought prevails. Some
of the barbarians in that quarter wear the skins of serpents and fishes,
and use them as coverings for their beds. Some say that the
Mauretanians[950] are Indians, who accompanied Hercules hither. A little
before my time, the kings Bogus and Bocchus, allies of the Romans,
possessed this country; after their death, Juba succeeded to the
kingdom, having received it from Augustus Cæsar, in addition to his
paternal dominions. He was the son of Juba who fought, in conjunction
with Scipio, against divus Cæsar. Juba died[951] lately, and was
succeeded by his son Ptolemy, whose mother was the daughter of Antony
and Cleopatra.

8. Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there is a city
called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of Mauretania; that
there are a very great number of Phœnician cities destroyed,[952] of
which no traces are to be seen; and that among the western Ethiopians,
in the evenings and the mornings, the air is misty and dense;—for how
could this take place where there is drought and excessive heat? But he
himself relates of these same parts what is much more liable to
objection. For he speaks of some tribes of Lotophagi, who had left their
own country, and might have occupied the tract destitute of water; whose
food might be a lotus, a sort of herb, or root, which would supply the
want of drink; that these people extend as far as the places above
Cyrene, and that they live there on milk and flesh, although they are
situated in the same latitude.

Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories
of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of Antæus at Lynx, and a
skeleton of sixty feet in length, which Sertorius exposed, and
afterwards covered it with earth. [953] His stories also about elephants
are fabulous. He says, that other animals avoid fire, but that elephants
resist and fight against it, because it destroys the forests; that they
engage with men in battle, and send out scouts before them; that when
they perceive their enemies fly, they take to flight themselves; and
that when they are wounded, they hold out as suppliants branches of a
tree, or a plant, or throw up dust.

9. Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masæsylii, beginning from
the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called
Tretum,[954] the boundary of the country of [CAS. 829] the Masæsyli and
of the Masylies. From Metagonium to Tretum are 6000 stadia; according to
others, the distance is less.

Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is
very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the most renowned. The
city of Siga,[955] the royal seat of Syphax, is at the distance of 1000
stadia from the above-mentioned boundaries. It is now razed. After
Syphax, the country was in the possession of Masanasses, then of
Micipsa, next of his successors, and in our time of Juba, the father of
the Juba who died lately. Zama,[956] which was Juba’s palace, was
destroyed by the Romans. At the distance of 600 stadia from Siga is
Theon-limen (port of the gods);[957] next are some other obscure places.

Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and desert tracts
scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by
Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But the parts near the sea are fertile
plains, in which are numerous cities, rivers, and lakes.

10. Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly, that Africa is
traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he speaks of the same
rivers, namely those between Lynx and Carthage, which Artemidorus
describes as numerous and large. This may be asserted with more truth of
the interior of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it,
namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same is said of
Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought,
pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes are filled with mud only, and
locusts appear in clouds.

Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist, because
the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that the western
parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his course. Now, drought
and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the
presence or absence of the sun’s rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of
the effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by the
latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to the residence
of men, differ in different places, according to the position of each
inhabited spot and the change of horizon; so that it cannot be asserted
generally of places indefinite in number, that those lying to the east
are moist, and those to the west dry: but as applied to the whole earth
and such extremes of it as India and Spain, his expressions (east and
west) may be just; yet what truth or probability is there in his
(attempted) explanation (of the causes of drought and moisture)? for in
the continuous and unceasing circuit of the sun, what turn can there be
in his course? The rapidity too of his passage through every part is
equal. Besides, it is contrary to evidence to say, that the extreme
parts of Spain or Mauretania towards the west are drier than all other
places, when at the same time they are situated in a temperate climate
and have water in great abundance. But if we are to understand the
turning of the sun in this way, that there at the extremities of the
habitable world he is above the earth, how does that tend to produce
drought? for there, and in other places situated in the same latitude,
he leaves them for an equal portion of the night and returns again and
warms the earth.

11. Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring of asphaltus;
scorpions of enormous size,[958] both with and without wings, are said
to be found there, as well as tarantulas, remarkable for their size and
numbers. Lizards also are mentioned of two cubits in length. At the base
of the mountains precious stones are said to be found, as those called
the Lychnitis (the ruby) and the Carchedonius (the carbuncle? ). In the
plains are found great quantities of oyster and mussel shells, similar
to those mentioned in our description of Ammon. There is also a tree
called melilotus, from which a wine is made. Some obtain two crops from
the ground and have two harvests, one in the spring, the other in the
summer. The straw is five cubits in height, and of the thickness of the
little finger; the produce is 250-fold. They do not sow in the spring,
but bush-harrow the ground with bundles of the paliurus, and find the
seed-grain sufficient which falls from [CAS. 831] the sheaves during
harvest to produce the summer crop. In consequence of the number of
reptiles, they work with coverings on the legs; other parts of the body
also are protected by skins.

12. On this coast was a city called Iol,[959] which Juba, the father of
Ptolemy, rebuilt and changed its name to Cæsarea. It has a harbour and a
small island in front of it. Between Cæsarea and Tretum[960] is a large
harbour called Salda,[961] which now forms the boundary between the
territories subject to Juba and the Romans; for the country has been
subject to many changes, having had numerous occupants; and the Romans,
at various times, have treated some among them as friends, others as
enemies, conceding or taking away territories without observing any
established rule.

The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater revenue and was
more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and of the Masylies was more
flourishing and better furnished with buildings, although it suffered
first in the Carthaginian wars, and subsequently during the war with
Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),[962] and
put him to death as a friend of the Romans, and thus involved the whole
country in war. Other wars succeeded one another, of which the last was
that between divus Cæsar and Scipio, in which Juba lost his life. The
death of the leaders was accompanied by the destruction of the cities
Tisiæus,[963] Vaga,[964] Thala,[965] Capsa[966] (the treasure-hold of
Jugurtha), Zama,[967] and Zincha. To these must be added those cities in
the neighbourhood of which divus Cæsar obtained victories over Scipio,
namely, first at Ruspinum,[968] then at Uzita, then at Thapsus and the
neighbouring lake, and at many others. Near are the free cities Zella
and Acholla. [969] Cæsar also captured at the first onset the island
Cercinna,[970] and Thena, a small city on the sea-coast. Some of these
cities utterly disappeared, and others were abandoned, being partly
destroyed. Phara was burnt by the cavalry of Scipio.

13. After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies, and that of the
Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the interior is Cirta, the royal
residence of Masanasses and his successors. It is a very strong place
and well provided with everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa,
who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such
importance, that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities Hippo,[971]
one of which is situated near Ityca, the other further off near Tretum,
both royal residences. Ityca is next to Carthage in extent and
importance. On the destruction of Carthage it became a metropolis to the
Romans, and the head quarters of their operations in Africa. It is
situated in the very bay itself of Carthage, on one of the promontories
which form it, of which the one near Ityca is called Apollonium, the
other Hermæa. Both cities are in sight of each other. Near Ityca flows
the river Bagradas. [972] From Tretum to Carthage are 2,500 stadia, but
authors are not agreed upon this distance, nor on the distance (of
Carthage) from the Syrtes.

14. Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a circuit of 360
stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in length are upon the neck
of the peninsula, and reach from sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept
their elephants, it being a wide open place. In the middle of the city
was the acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of Esculapius,
which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas burnt herself to death
there, on the capture of the city. Below the Acropolis were the harbours
and the Cothon, a circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating
with the sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
situated sheds for vessels.

[CAS. 832] 15. Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her people
from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in Spain and beyond the
Pillars proved so successful to the Phœnicians, that even to the present
day they occupy the best parts on the continent of Europe and the
neighbouring islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
with the exception of such parts as could only be held by nomade tribes.
From the power they acquired they raised a city to rival Rome, and waged
three great wars against her. Their power became most conspicuous in the
last war, in which they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their
city was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war, they
possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of Carthage amounted
to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender,
they delivered up 200,000 complete suits of armour and 3000[973] engines
for throwing projectiles, apparently with the intention of abandoning
all hostilities; but having resolved to recommence the war, they at once
began to manufacture arms, and daily deposited in store 140 finished
shields, 300 swords, 500 lances, and 1000 projectiles for the engines,
for the use of which the women-servants contributed their hair. In
addition to this, although at this moment they were in possession of
only twelve ships, according to the terms of the treaty concluded in the
second war, and had already taken refuge in a body at the Byrsa, yet in
two months they equipped 120 decked vessels; and, as the mouth of the
Cothon was closed against them, cut another outlet (to the sea) through
which the fleet suddenly made its appearance. For wood had been
collected for a long time, and a multitude of workmen were constantly
employed, who were maintained at the public expense.

Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to the ground.

The Romans made a province of that part of the country which had been
subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the rest Masanasses and his
descendants, beginning with Micipsa. For the Romans paid particular
attention to Masanasses on account of his great abilities and friendship
for them. For he it was who formed the nomades to civil life, and
directed their attention to husbandry. Instead of robbers he taught them
to be soldiers. A peculiarity existed among these people; they inhabited
a country favoured in everything except that it abounded with wild
beasts; these they neglected to destroy, and so to cultivate the soil in
security; but turning their arms against each other, abandoned the
country to the beasts of prey. Hence their life was that of wanderers
and of continual change, quite as much as that of those who are
compelled to it by want and barrenness of soil or severity of climate.
An appropriate name was therefore given to the Masæsylii, for they were
called Nomades. [974] Such persons must necessarily be sparing livers,
eaters of roots more than of flesh, and supported by milk and cheese.
Carthage remained a desolate place for a long time, for nearly the same
period, indeed, as Corinth, until it was restored about the same time
(as the latter city) by divus Cæsar, who sent thither such Romans to
colonize it as elected to go there, and also some soldiers. At present
it is the most populous city in Africa.

16. About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island Corsura. [975]
On the other side of the strait opposite to these places is Sicily and
Lilybæum,[976] at the distance of (about) 1500 stadia; for this is said
to be the distance from Lilybæum to Carthage. Not far from Corsura and
Sicily are other islands, among which is Ægimurus. [977] From Carthage
there is a passage of 60 stadia to the nearest opposite coast, from
whence there is an ascent of 120 stadia to Nepheris, a fortified city
built upon a rock.