No More Learning

” But who is
there who will admit this to be an obtuse-angled triangle, without also
admitting that it contains a right angle? Who will agree that the line
from Babylon to Susa, which forms one side of this obtuse-angled
triangle, lies parallel, without admitting the same of the whole line as
far as Carmania? or that the line drawn from the Caspian Gates to the
frontiers of Carmania is parallel to the Indus? Nevertheless, without
this the reasoning [of Hipparchus] is worth nothing.

“Eratosthenes himself also states,” [continues Hipparchus,[593]] “that
the form of India is rhomboidal; and since the whole eastern border of
that country has a decided tendency towards the east, but more
particularly the extremest cape,[594] which lies more to the south than
any other part of the coast, the side next the Indus must be the same. ”

35. These arguments may be very geometrical, but they are not
convincing. After having himself invented these various difficulties, he
dismisses them, saying, “Had [Eratosthenes] been chargeable for small
distances only, he might have been excused; but since his mistakes
involve thousands of stadia, we cannot pardon him, more especially since
he has laid it down that at a mere distance of 400 stadia,[595] such as
that between the parallels of Athens and Rhodes, there is a sensible
variation [of latitude]. ” But these sensible variations are not all of
the same kind, the distance [involved therein] being in some instances
greater, in others less; greater, when for our estimate of the climata
we trust merely to the eye, or are guided by the vegetable productions
and the temperature of the air; less, when we employ gnomons and
dioptric instruments. Nothing is more likely than that if you measure
the parallel of Athens, or that of Rhodes and Caria, by means of a
gnomon, the difference resulting from so many stadia[596] will be
sensible. But when a geographer, in order to trace a line from west to
east, 3000 stadia broad, makes use of a chain of mountains 40,000 stadia
long, and also of a sea which extends still farther 30,000 stadia, and
farther wishing to point out the situation of the different parts of the
habitable earth relative to this line, calls some southern, others
northern, and finally lays out what he calls the sections, each section
consisting of divers countries, then we ought carefully to examine in
what acceptation he uses his terms; in what sense he says that such a
side [of any section] is the north side, and what other is the south, or
east, or west side. If he does not take pains to avoid great errors, he
deserves to be blamed, but should he be guilty merely of trifling
inaccuracies, he should be forgiven. But here nothing shows thoroughly
that Eratosthenes has committed either serious or slight errors, for on
one hand what he may have said concerning such great distances, can
never be verified by a geometrical test, and on the other, his accuser,
while endeavouring to reason like a geometrician, does not found his
arguments on any real data, but on gratuitous suppositions.

36. The fourth section Hipparchus certainly manages better, though he
still maintains the same censorious tone, and obstinacy in sticking to
his first hypotheses, or others similar. He properly objects to
Eratosthenes giving as the length of this section a line drawn from
Thapsacus to Egypt, as being similar to the case of a man who should
tell us that the diagonal of a parallelogram was its length. For
Thapsacus and the coasts of Egypt are by no means under the same
parallel of latitude, but under parallels considerably distant from each
other,[597] and a line drawn from Thapsacus to Egypt would lie in a kind
of diagonal or oblique direction between them. But he is wrong when he
expresses his surprise that Eratosthenes should dare to state the
distance between Pelusium and Thapsacus at 6000 stadia, when he says
there are above 8000. In proof of this he advances that the parallel of
Pelusium is south of that of Babylon by more than 2500 stadia, and that
according to Eratosthenes (as he supposes) the latitude of Thapsacus is
above 4800 stadia north of that of Babylon; from which Hipparchus tells
us it results that [between Thapsacus and Pelusium] there are more than
8000 stadia. But I would inquire how he can prove that Eratosthenes
supposed so great a distance between the parallels of Babylon and
Thapsacus? He says, indeed, that such is the distance from Thapsacus to
Babylon, but not that there is this distance between their parallels,
nor yet that Thapsacus and Babylon are under the same meridian. So much
the contrary, that Hipparchus has himself pointed out, that, according
to Eratosthenes, Babylon ought to be east of Thapsacus more than 2000
stadia. We have before cited the statement of Eratosthenes, that
Mesopotamia and Babylon are encircled by the Tigris and Euphrates, and
that the greater portion of the Circle is formed by this latter river,
which flowing north and south takes a turn to the east, and then,
returning to a southerly direction, discharges itself [into the sea].
So long as it flows from north to south, it may be said to follow a
southerly direction; but the turning towards the east and Babylon is a
decided deviation from the southerly direction, and it never recovers a
straight course, but forms the circuit we have mentioned above. When he
tells us that the journey from Babylon to Thapsacus is 4800 stadia, he
adds, following the course of the Euphrates, as if on purpose lest any
one should understand such to be the distance in a direct line, or
between the two parallels. If this be not granted, it is altogether a
vain attempt to show that if a right-angled triangle were constructed by
lines drawn from Pelusium and Thapsacus to the point where the parallel
of Thapsacus intercepts the meridian of Pelusium, that one of the lines
which form the right angle, and is in the direction of the meridian,
would be longer than that forming the hypotenuse drawn from Thapsacus to
Pelusium. [598] Worthless, too, is the argument in connexion with this,
being the inference from a proposition not admitted; for Eratosthenes
never asserts that from Babylon to the meridian of the Caspian Gates is
a distance of 4800 stadia. We have shown that Hipparchus deduces this
from data not admitted by Eratosthenes; but desirous to controvert every
thing advanced by that writer, he assumes that from Babylon to the line
drawn from the Caspian Gates to the mountains of Carmania, according to
Eratosthenes’ description, there are above 9000 stadia, and from thence
draws his conclusions.

37. Eratosthenes[599] cannot, therefore, be found fault with on these
grounds; what may be objected against him is as follows. When you wish
to give a general outline of size and configuration, you should devise
for yourself some rule which may be adhered to more or less. After
having laid down that the breadth of the space occupied by the mountains
which run in a direction due east, as well as by the sea which reaches
to the Pillars of Hercules, is 3000 stadia, would you pretend to
estimate different lines, which you may draw within the breadth of that
space, as one and the same line? We should be more willing to grant you
the power of doing so with respect to the lines which run parallel to
that space than with those which fall upon it; and among these latter,
rather with respect to those which fall within it than to those which
extend without it; and also rather for those which, in regard to the
shortness of their extent, would not pass out of the said space than for
those which would. And again, rather for lines of some considerable
length than for any thing very short, for the inequality of lengths is
less perceptible in great extents than the difference of configuration.
For example, if you give 3000 stadia for the breadth at the Taurus, as
well as for the sea which extends to the Pillars of Hercules, you will
form a parallelogram entirely enclosing both the mountains of the Taurus
and the sea; if you divide it in its length into several other
parallelograms, and draw first the diagonal of the great parallelogram,
and next that of each smaller parallelogram, surely the diagonal of the
great parallelogram will be regarded as a line more nearly parallel and
equal to the side forming the length of that figure than the diagonal of
any of the smaller parallelograms: and the more your lesser
parallelograms should be multiplied, the more will this become evident.
Certainly, it is in great figures that the obliquity of the diagonal and
its difference from the side forming the length are the less
perceptible, so that you would have but little scruple in taking the
diagonal as the length of the figure. But if you draw the diagonal more
inclined, so that it falls beyond both sides, or at least beyond one of
the sides, then will this no longer be the case; and this is the sense
in which we have observed, that when you attempted to draw even in a
very general way the extents of the figures, you ought to adopt some
rule. But Eratosthenes takes a line from the Caspian Gates along the
mountains, running as it were in the same parallel as far as the
Pillars, and then a second line, starting directly from the mountains to
touch Thapsacus; and again a third line from Thapsacus to the frontiers
of Egypt, occupying so great a breadth. If then in proceeding you give
the length of the two last lines [taken together] as the measure of the
length of the district, you will appear to measure the length of one of
your parallelograms by its diagonal. And if, farther, this diagonal
should consist of a broken line, as that would be which stretches from
the Caspian Gates to the embouchure of the Nile, passing by Thapsacus,
your error will appear much greater. This is the sum of what may be
alleged against Eratosthenes.

38. In another respect also we have to complain of Hipparchus, because,
as he had given a category of the statements of Eratosthenes, he ought
to have corrected his mistakes, in the same way that we have done; but
whenever he has any thing particular to remark, he tells us to follow
the ancient charts, which, to say the least, need correction infinitely
more than the map of Eratosthenes.

The argument which follows is equally objectionable, being founded on
the consequences of a proposition which, as we have shown, is
inadmissible, namely, that Babylon was not more than 1000 stadia east of
Thapsacus; when it was quite clear, from Eratosthenes’ own words, that
Babylon was above 2400 stadia east of that place; since from Thapsacus
to the passage of the Euphrates where it was crossed by Alexander, the
shortest route is 2400 stadia, and the Tigris and Euphrates, having
encompassed Mesopotamia, flow towards the east, and afterwards take a
southerly direction and approach nearer to each other and to Babylon at
the same time: nothing appears absurd in this statement of Eratosthenes.

39. The next objection of Hipparchus is likewise false. He attempts to
prove that Eratosthenes, in his statement that the route from Thapsacus
to the Caspian Gates is 10,000 stadia, gives this as the distance taken
in a straight line; such not being the case, as in that instance the
distance would be much shorter. His mode of reasoning is after this
fashion. He says, “According to Eratosthenes, the mouth of the Nile at
Canopus,[600] and the Cyaneæ,[601] are under the same meridian, which is
distant from that of Thapsacus 6300 stadia. Now from the Cyaneæ to Mount
Caspius, which is situated close to the defile[602] leading from Colchis
to the Caspian Sea, there are 6600 stadia,[603] so that, with the
exception of about 300 stadia, the distance from the meridian of the
Cyaneæ to that of Thapsacus, or to that of Mount Caspius, is the same:
and both Thapsacus and Mount Caspius are, so to speak, under the same
meridian. [604] It follows from this that the Caspian Gates are about
equi-distant between Thapsacus and Mount Caspius, but that the distance
between them and Thapsacus is much less than the 10,000 stadia mentioned
by Eratosthenes. Consequently, as the distance in a right line is much
less than 10,000 stadia, this route, which he considered to be in a
straight course from the Caspian Gates to Thapsacus, must have been a
circumbendibus. ”

To this we reply, that Eratosthenes, as is usual in Geography, speaks of
right lines, meridians, and parallels to the equator, with considerable
latitude, whereas Hipparchus criticizes him with geometrical nicety, as
if every line had been measured with rule and compass. Hipparchus at the
same time himself frequently deciding as to right lines and parallels,
not by actual measurement, but mere conjecture. Such is the first error
of this writer. A second is, that he never lays down the distances as
Eratosthenes has given them, nor yet reasons on the data furnished by
that writer, but from mere assumptions of his own coinage. Thus, where
Eratosthenes states that the distance from the mouth of the [Thracian
Bosphorus] to the Phasis is 8000 stadia, from thence to Dioscurias 600
stadia,[605] and from Dioscurias to Caspius five days’ journey, (which
Hipparchus estimates at 1000 stadia,) the sum of these, as stated by
Eratosthenes, would amount to 9600 stadia. This Hipparchus abridges in
the following manner. From the Cyaneæ to the Phasis are 5600 stadia, and
from the Phasis to the Caspius 1000 more. [606] Therefore it is no
statement of Eratosthenes that the Caspius and Thapsacus are under the
same meridian, but of Hipparchus himself. However, supposing
Eratosthenes says so, does it follow that the distance from the Caspius
to the Caspian Gates, and that from Thapsacus to the same point, are
equal. [607]

40. In the second book of his Commentaries, Hipparchus, having again
mooted the question concerning the mountains of the Taurus, of which we
have spoken sufficiently, proceeds with the northern parts of the
habitable earth. He then notices the statement of Eratosthenes
concerning the countries situated west of the Euxine,[608] namely, that
the three [principal] headlands [of this continent], the first the
Peloponnesian, the second the Italian, the third the Ligurian, run from
north [to south], enclosing the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Gulfs. [609]
After this general exposition, Hipparchus proceeds to criticise each
point in detail, but rather on geometrical than geographical grounds; on
these subjects, however, the number of Eratosthenes’ errors is so
overwhelming, as also of Timosthenes the author of the Treatise on the
Ports, (whom Eratosthenes prefers above every other writer, though he
often decides even against him,) that it does not seem to be worth my
time to review their faulty productions, nor even what Hipparchus has to
say about them; since he neither enumerates all their blunders, nor yet
sets them right, but only points out how they falsify and contradict
each other. Still any one might certainly object to the saying of
Eratosthenes, that Europe has but three headlands, and considering as
one that which terminates by the Peloponnesus, notwithstanding it is
broken up into so many divisions. In fact, Sunium[610] is as much a
promontory as Laconia, and not very much less south than Malea,[611]
forming a considerable bay,[612] and the Thracian Chersonesus[613] and
Sunium[614] form the Gulf of Melas,[615] and likewise those of
Macedonia. [616] Added to this, it is manifest that the majority of the
distances are falsely stated, thus arguing an ignorance of geography
scarcely credible, and so far from requiring geometrical demonstration
that it stands out prominent on the very face of the statements. For
example, the distance from Epidamnus[617] to the Thermaic Gulf[618] is
above 2000 stadia; Eratosthenes gives it at 900. So too he states the
distance from Alexandria to Carthage at 13,000[619] stadia; it is not
more than 9000, that is, if, as he himself tells us, Caria and Rhodes
are under the same meridian as Alexandria,[620] and the Strait of
Messina under the same as Carthage,[621] for every one is agreed that
the voyage from Caria to the Strait of Sicily does not exceed 9000
stadia.

It is doubtless permissible in very great distances to consider as under
one and the same meridian places which are not more east and west of
each other than Carthage is west of the Strait;[622] but an error of
3000 stadia is too much; and when he places Rome under the same meridian
as Carthage, notwithstanding its being so far west of that city, it is
but the crowning proof of his extreme ignorance both of these places,
and likewise of the other countries farther west as far as the Pillars
of Hercules.

41. Since Hipparchus does not furnish a Geography of his own, but merely
reviews what is said in that of Eratosthenes, he ought to have gone
farther, and corrected the whole of that writer’s mistakes. As for
ourselves, it is only in those particulars where Eratosthenes is correct
(and we acknowledge that he frequently errs) that we have thought it our
duty to quote his own words, in order to reinstate them in their
position, and to defend him when he could be acquitted of the charges of
Hipparchus; never failing to break a lance with the latter writer
whenever his objections seemed to be the result of a mere propensity to
find fault. But when Eratosthenes is grossly mistaken, and the
animadversions of Hipparchus are just, we have thought it sufficient in
our Geography to set him (Eratosthenes) right by merely stating facts as
they are. As the mistakes were so continual and numerous, it was better
not to mention them except in a sparse and general manner. This
principle in the details we shall strive to carry out. In the present
instance we shall only remark, that Timosthenes, Eratosthenes, and those
who preceded them, were but ill acquainted with Iberia and Keltica,[623]
and a thousand times less with Germany, Britain, and the land of the
Getæ and Bastarnæ. [624] Their want of knowledge is also great in regard
to Italy, the Adriatic, the Euxine, and the countries north of these.
Possibly this last remark may be regarded as captious, since
Eratosthenes states, that as to distant countries, he has merely given
the admeasurements as he finds them supplied by others, without vouching
for their accuracy, although he sometimes adds whether the route
indicated is more or less in a right line. We should not therefore
subject to a too rigorous examination distances as to which no one is
agreed, after the manner Hipparchus does, both in regard to the places
already mentioned, and also to those of which Eratosthenes has given the
distance from Hyrcania to Bactria and the countries beyond, and those
from Colchis to the Sea of Hyrcania. These are points where we should
not scrutinize him so narrowly as [when he describes] places situated in
the heart of our continent,[625] or others equally well known; and even
these should be regarded from a geographical rather than a geometrical
point of view. Hipparchus, at the end of the second book of his
Commentaries on the Geography of Eratosthenes, having found fault with
certain statements relative to Ethiopia, tells us at the commencement of
the third, that his strictures, though to a certain point geographical,
will be mathematical for the most part. As for myself, I cannot find any
geography there. To me it seems entirely mathematical; but Eratosthenes
himself set the example; for he frequently runs into scientific
speculations, having little to do with the subject in hand, and which
result in vague and inexact conclusions. Thus he is a mathematician in
geography, and in mathematics a geographer; and so lies open to the
attacks of both parties. In this third book, both he and Timosthenes get
such severe justice, that there seems nothing left for us to do;
Hipparchus is quite enough.




CHAPTER II.


1. We will now proceed to examine the statements made by Posidonius in
his Treatise on the Ocean. This Treatise contains much geographical
information, sometimes given in a manner conformable to the subject, at
others too mathematical. It will not, therefore, be amiss to look into
some of his statements, both now and afterwards, as opportunity occurs,
taking care to confine ourselves within bounds. He deals simply with
geography, when he tells us that the earth is spheroidal and the
universe too, and admits the necessary consequences of this hypothesis,
one of which is, that the earth contains five zones.

2. Posidonius informs us that Parmenides was the first to make this
division of the earth into five zones, but that he almost doubled the
size of the torrid zone, which is situated between the tropics, by
bringing it beyond these into the temperate zones. [626] But according to
Aristotle the torrid zone is contained between the tropics, the
temperate zones occupying the whole space between the tropics and the
arctic circles. [627] Both of these divisions Posidonius justly condemns,
for the torrid zone is properly the space rendered uninhabitable by the
heat. Whereas more than half of the space between the tropics is
inhabited, as we may judge by the Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt. The
equator divides the whole of this space into two equal parts. Now from
Syene, which is the limit of the summer tropic, to Meroe, there are
5000 stadia, and thence to the parallel of the Cinnamon region, where
the torrid zone commences, 3000 stadia. The whole of this distance has
been measured, and it may be gone over either by sea or land; the
remaining portion to the equator is, if we adopt the measure of the
earth supplied by Eratosthenes, 8800 stadia. Therefore, as 16,800 is to
8800, so is the space comprised between the tropics to the breadth of
the torrid zone.

If of the more recent measurements we prefer those which diminish the
size of the earth, such as that adopted by Posidonius, which is about
180,000 stadia,[628] the torrid zone will still only occupy half, or
rather more than half, of the space comprised between the tropics; but
never an equal space. [Respecting the system of Aristotle, Posidonius
farther says,] “Since it is not every latitude which has Arctic
Circles,[629] and even those which do possess them have not the same,
how can any one determine by them the bounds of the temperate zones,
which are immutable? ” Nothing however is proved [against Aristotle] from
the fact that there are not Arctic Circles for every latitude, since
they exist for all the inhabitants of the temperate zone, on whose
account alone the zone receives its name of temperate. But the objection
that the Arctic Circles do not remain the same for every latitude, but
shift their places, is excellent. [630]

3. Posidonius, who himself divides the earth into zones, tells us that
“five is the number best suited for the explanation of the celestial
appearances, two of these are periscii,[631] which reach from the poles
to the point where the tropics serve for Arctic Circles; two more are
heteroscii,[632] which extend from the former to the inhabitants of the
tropics, and one between the tropics, which is called amphiscius,[633]
but for matters relative to the earth, it is convenient to suppose two
other narrow zones placed under the tropics, and divided by them into
two halves, over which [every year] for the space of a fortnight, the
sun is vertical. ”[634] These zones are remarkable for being extremely
arid and sandy, producing no vegetation with the exception of
silphium,[635] and a parched grain somewhat resembling wheat. This is
caused by there being no mountains to attract the clouds and produce
rain, nor any rivers flowing[636] through the country. The consequence
is that the various species[637] are born with woolly hair, crumpled
horns, protruding lips, and wide nostrils; their extremities being as it
were gnarled. Within these zones also dwell the Ichthyophagi. [638] He
further remarks, that these peculiarities are quite sufficient to
distinguish the zones in question: those which are farther south having
a more salubrious atmosphere, and being more fruitful and better
supplied with water.




CHAPTER III.


1. Polybius supposes six zones: two situated between the poles and the
arctic circles; two between the arctic circles and the tropics; and two
between the tropics which are divided by the equator. However, it
appears to me that the division into five zones accords best both with
the order of external nature and geography. With external nature, as
respects the celestial phenomena, and the temperature of the atmosphere.
With respect to the celestial phenomena, as the Periscii and Amphiscii
are thereby divided in the best possible manner, and it also forms an
excellent line of separation in regard to those who behold the stars
from an opposite point of view. [639] With respect to the temperature of
the atmosphere, inasmuch as looked at in connexion with the sun, there
are three main divisions, which influence in a remarkable degree both
plants, animals, and every other animated thing, existing either in the
air, or exposed to it, namely, excess of heat, want of heat, and a
moderate supply of heat. In the division into [five] zones, each of
these is correctly distinguished. The two frigid zones indicate the want
of heat, being alike in the temperature of their atmosphere; the
temperate zones possess a moderate heat, and the remaining, or torrid
zone, is remarkable for its excess of heat.

The propriety of this division in regard to geography is equally
apparent; the object of this science being to determine the limits of
that one of the temperate zones which we inhabit. To the east and west,
it is true, the boundaries are formed by the sea, but to the north and
south they are indicated by the atmosphere; which in the middle is of a
grateful temperature both to animals and plants, but on either side is
rendered intemperate either through excess or defect of heat. To
manifest this threefold difference, the division of the globe into five
zones becomes necessary. In fact, the division of the globe, by means of
the equator, into two hemispheres, the one northern, wherein we dwell,
and the other southern, points to this threefold division, for the
regions next the equator and torrid zone are uninhabitable on account of
the heat, those next the poles on account of the cold, but those in the
middle are mild, and fitted for the habitation of man.

Posidonius, in placing two zones under the tropics, pays no regard to
the reasons which influenced the division into five zones, nor is his
division equally appropriate. It is no more than if he were to form his
division into zones merely according to the [countries inhabited] by
different nations, calling one the Ethiopian, another the Scythian and
Keltic,[640] and a third the Intermediate zone.

2. Polybius, indeed, is wrong in bounding certain of his zones by the
arctic circles,[641] namely, the two which lie under them, and the two
between these and the tropics. The impropriety of using shifting points
to mark the limits of those which are fixed has been remarked before;
and we have likewise objected to the plan of making the tropics the
boundary of the torrid zone. However, in dividing the torrid zone into
two parts [Polybius] seems to have been influenced by no inconsiderable
reason, the same which led us to regard the whole earth as properly
divided by the equator into two hemispheres, north and south. We at once
see that by means of this division the torrid zone is divided into two
parts, thus establishing a kind of uniformity; each hemisphere
consisting of three entire zones, respectively similar to each other.
Thus this partition[642] will admit of a division into six zones, but
the other does not allow of it at all. Supposing you cut the earth into
two portions by a line drawn through the poles, you can find no
sufficient cause for dividing the eastern and western hemispheres into
six zones; on the other hand, five would be preferable. For since both
the portions of the torrid zone, divided by the equator, are similar and
contiguous to each other, it would seem out of place and superfluous to
separate them; whereas the temperate and frigid zones respectively
resemble each other, although lying apart. Wherefore, supposing the
whole earth to consist of these two hemispheres, it is sufficient to
divide them into five zones. If there be a temperate region under the
equator, as Eratosthenes asserts, and is admitted by Polybius, (who
adds, that it is the most elevated part of the earth,[643] and
consequently subject to the drenching rains occasioned by the monsoons
bringing up from the north innumerable clouds, which discharge
themselves on the highest lands,) it would be better to suppose this a
third narrow temperate zone, than to extend the two temperate zones
within the circles of the tropics. This supposition is supported by the
statements of Posidonius, that the course of the sun, whether in the
ecliptic, or from east to west, appears most rapid in the region [of
which we are speaking], because the rotations of that luminary are
performed with a speed increased in proportion to the greater size of
the circle. [644]

3. Posidonius blames Polybius for asserting that the region of the
earth, situated under the equator, is the highest, since a spherical
body being equal all round, no part can be described as high; and as to
mountainous districts, there are none under the equator, it is on the
contrary a flat country, about the same level as the sea; as for the
rains which swell the Nile, they descend from the mountains of Ethiopia.
Although advancing this, he afterwards seems to adopt the other opinion,
for he says that he fancies there may be mountains under the equator,
around which the clouds assembling from both of the temperate zones,
produce violent rains. Here is one manifest contradiction; again, in
stating that the land under the equator is mountainous, another
contradiction appears. For they say that the ocean is confluent, how
then can they place mountains in the midst of it? unless they mean to
say that there are islands. However, whether such be the fact does not
lie within the province of geography to determine, the inquiry would
better be left to him who makes the ocean in particular his study.

4. Posidonius, in speaking of those who have sailed round Africa, tells
us that Herodotus was of opinion that some of those sent out by Darius
actually performed this enterprise;[645] and that Heraclides of Pontus,
in a certain dialogue, introduces one of the Magi presenting himself to
Gelon,[646] and declaring that he had performed this voyage; but he
remarks that this wants proof. He also narrates how a certain Eudoxus of
Cyzicus,[647] sent with sacrifices and oblations to the Corean
games,[648] travelled into Egypt in the reign of Euergetes II. ;[649] and
being a learned man, and much interested in the peculiarities of
different countries, he made interest with the king and his ministers on
the subject, but especially for exploring the Nile. It chanced that a
certain Indian was brought to the king by the [coast]-guard of the
Arabian Gulf. They reported that they had found him in a ship, alone,
and half dead: but that they neither knew who he was, nor where he came
from, as he spoke a language they could not understand. He was placed in
the hands of preceptors appointed to teach him the Greek language. On
acquiring which, he related how he had started from the coasts of India,
but lost his course, and reached Egypt alone, all his companions having
perished with hunger; but that if he were restored to his country he
would point out to those sent with him by the king, the route by sea to
India. Eudoxus was of the number thus sent. He set sail with a good
supply of presents, and brought back with him in exchange aromatics and
precious stones, some of which the Indians collect from amongst the
pebbles of the rivers, others they dig out of the earth, where they have
been formed by the moisture, as crystals are formed with us. [650]

[He fancied that he had made his fortune], however, he was greatly
deceived, for Euergetes took possession of the whole treasure. On the
death of that prince, his widow, Cleopatra,[651] assumed the reins of
government, and Eudoxus was again despatched with a richer cargo than
before. On his journey back, he was carried by the winds above
Ethiopia, and being thrown on certain [unknown] regions, he conciliated
the inhabitants by presents of grain, wine, and cakes of pressed figs,
articles which they were without; receiving in exchange a supply of
water, and guides for the journey. He also wrote down several words of
their language, and having found the end of a prow, with a horse carved
on it, which he was told formed part of the wreck of a vessel coming
from the west, he took it with him, and proceeded on his homeward
course. He arrived safely in Egypt, where no longer Cleopatra, but her
son,[652] ruled; but he was again stripped of every thing on the
accusation of having appropriated to his own uses a large portion of the
merchandise sent out.

However, he carried the prow into the market-place, and exhibited it to
the pilots, who recognised it as being come from Gades. [653] The
merchants [of that place] employing large vessels, but the lesser
traders small ships, which they style horses, from the figures of that
animal borne on the prow, and in which they go out fishing around
Maurusia,[654] as far as the Lixus. [655] Some of the pilots professed to
recognise the prow as that of a vessel which had sailed beyond the river
Lixus, but had not returned. [656]

From this Eudoxus drew the conclusion, that it was possible to
circumnavigate Libya; he therefore returned home, and having collected
together the whole of his substance, set out on his travels. First he
visited Dicæarchia,[657] and then Marseilles, and afterwards traversed
the whole coast as far as Gades. Declaring his enterprise everywhere as
he journeyed, he gathered money sufficient to equip a great ship, and
two boats, resembling those used by pirates. On board these he placed
singing girls, physicians, and artisans of various kinds, and launching
into open sea, was carried towards India by steady westerly winds. [658]
However, they who accompanied him becoming wearied with the voyage,
steered their course towards land, but much against his will, as he
dreaded the force of the ebb and flow. What he feared actually occurred.
The ship grounded, but gently, so that it did not break up at once, but
fell to pieces gradually, the goods and much of the timber of the ship
being saved. With these he built a third vessel, closely resembling a
ship of fifty oars, and continuing his voyage, came amongst a people who
spoke the same language as that some words of which he had on a former
occasion committed to writing. He further discovered, that they were men
of the same stock as those other Ethiopians, and also resembled those of
the kingdom of Bogus. [659] However, he abandoned his [intended] voyage
to India, and returned home. On his voyage back he observed an
uninhabited island, well watered and wooded, and carefully noted its
position. Having reached Maurusia in safety, he disposed of his vessels,
and travelled by land to the court of Bogus. He recommended that
sovereign to undertake an expedition thither.

This, however, was prevented on account of the fear of the [king’s]
advisers, lest the district should chance to expose them to treachery,
by making known a route by which foreigners might come to attack them.
Eudoxus, however, became aware, that although it was given out that he
was himself to be sent on this proposed expedition, the real intent was
to abandon him on some desert island. He therefore fled to the Roman
territory, and passed thence into Iberia. Again, he equipped two
vessels, one round and the other long, furnished with fifty oars, the
latter framed for voyaging in the high seas, the other for coasting
along the shores. He placed on board agricultural implements, seed, and
builders, and hastened on the same voyage, determined, if it should
prove too long, to winter on the island he had before observed, sow his
seed, and having reaped the harvest, complete the expedition he had
intended from the beginning.

5. “Thus far,” says Posidonius, “I have followed the history of Eudoxus.
What happened afterwards is probably known to the people of Gades and
Iberia;” “but,” says he, “all these things only demonstrate more clearly
the fact, that the inhabited earth is entirely surrounded by the ocean. ”

“By no continent fettered in,
But boundless in its flow, and free from soil. ”

Posidonius is certainly a most strange writer; he considers that the
voyage of the Magus,[660] related by Heraclides, wants sufficient
evidence, and also the account given by Herodotus of those sent out [to
explore] by Darius. But this Bergæan[661] nonsense, either the coinage
of his own brain, or of some other story-teller, in whom he trusts, he
pretends to be worthy of our belief. But in the first place, what is
there credible in this tale of the Indian missing his way? The Arabian
Gulf, which resembles a river, is narrow, and in length is from 5000 to
10,000 stadia up to its mouth, where it is narrowest of all. It is not
likely that the Indians in their voyage out would have entered this Gulf
by mistake. The extreme narrowness of the mouth must have warned them of
their error. And if they entered it voluntarily, then there was no
excuse for introducing the pretext of mistake and uncertain winds. And
how did they suffer all of themselves but one to perish through hunger?
And how was it that this surviver was able to manage the ship, which
could not have been a small one either, fitted as it was for traversing
such vast seas? What must have been his aptitude in learning the
language of the country, and thus being able to persuade the king of his
competence, as leader of the expedition? And how came it that Euergetes
was in want of such guides, so many being already acquainted with this
sea? How was it that he who was sent by the inhabitants of Cyzicus to
carry libations and sacrifices, should forsake his city and sail for
India? How was it that so great an affair was intrusted to him? And how
came it that on his return, after being deprived of every thing contrary
to expectation, and disgraced, a yet larger cargo of goods was intrusted
to him?
And when he had again returned into Ethiopia, what cause induced
him to write down the words, or to inquire whence came the portion of
the prow of the boat? For to learn that it was a ship of some sailing
from the west, would have been no information to him, as he himself
would have to sail from the west on his voyage back. When, on his return
to Alexandria, he was detected in having appropriated to himself much of
the merchandise, how came it that he was not punished, but allowed to go
about interrogating the pilots, and exhibiting his bit of prow? And that
one of these fellows actually recognised the relic, is it not delicious!
Eudoxus too believed it, this is still richer; and inspired by the hope,
hastens home, and then starts on a voyage beyond the Pillars of
Hercules! But he could never have left Alexandria without a passport,
still less after having stolen the royal property. To set sail on the
sly was impossible, as the port and every other exit was kept by a
numerous guard, which still exists, as we very well know who have lived
in Alexandria for a long time, although it is not so strict since the
Romans have had possession, but under the kings the guards were
infinitely more alert. But allowing that he reached Gades, that he there
constructed ships, and sailed thence with quite a royal fleet, when his
vessel was shattered, by what means was he able to construct a third
boat in a desert land? And when, being again on his voyage, he found
that the Ethiopians of the West spoke the same language as those of the
East, how came it that he, so proud of his travelling propensities,
forgot the completion of his voyage, when he must have had so good an
expectation that there was but little now left unexplored, but
relinquishing these prospects, set his mind on the expedition being
undertaken by Bogus? How did he become acquainted with the snare spread
for him by that king? And what advantage would have accrued to Bogus by
making away with the man, rather than by dismissing him? When Eudoxus
learned the plot against himself, what means had he to escape to safer
quarters? It is true that not one of these situations was actually
impossible, but still they were difficult circumstances, such as one
rarely escapes from by any prosperous fortune. However, he always came
off with good luck, notwithstanding he was never out of danger. Besides
this, how did it happen, that having escaped from Bogus, he was not
afraid to sail round Africa a second time, with all the requisites for
taking up his abode on the island? All this too closely resembles the
falsehoods of Pytheas, Euhemerus, and Antiphanes. They however may be
pardoned; for their only aim was that of the juggler. But who can
forgive a demonstrator and philosopher, and one too striving to be at
the head of their order? it is really too bad!

6. However, he is right in attributing to earthquakes and other similar
causes, which we also have enumerated, the risings, slips, and changes
which at various periods come over the earth. He did well, too, in
citing the opinion of Plato, “that the tradition concerning the Island
of Atlantis might be received as something more than a mere fiction, it
having been related by Solon on the authority of the Egyptian priests,
that this island, almost as large as a continent, was formerly in
existence, although now it had disappeared. ” Posidonius thinks it better
to quote this than to say, “He who brought it into existence can also
cause it to disappear, as the poet did the wall of the Achivi. ”[662] He
(Posidonius) is also of opinion that the emigration of the Cimbrians and
other kindred races from their native territory, was gradual, and
occasioned by the inundation of the sea, and by no means a sudden
movement. [663] He supposes that the length of the inhabited earth is
about 70,000 stadia, being the half of the whole circle on which it is
taken; so that, says he, starting from the west, one might, aided by a
continual east wind, reach India in so many thousand stadia.

7. Next he undertakes to find fault with those who gave to the
continents their present division, instead of marking them out by lines
drawn parallel to the equator, by which means the different animals,
plants, and temperatures would have been distinguished, according as
they approached the frigid or the torrid zones; so that each continent
would have formed a kind of zone. Afterwards, however, he overturns and
gives up altogether this view, bestowing every commendation on the
existing system, and thus making his argument altogether worthless and
of no avail. In fact, the various arrangements [of a country] are not
the result of premeditation, any more than the diversities of nations
or languages; they all depend on circumstances and chance. Arts, forms
of government, and modes of life, arising from certain [internal]
springs, flourish under whatever climate they may be situated; climate,
however, has its influence, and therefore while some peculiarities are
due to the nature of the country, others are the result of institutions
and education. It is not owing to the nature of the country, but rather
to their education, that the Athenians cultivate eloquence, while the
Lacedæmonians do not; nor yet the Thebans, who are nearer still. Neither
are the Babylonians and Egyptians philosophers by nature, but by reason
of their institutions and education. In like manner the excellence of
horses, oxen, and other animals, results not alone from the places where
they dwell, but also from their breeding. Posidonius confounds all these
distinctions.

In praising the division of the continents as it now stands, he advances
as an argument the difference between the Indians and the Ethiopians of
Libya, the former being more robust, and less dried by the heat of the
climate. It is on this account that Homer, who includes them all under
the title of Ethiopians, describes them as being separated into two
divisions,

“These eastward situate, those toward the west. ”[664]

[Crates], to support his hypothesis, supposes another inhabited earth,
of which Homer certainly knew nothing; and says that the passage ought
to be read thus, “towards the descending sun,” viz. when having passed
the meridian, it begins to decline.

8. First, then, the Ethiopians next Egypt are actually separated into
two divisions; one part being in Asia, the other in Libya, otherwise
there is no distinction between them. But it was not on this account
that Homer divided the Ethiopians, nor yet because he was acquainted
with the physical superiority of the Indians, (for it is not probable
that Homer had the slightest idea of the Indians, since, according to
the assertion of Eudoxus, Euergetes was both ignorant of India, and of
the voyage thither,) but his division rather resulted from the cause we
formerly mentioned. We have shown that as for the alteration of Crates,
it makes no difference whether it be read so or not. Posidonius,
however, says that it does make a difference, and would be better
altered into “towards the descending [sun]. ” But in what can this be
said to differ from “towards the west,” since the whole section of the
hemisphere west of the meridian is styled “the west,” not only the mere
semicircle of the horizon. This is manifested by the following
expression of Aratus,

“Where the extremities of the west and east blend together. ”[665]

However, if the reading of Posidonius be preferable to that of Crates,
any one may likewise claim for it a superiority over that of
Aristarchus. So much for Posidonius. There are, however, many
particulars relating to Geography, which we shall bring under
discussion; others relating to Physics, which must be examined
elsewhere, or altogether disregarded; for he is much too fond of
imitating Aristotle’s propensity for diving into _causes_, a subject
which we [Stoics] scrupulously avoid, simply because of the extreme
darkness in which all _causes_ are enveloped.




CHAPTER IV.


1. Polybius, in his Chorography of Europe, tells us that it is not his
intention to examine the writings of the ancient geographers, but the
statements of those who have criticised them, such as Dicæarchus,
Eratosthenes, (who was the last of those who [in his time] had laboured
on geography,) and Pytheas, by whom many have been deceived. It is this
last writer who states that he travelled all over Britain on foot, and
that the island is above 40,000 stadia in circumference. It is likewise
he who describes Thule and other neighbouring places, where, according
to him, neither earth, water, nor air exist, separately, but a sort of
concretion of all these, resembling marine sponge, in which the earth,
the sea, and all things were suspended, thus forming, as it were, a link
to unite the whole together. It can neither be travelled over nor sailed
through. As for the substance, he affirms that he has beheld it with his
own eyes; the rest, he reports on the authority of others. So much for
the statements of Pytheas, who tells us, besides, that after he had
returned thence, he traversed the whole coasts of Europe from Gades to
the Don.

2. Polybius asks, “How is it possible that a private individual, and one
too in narrow circumstances, could ever have performed such vast
expeditions by sea and land? And how could Eratosthenes, who hesitates
whether he may rely on his statements in general, place such entire
confidence in what that writer narrates concerning Britain, Gades, and
Iberia? ” says he, “it would have been better had Eratosthenes trusted to
the Messenian[666] rather than to this writer. The former merely
pretends to have sailed into one [unknown] country, viz. Panchæa, but
the latter, that he has visited the whole of the north of Europe as far
as the ends of the earth; which statement, even had it been made by
Mercury, we should not have believed. Nevertheless Eratosthenes, who
terms Euhemerus a Bergæan, gives credit to Pytheas, although even
Dicæarchus would not believe him. ”

This argument, “although even Dicæarchus would not believe him,” is
ridiculous, just as if Eratosthenes ought to take for his standard a
writer whom Polybius is himself for ever complaining of. [667]

The ignorance of Eratosthenes respecting the western and northern
portions of Europe, we have before remarked. But both he and Dicæarchus
must be pardoned for this, as neither of them were personally familiar
with those localities. But how can one excuse Polybius and Posidonius?
especially Polybius, who treats as mere hearsay what Eratosthenes and
Dicæarchus report concerning the distances of various places; and many
other matters, about which, though he blames them, he is not himself
free from error. Dicæarchus states that there are 10,000 stadia from the
Peloponnesus to the Pillars, and something above this number from the
Peloponnesus to the recess of the Adriatic. [668] He supposes 3000 stadia
between the Peloponnesus and the Strait of Sicily; thus there would
remain 7000 between the Strait of Sicily and the Pillars. [669]

“I will not inquire,” says Polybius, “whether the statement concerning
the 3000 stadia is correct or not, but 7000 stadia is not the correct
measure [from the Strait of Messina to the Pillars of Hercules], whether
taken along the sea-shore, or right across the sea. The coast closely
resembles an obtuse angle, one side reaching to the Strait of Sicily,
the other to the Pillars, the vertex being Narbonne. Now let a triangle
be constructed, having for its base a right line drawn through the sea,
and its sides forming the aforementioned angle. The side reaching from
the Strait of Sicily to Narbonne is above 11,200 stadia, while the other
is below 8000. Now the greatest distance from Europe to Libya, across
the Tyrrhenian Sea,[670] is not above 3000 stadia, and across the Sea of
Sardinia[671] it is less still. But supposing that it too is 3000
stadia, add to this 2000 stadia, the depth of the bay at Narbonne, as a
perpendicular from the vertex to the base of the obtuse-angled
triangle. It will, then, be clear even to the geometrical powers of a
child, that the entire coast from the Strait of Sicily to the Pillars,
does not exceed by more than 500 stadia the right line drawn across the
sea; adding to these the 3000 stadia from the Peloponnesus to the Strait
of Sicily, the whole taken together will give a straight line[672] above
double the length assigned by Dicæarchus; and, according to his system,
you must add in addition to these the stadia at the recess of the
Adriatic. ”

3. True, dear Polybius, (one might say,) this error [of Dicæarchus] is
manifested by the proof which you yourself have given when you inform us
that from the Peloponnesus to Leucas[673] there are 700 stadia; from
thence to Corcyra[674] the same number; and the same number again from
Corcyra to the Ceraunian Mountains;[675] and from the Ceraunian
Mountains to Iapygia,[676] following the coast of Illyria on the right,
6150 stadia. [677] But the statement of Dicæarchus, that the distance
from the Strait of Sicily to the Pillars is 7000 stadia, and also your
view of the matter, are both of them equally incorrect. For almost every
one is agreed that the distance measured straight across the sea is
12,000 stadia, and this coincides with the received calculation of the
length of the inhabited earth, which is estimated at above 70,000
stadia; the western portion of this from the Gulf of Issus[678] to the
extreme western point of Iberia is little less than 30,000 stadia, and
is thus calculated: from the Gulf of Issus to Rhodes 5000 stadia; from
thence to Cape Salmonium,[679] which forms the eastern extremity of
Crete, 1000; the length of Crete to Criu-metopon[680] above 2000; thence
to Cape Pachynus[681] in Sicily 4500, and from Pachynus to the Strait of
Sicily above 1000 stadia; the run from the Strait to the Pillars 12,000;
and lastly, from the Pillars to the extremity of the said
promontory[682] of Iberia, about 3000 stadia. [683]

In addition to this, the perpendicular[684] is not correct, supposing it
true that Narbonne lies under almost the same parallel as Marseilles,
and that this latter place is under the same parallel as Byzantium;
which is the opinion of Hipparchus. Now the line drawn across the sea
lies under the same parallel as the Strait [of the Pillars] and Rhodes;
and the distance from Rhodes to Byzantium, which both lie under the same
meridian, is estimated at about 5000 stadia; to which the
above-mentioned perpendicular ought to be equal. But since they say that
from the recess of the Galatic Gulf, the greatest distance across the
sea from Europe to Libya is 5000 stadia, it seems to me that either
there is some error in this statement, or that at this point Libya must
incline very much to the north, and so come under the same parallel as
the Pillars. Polybius is likewise mistaken in telling us that this said
perpendicular terminates close to Sardinia; for instead of being close
to Sardinia, it is far west thereof, having almost the whole of the sea
of Liguria[685] between it and that island. Besides this he makes the
length of the sea-coast too great; but this [error] is not so
considerable [as the two preceding].

4. After this Polybius proceeds to set right the mistakes of
Eratosthenes. In this he is sometimes successful; at others his
corrections are for the worse. For example, Eratosthenes gives 300
stadia from Ithaca to Corcyra; Polybius makes it above 900. From
Epidamnus to Thessalonica Eratosthenes allows 900 stadia; Polybius says
above 2000. In these instances he is correct. But where Eratosthenes
states that from Marseilles to the Pillars there are 7000 stadia, and
from the Pyrenees [to the same place] 6000, and Polybius alters this to
more than 9000 from Marseilles, and little less than 8000 from the
Pyrenees,[686] he is quite mistaken, and not so near to the truth as
Eratosthenes. For all are now agreed that, barring the indirectness of
the roads, the whole length of Iberia is not more than 6000 stadia[687]
from the Pyrenees to its western limits; notwithstanding Polybius gives
8000 stadia for the length of the river Tagus, from its source to its
outlets, and this in a straight line without any reference to its
sinuosities, which in fact never enter into the geographical estimate,
although the sources of the Tagus are above 1000 stadia from the
Pyrenees. His remark is quite correct, that Eratosthenes knew little
about Iberia, and on this account sometimes makes conflicting statements
concerning it. He tells us, for example, that the portion of this
country situated on the sea-coast as far as Gades is inhabited by
Galatæ,[688] who possess western Europe as far as Gades; nevertheless,
in his account of Iberia he seems quite to have forgotten this, and
makes no mention of these Galatæ whatever.

5. Again, however, Polybius makes an incorrect assertion, in stating
that the whole length of Europe is unequal to that of Africa and Asia
taken together. He tells us “that the entrance at the Pillars
corresponds in direction to the equinoctial west, and that the Don flows
from the summer rising, consequently the length of Europe is less than
that of Asia and Africa taken together by the space between the summer
rising[689] and the equinoctial rising,[690] since Asia occupies the
eastern portion of the northern semicircle. Now, in addition to the
obscurity which Polybius throws over subjects which might have been
simply stated, it is false that the river Don flows from the summer
rising. For all who are acquainted with these localities inform us that
this river flows from the north into the Mæotis, so that the mouth of
the river lies under the same meridian as that of the Mæotis; and so in
fact does the whole river as far as is known. [691]

6. Equally unworthy of credit is the statement of those who tell us,
that the Don rises in the vicinity of the Danube, and flows from the
west; they do not remember that between these are the Dniester, the
Dnieper, and the Bog, all great rivers, which flow [into the Euxine
Sea]; one runs parallel to the Danube, the other two to the Don. Now if
at the present day we are ignorant of the sources both of the Dniester,
and also of the Dnieper and Bog, the regions farther north must
certainly be still less known. It is therefore a fictitious and idle
assertion, that the Don crosses these rivers, and then turns northward
on its way to discharge itself into the Mæotis, it being well known that
the outlets to this river are in the most northern and eastern portions
of the lake. [692]

No less idle is the statement which has also been advanced, that the
Don, after crossing the Caucasus, flows northward, and then turns
towards the Mæotis. [693] No one, however, [with the exception of
Polybius,] made this river flow from the east. If such were its course,
our best geographers would never have told us that its direction was
contrary to that of the Nile, and, so to speak, diametrically opposite
thereto, as if the course of both rivers lay under the same meridian.

7. Further, the length of the inhabited earth is measured on a line
parallel with the equator, as it is in this direction that its greatest
length lies: in the same way with respect to each of the continents, we
must take their length as it lies between two meridians. The measure of
these lengths consists of a certain number of stadia, which we obtain
either by going over the places themselves, or roads or ways parallel
thereto. Polybius abandons this method, and adopts the new way of taking
the segment of the northern semicircle comprised between the summer
rising and the equinoctial rising. But no one ought to calculate by
variable rules or measures in determining the length of fixed distances:
nor yet should he make use of the phenomena of the heavens, which appear
different when observed from different points, for distances which have
their length determined by themselves and remain unchanged. The length
of a country never varies, but depends upon itself; whereas, the
equinoctial rising and setting, and the summer and winter rising and
setting, depend not on themselves, but on our position [with respect to
them]. As we shift from place to place, the equinoctial rising and
setting, and the winter and summer rising and setting, shift with us;
but the length of a continent always remains the same. To make the Don
and the Nile the bounds of these continents, is nothing out of the way,
but it is something strange to employ for this purpose the equinoctial
rising and the summer rising.

8. Of the many promontories formed by Europe, a better description is
given by Polybius than by Eratosthenes; but even his is not sufficient.
Eratosthenes only names three; one at the Pillars of Hercules, where
Iberia is situated; a second at the Strait of Sicily, and containing
Italy; the third terminated by the Cape of Malea,[694] comprising all
the countries situated between the Adriatic, the Euxine, and the Don.
The two former of these Polybius describes in the same manner as
Eratosthenes, but the third, which is equally terminated by the Cape of
Malea[695] and Cape Sunium,[696] [he makes to] comprehend the whole of
Greece, Illyria, and some portion of Thrace. [He supposes] a fourth,
containing the Thracian Chersonesus and the countries contiguous to the
Strait,[697] betwixt Sestos and Abydos. This is occupied by the
Thracians. Also a fifth, about the Kimmerian Bosphorus and the mouth of
the Mæotis. Let us allow [to Polybius] his two former [promontories],
they are clearly distinguished by unmistakeable bays; the first by the
bay between Calpe[698] and the Sacred Promontory[699] where Gades[700]
is situated, as also by the sea between the Pillars and Sicily; the
second[701] by the latter sea and the Adriatic,[702] although it may be
objected that the extremity of Iapygia,[703] being a promontory in
itself, causes Italy to have a double cape. But as for the remaining
[promontories of Polybius], they are plainly much more irregular, and
composed of many parts, and require some other division. So likewise his
plan of dividing [Europe] into six parts, similar to that of the
promontories, is liable to objection.

However, we will set to rights each of these errors separately, as we
meet with them, as well as the other blunders into which he has fallen
in his description of Europe, and the journey round Africa. For the
present we think that we have sufficiently dwelt on those of our
predecessors whom we have thought proper to introduce as testimonies in
our behalf, that both in the matter of correction and addition we had
ample cause to undertake the present work.




CHAPTER V.


1. After these criticisms on the writers who have preceded us, we must
now confine our attention to the fulfilment of our promise. We start
with a maxim we laid down at the commencement, that whoever undertakes
to write a Chorography, should receive as axioms certain physical and
mathematical propositions, and frame the rest of his work in accordance
with, and in full reliance on, these principles. We have already stated
[our opinion], that neither builder nor architect could build house or
city properly and as it ought to be, unless acquainted with the _clima_
of the place, its position in respect to celestial appearances, its
shape, magnitude, degree of heat and cold, and similar facts; much less
should he [be without such information] who undertakes to describe the
situation of the various regions of the inhabited earth.

Represent to the mind on one and the same plane-surface Iberia and India
with the intermediate countries, and define likewise the west, the east,
and the south, which are common to every country. To a man already
acquainted with the arrangement and motions of the heavens, and aware
that in reality the surface of the earth is spherical, although here for
the sake of illustration represented as a plane, this will give a
sufficiently exact idea of the geographical [position of the various
countries], but not to one who is unacquainted with those matters. The
tourist travelling over vast plains like those of Babylon, or journeying
by sea, may fancy that the whole country stretched before, behind, and
on either side of him is a plane-surface; he may be unacquainted with
the counter-indications of the celestial phenomena, and with the
motions and appearance of the sun and stars, in respect to us. But such
facts as these should ever be present to the mind of those who compose
Geographies. The traveller, whether by sea or land, is directed by
certain common appearances, which answer equally for the direction both
of the unlearned and of the man of the world. Ignorant of astronomy, and
unacquainted with the varied aspect of the heavens, he beholds the sun
rise and set, and attain the meridian, but without considering how this
takes place. Such knowledge could not aid the object he has in view, any
more than to know whether the country he chances to be in may be under
the same latitude as his own or not. Even should he bestow a slight
attention to the subject, on all mathematical points he will adopt the
opinions of the place; and every country has certain mistaken views of
these matters. But it is not for any particular nation, nor for the man
of the world who cares nothing for abstract mathematics, still less is
it for the reaper or ditcher, that the geographer labours; but it is for
him who is convinced that the earth is such as mathematicians declare it
to be, and who admits every other fact resulting from this hypothesis.
He requests that those who approach him shall have already settled this
in their minds as a fact, that they may be able to lend their whole
attention to other points. He will advance nothing which is not a
consequence of these primary facts; therefore those who hear him, if
they have a knowledge of mathematics, will readily be able to turn his
instructions to account; for those who are destitute of this information
he does not pretend to expound Geography.

2. Those who write on the science of Geography should trust entirely for
the arrangement of the subject they are engaged on to the geometers, who
have measured the whole earth; they in their turn to astronomers; and
these again to natural philosophers. Now natural philosophy is one of
the perfect sciences. [704]

The “perfect sciences” they define as those which, depending on no
external hypothesis, have their origin, and the evidence of their
propositions, in themselves. Here are a few of the facts established by
natural philosophers. [705]

The earth and heavens are spheroidal.

The tendency of all bodies having weight, is to a centre.

Further, the earth being spheroidal, and having the same centre as the
heavens, is motionless, as well as the axis which passes through both it
and the heavens. The heavens turn round both the earth and its axis,
from east to west. The fixed stars turn round with it, at the same rate
as the whole. [706] These fixed stars follow in their course parallel
circles; the principal of which are, the equator, the two tropics, and
the arctic circles. While the planets, the sun, and the moon, describe
certain oblique circles comprehended within the zodiac. Admitting these
points in whole or in part, astronomers proceed to treat of other
matters, [such as] the motions [of the stars], their revolutions,
eclipses, size, relative distance, and a thousand similar particulars.
On their side, geometers, when measuring the size of the entire earth,
avail themselves of the data furnished by the natural philosopher and
astronomer; and the geographer on his part makes use of those of the
geometer.

3. The heavens and the earth must be supposed to be divided each into
five zones, and the celestial zones to possess the same names as those
below. The motives for such a division into zones we have already
detailed. These zones may be distinguished by circles drawn parallel to
the equator, on either side of it. Two of these will separate the torrid
from the temperate zones, and the remaining two, the temperate from the
frigid. To each celestial circle there shall be one corresponding on
earth, and bearing the same name, and likewise zone for zone. The [two]
zones capable of being inhabited, are styled temperate. The remaining
[three] are uninhabitable, one on account of the heat, the others
because of the extreme cold. The same is the case with regard to the
tropical, and also to the arctic circles, in respect of those countries
for which arctic circles can be said to exist. Circles on the earth are
supposed, corresponding to those in the heavens, and bearing the same
name, one for one.

As the whole heaven is separated into two parts by its equator, it
follows that the earth must, by its equator, be similarly divided. The
two hemispheres, both celestial and terrestrial, are distinguished into
north and south. Likewise the torrid zone, which is divided into two
halves by the equator, is distinguished as having a northern and
southern side. Hence it is evident that of the two temperate zones, one
should be called northern, the other southern, according to the
hemisphere to which it belongs. The northern hemisphere is that
containing the temperate zone, in which looking from east to west, you
will have the pole on your right hand, and the equator on the left, or,
in which, looking south, the west will be on the right hand, and the
east on the left. The southern hemisphere is exactly the contrary to
this.

It is clear that we are in one or other of these hemispheres, namely,
the north; we cannot be in both:

“Broad rivers roll, and awful floods between,
But chief the ocean. ”[707]

And next is the torrid zone. But neither is there any ocean in the midst
of the earth wherein we dwell, dividing the whole thereof, nor yet have
we any torrid region. Nor is there any portion of it to be found in
which the _climata_ are opposite to those which have been described as
characterizing the northern temperate zone.

4. Assuming these data, and availing himself likewise of astronomical
observations, by which the position of every place is properly
determined, whether with respect to the circles parallel to the equator,
or to those which cut these latter at right angles, in the direction of
the poles, the geometer measures the region in which he dwells, and
[judges of the extent of] others by comparing the distance [between the
corresponding celestial signs]. By this means he discovers the distance
from the equator to the pole, which is a quarter of the largest circle
of the earth; having obtained this, he has only to multiply by four, the
result is the [measure of the] perimeter of the globe.

In the same manner as he who takes the measures of the earth, borrows
the foundation of his calculations from the astronomer, who himself is
indebted to the natural philosopher, so in like manner the geographer
adopts certain facts laid down as established by the geometer, before
setting forth his description of the earth we inhabit; its size, form,
nature, and the proportion it bears to the whole earth. These latter
points are the peculiar business of the geographer. He will next enter
on a particular description of every thing deserving notice, whether on
land or sea; he will likewise point out whatever has been improperly
stated by those who have preceded him, especially by those who are
regarded as chief authorities in these matters. [708]

5. Let it be supposed that the earth and sea together form a spheroidal
body, and preserve one and the same level in all the seas. For though
some portions of the earth may be higher, yet this bears so small a
relation to the size of the whole mass, as need not be noticed. The
spheroid in consequence is not so minutely exact as one might be made by
the aid of a turner’s instrument, or as would answer the definition of a
geometer, still in general appearance, and looked at roughly, it is a
spheroid. Let the earth be supposed to consist of five zones, with (1. )
the equatorial circle described round it, (2. ) another parallel to
this,[709] and defining the frigid zone of the northern hemisphere, and
(3. ) a circle passing through the poles, and cutting the two preceding
circles at right angles. The northern hemisphere contains two quarters
of the earth, which are bounded by the equator and the circle passing
through the poles.

Each of these [quarters] should be supposed to contain a four-sided
district, its northern side being composed of one half of the parallel
next the pole; its southern, by the half of the equator; and its
remaining sides, by [two] segments of the circle drawn through the
poles, opposite to each other, and equal in length. In one of these
quadrilaterals (which of them is of no consequence) the earth that we
inhabit is situated, surrounded by sea, and similar to an island. This,
as we said before, is evident both to our senses and to our reason. But
should any one doubt thereof, it makes no difference so far as Geography
is concerned, whether you suppose the portion of the earth we inhabit to
be an island, or only admit what we know from experience, viz. that
whether you start from the east or west, you may sail all round it.
Certain intermediate spaces may have been left [unexplored], but these
are as likely to be occupied by sea, as uninhabited lands. The object of
the geographer is to describe known countries; those which are unknown
he passes over equally with those beyond the limits of the inhabited
earth. It will therefore be sufficient for describing the contour of the
island we have been speaking of, if we join by a right line the utmost
points which, up to this time, have been explored by voyagers along the
coast on either side.