, 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207).
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207).
Charles - 1867 - Classical Dictionary
Cicero
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITA
ITALIA
Kura-hcrmon, or "the black fortress. " Istropolis is
said to have been founded bv a Milesian colonv.
(Plin, 4, 11. )
ItabyrIus, a mountain of Oalilca Inferior, near the
southern limits of the tribe of Zebulon, and southeast
from Carmel. According to Josephus (Bell. Jud. , 4,6),
it was 30 stadia high, and had on its summit a plain
of V. stadia in extent. Its modern name is Thabor.
This mountain is supposed by some to have been the
scene of our Saviour's transfiguration. Jerome, Cy-
ril), and other writers, sre in favour of the position,
but it is opposed by Reland (Pal<utin. , p. 247). The
name Thabor or Tabor, which was also the ancient
one among the natives, appears to be derived from the
Hebrew labbor, "a height" or "summit. " (Reland,
I. e. ) The Greek writers call it Qa6up and 'AraW-
piov (or itodvoiov) opoc. (Compare the Jupiter Ala-
byrius of Rhodes and Agrigentum, and the remarks
of Hitter, Vorhalle, p. 339. ) On the summit of this
mountain was situate a fortified town called Atabyrion.
(Polyb. , 5, 70. --Via". Atabyrion. ) Mount Thabor is
situate two leagues southeast of Nazareth, rising out
of the great plain of Esdraelon, at its eastern side. Its
figure is that of a truncated cone, and its elevation,
according to Buckingham, about 1000 feet; but, from
the circumstance mentioned by Burckhardt, of thick
clouds resting on it in the morning in summer, and his
being an hour in ascending it, it may perhaps be con-
sidered as higher than Buckingham supposed, though,
from the same time occupied in the ascent, not more
than 400 or 500 feet, or from 1400 to 1500 in all. It
is represented as entirely calcareous. Dr. Richardson
describes it as a dark-looking, insulated conical mount-
ain, rising like a tower to a considerable height above
those around it. On the summit is a plain about a
mile in circumference, which shows the remains of
the ancient fortress mentioned above. The view
from this spot is said to be one of the finest in the
5"untry.
Italia, a celebrated country of Europe, bounded on
the ncrth by the Alps, on the south by the Ionian Sea,
on the northeast by the Adriatic or Mare Superum,
and on the southwest, by tho Mare Tyrrhcnum or In-
ferum. It was called Hosperia by the Greeks, from
its western situation in relation to Greece (Virg. ,
JEn. , 1, 530), and received also from the Latin poets
the appellation of Ausonia (Virg. , JEn. , 7, 54), Sa-
turnia (Virg. , Georg. , 2, 173), and ffinotria. The
name Italia some writers deduce from Italus, a chief
of the CEnotri or Siculi (Antioch. Syrac. , ap. Dion.
Hal. , 1,2. --Thucyd. , 6,2). Others sought the origin
of the term in the Greek word iraXor, or the Latin
titulus, which corresponds to it (Varro, R. R , 2, 5.
--Dion. Hal. , 1, 35); and others again make the
name to have belonged originally to a small canton in
Calabria, and to have become gradually common to
the whole country. The ancients differed from us in
their application of names to countries. They re-
garded the name as belonging to tho people, not to
the land itself; and in this they were more correct
than wo are, who call nations after the countries they
inhabit. Asia Minor, for example, was an appellation
unknown to the earlier classic writers, and only began
to come into use after the country had fallen into the
hands <if the Romans. Previous to this, the different
. nations which peopled that peninsula had their re-
spective names, and were known by these. In the
? ? same way, a general name for what we now term Italy
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? TTAT. 1A.
ITALIA.
spread fror. i the Alps to the southernmost extremity
of the land. T\iis position receives very strong sup-
port from the fact that the name Italus w as in gen-
eral use among the various nations of the Italian
peninsula. In the language cf fable it was the appel-
lation of an ancient monarch. We find mention made
of a King Italus among the Ausones and Opici, and
likewise among lb* Morgetes, Siculi, and Sabini.
We find, moreover, all these early tribes using one
lommon dialect, the Oscan. Now, that such a being
is lulus ever existed, appears extremely improbable;
ind still more so the assertion that Italy was named
after this ancient king. Daily experience proves that
cettr. irU* are called after the nations who inhabit
them; and few, if any, examples can be adduced of
nations taking an appellation from their rulers. In the
? resent case it appears scarcely credible. We know
if no period when the different Italian tribes were
inder the control of a single ruler, and yet each have
heir Italus. Was there a monarch of this name in
very district cf Italy t and, still more, did each sep-
Tate community form the resolution of deriving from
deir lespective monarch a name for themselves and
iie region they inhabited, so that, finally, the common
>>ame for the whole land becamo Italia 1 Either sup-
position is absurd. --The name Italus, then, was the
jeneric name of the whole race, and the land was
called after it, each community being known at the
same time by a specific and peculiar appellation, as
Latini, Umbri, exi. The fact of the universal preva-
lence of the Oscin tongue is strongly corroborative of
what has just been advanced. But, it may be con-
tended, no proof exists that any king named Italus was
acknowledged by the traditions of the Tusci or Umbri.
The answer is an easy one. Antiquity makes mention
of these as the piogenitors of the Latini, among whom
? King Italus apj-ears; and Scymnus records an old
lut'nority, which snakes the Umbri to have been de-
scended from La'. inus, the son of Ulysses and Circe.
That these two nations, moreover, spoke a language
based on the old Italic or Oscan form of speech, was
discovered by thf. Romans in the case of the Rheti, a
branch of the former, who had retired to thefAlps
cpon the invasion of the Gauls. The original popula-
tion of Italy then was composed of the Itali. To
these came various nations, which we shall now enu-
merate in the order of history. The earliest of these
new-comers appear to have been the Illyrian tribes,
and, i'i particular, I ho Libumi, who may, with truth, be
regr. ded as the earl iest of European navigators. They
extended thcmselvi-s along the coast of the Adriatic as
far as Iipygia. Jiiext in the order of lime were the
Veneti, a branch o) the great Sclavonic race (vid. Ve-
neti), who settled between the mouths of the Po and
the Illyrian Alps. Were they the earliest possessors
of this part of Italy, or did they expel the Tuscan Eu-
ganei 7 All is unce tainty. Of the origin of the great
Etrurian nation, we have already spoken under tho ar-
ticle Hctruria. Thn Siculi, who appear to have been
'he original inhabitants of Latium, and who were sub-
sequently driven out and retired to Sicily (vid. Siculi),
are falsely considered by some to have been of Iberian
origin. A fourth people, however, who actually came
into Italy, were '-ho Greeks. Before the time of the
Trojan war th' re are no traces of any such emigration;
hot after \>x termination of that contest, accident
Shrew mativ of the returning bands upon the Italian
? ? eoast. We find them in Apulia, on the Sinus Taren-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITALIA.
ITALIA.
me peninsular form of Italy mast at all limes have had
an effect in soften. ng the climate, still the woods and
marshes of Cisalpine Gaul, and the perpetual snows of
the Alps, far more extensive than at present, owing to
the then uncultivated and uncleared state of Switzer-
land and Germany, could not but have been felt even
in the neighbourhood of Rome. Besides, even on the
Apennines, and in Etruria and Latium, the forests oc-
cupied a far greater apace than in modern times; this
would increase the quantity of rain, and, consequently,
the volume of water in the rivers; the floods would
be greater and more numerous, and, before man's do-
minion had completely subdued the whole country,
there would be large accumulations of water in the low
grounds, which would still farther increase the coldness
of the atmosphere. The language of ancient writers,
on the whole, favours the same conclusion, that the
Roman winter, in their days, was more severe than it
is at present. It is by no means easy to know what
weight is to be given to the language of the poets, nor
how far particular descriptions or expressions may have
been occasioned by peculiar local circumstances. The
statement of the younger Pliny (Evitt. , 2,17), that the
bay-tree would rarely live through the winter without
shelter, either at Rome or at his own villa at Lanuvium,
if taken absolutely, would prove too much; for, although
the bay is less hardy than some other evergreens, yet
how can it be conceived that a climate in which the
olive would flourish could be too severe for the bay 1
There must either have been some local peculiarity of
winds or soil which the tree did not like, or else the fact,
as is sometimes the case, must have been too hastily
assumed; and men were afraid, from long custom, to
! eave the bay unprotected in the winter, although, in
/act, they might have done it with safety. Yet the
elder Pliny (17, 2) speaks of long snows being useful
to the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of
the mountains; and a long snow lying in the valleys
of centra! or southern Italy would surely be a very un-
teard-of phenomenon now. Again: the freezing of
the rivers, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, is an
image of winter which could not, we think, naturally
, *uggcst itself tj Italian poets of the present day, at
any point to the south of the Apennines. Other ar-
guments to the same effect may be seen in a paper by
Dames Barrington, in the 58th volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Gibbon, too, after stating the
arguments on both sides of the question, comes to the
same conclusion. {Misc. Works, I. c. ) He quotes,
however, the Abbe de Longuerue as saying that the
Tiber was frozen in the bitter winter of 1709. --Again:
the olive, which cannot bear a continuance of severe
cold, was not introduced into Italy till long after the
vine: Feneatella asserted, that its cultivation was un-
known as late as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus
(Plin. , 15, 1); and such was the notion entertained
of the cold of all inland countries, that Theophrastus
(Plin. , 15, 1) held it impossible to cultivate the olive
at the distance of more than 400 stadia from the sea.
But the cold of winter is perfectly consistent with great
heat in the summer. The vine is cultivated with suc-
cess on the Rhine, in the latitude of Devonshire and
Cornwall, although the winter at Coblentz and Bonn
is far more severe than it is in Westmoreland; and
evergreens will flourish through the winter in the
Westmoreland valleys far better than on the Rhine or
in the heart of France. The summer heat of Italy
? ? was probably much the same in ancient times as it is
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITH
JUB
<<ei from the surface, has been the increased unhealthi-
ntsa of the country, and the more extended range of
the malaria. 'ArnolVt History of Rome, vol. 1, p.
501, seqq. )
ItalIca, I. the capital of the Peligni in Italy. (Vid.
Cornnium. j--II. A city of Spain, north of Mispalis,
and situate on the western side of the river Banis.
(Strabo, Hl. --Oros. , 5, 23. ) It was founded by Pub-
lius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here
tho old soldiers whom age had incapacitated from the
performance of military service. (Appian, B. Hisp. ,
c. 38 -- Cat. , B. Civ. , 2, 20. ) It was the birthplace
of the Emperor Trajan, and is supposed to correspond
with Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from the
city of Seville. (Surita, ad It. Ant. , p. 413, 432. --
Florez, Esp. S. F. , 12, p. 227. --Vkert, Geogr. , vol.
S, p. 372. )
ItalIcus, a poet. (Vid. Sihua Italicus. )
Italus, a fabled monarch of early Italy. (Consult
remarks under the article Italia, page 693, col. 1. )
Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian Sea, north-
east of Cephallenia. It lies directly south of Leuca-
dia, from which it is distant about six miles. The ex-
tent of this celebrated island, as given by ancient au-
thorities, does not correspond with modern computa-
tion. Dicaarchus describes it as narrow, and meas-
uring eighty stadia, meaning probably in length (Grac.
Stat. v. 51), but Strabo (455) affirms, in circumfer-
ence, which is very wide of the truth, since it is not
less than thirty miles in circuit, or, according to Pliny
(4, 12), twenty-fire. Its length is nearly seventeen
miles, but its breadth not more than four. Ithaca is
well known as the native island of Ulysses. Eusta-
thius asserts (ad 11.
, 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207). That it was throughout rugged and
mountainous we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey, but especially from the fourth book, v.
805, scqq--It is evident, from several passages of the
same poem, that there was also a city named Ithaca,
probably the capital of the island, and the residence of
Ulysses (3,80). Its ruins are generally identified with
those crowning the summit of the hill of Aito. (Dod-
vell, vol. I, p. 66. ) "The Venetian geographers,"
observes Sir William Gell, "have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of
the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by giving in their
charts the name of Vol di Compare to this island.
That name, however, is totally unknown in the coun-
try, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the
upper ranks, and Theaki by the vulgar. It has been
asserted in the north of Europe, that Ithaca is too in-
considerable a rock to have produced any contingent of
ships which could er. tr. '. e its king to so much consider-
ation among the neighbouring isles; yet the unrivalled
excellence of its port has in modern times created a
fleet of 50 vessels of all denominations, which trade to
every part of the Mediterranean, and from which four
might be selected capable of transporting the whole
army of Ulysses to the shores of Asia. " The same
writer nukes the population of the island 8000. It is
said to contain sixty-six square miles. (GcWs Geog-
raphy and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30. )
Ithacesia, I. three islands opposite Vibo, on the
coast of Bruttium. They are thought to answer to
the modern Brace*, Praca, and Torricella. (Bisehqff
and Miller, Worterb. der Geogr. , p. 651. )--II. Baira
? ? is called by Silius Italicus "sedes Ithacesia Baii," be-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JTJD
moved, it is said, to this course by a gross insult which,
in his youth, he had received from Cesar. He gained,
B. C. 49, a great victory over Curio, Ceaar's lieuten-
ant in Africa. After the battle of Pharaalia and the
death of Pompey, he continued steady to his cause;
and when Caesar invaded Africa, B. C. 46, he support-
ad Scipio and Cato with all his power, and in the first
instance reduced the dictator to much difficulty. The
battle of Thapsus, however, turned the scale in Cae-
aar'a favour. Juba fled, and, finding that his subjects
would not receive him, put an end to his life in de-
spair, along with Petreius. (Vid. Petreius. ) His con-
nexion with Cato has suggested the underplot of Ad-
dison's tragedy. (Plut. , Vit. Pomp. --Id. , Vit. Cas.
--Ftor. , 4, 13. -- Sutton. , Vit. Jul. , 35. -- Lucan, 4,
490. --Patere. , 2, 54. )--II. The second of the name,
was son of the preceding. He was carried to Rome
by Cesar, kindly treated, and well and learnedly ed-
ucated. He gained the friendship, and fought in the
cause, of Augustus, who gave him the kingdom of
Mauritania, his paternal kingdom of Numidia having
been erected into a Roman province. Juba cultivated
diligently the arts of peace, was beloved by his sub-
ccts, and had a high reputation for learning. He
wrote, in Greek, of Arabia, with observations on its
natural history; of Assyria; of Rome; of painting
and painters; of theatres; of the qualities of animals;
on the source of the Nile, dec, all which arc now lost.
Juba married Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Strabo, in his sixth book,
speaks of Juba as living, and in his seventeenth and
last book as then just dead. This would probably fix
his death about A. D. 17. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ,
vol. 2, p. 651, in notis. --Phot. , Cod. , 161. --Athena-
us, 8, p. 343, e. -- Plut. , Mar. , p. 269, c, dec. -r-
Consult the dissertation of the Abbe Sevin, Sur la Vit
tt Us Outrages de Juba, in the Mem. de VAead. ties
hser. , Ate, vol. 4, p. 457, seqq. )
JuDiBi, a province of Palestine, forming the southern
division. It did not assume the name of Judaea until
after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian cap-
ivity; though it had been denominated, long before,
ho kingdom of Judaea, in opposition to that of Israel.
After the return, the tribe of Judah settled first at Je-
rusalem; but afterward, spreading gradually over the
whole country, they gave it the name of Judaea. Ju-
daea, being the seat of religion and government, claimed
many privileges. It was not lawful to intercalate the
year out of Judaea, while they might do it in that coun-
try. Nor was the sheaf of first-fruits of the barley to
be brought from any other district than Judaea, and as
near as possible to Jerusalem. The extent of this re-
markable country has varied at different times, accord-
ing to the nature of the government which it has en-
loyed or been compelled to acknowledge. When it
was first occupied by the Israelites, the land of Ca-
naan, properly so called, was confined between the
shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of
the Jordan; the breadth at no part exceeding fifty
niles, while the length hardly amounted to three times
hat space. At a later period, the arms of David and
of his immediate successor carried the boundaries of
the kingdom to the Euphrates and Orontes on the one
hand, and in an opposite direction to the remotest con-
fines of Edom and Moab. The population, as might
be expected, has undergone a similar variation. It is
true, that no particular in ancient history is liable to a
better founded suspicion, than the numerical statements
? ? which respect nations and armies; for pride and fear
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUD. EA.
JUDAEA.
wnuh arc known in Italy, besides balm and dates.
Hut it has never been denied that there is a remarka-
ble difference between the two sides of the ridge which
forms the central chain of Judxa. On the western
itdivity, the soil rises from the sea towards the ele-
rated ground in four distinct terraces, which are cov-
ered with an unfading verdure. The shore is lined
with inastic-trees, palms, and prickly pears. Higher
op, the vines, the olives, and the sycamores amply re-
pay the labour of the cultivator; natural groves arise,
consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, andrachnes,
>>nd turpentines. The face of the earth is embellished
with the rosemary, tbe cytisus, and the hyacinth. In
I word, the vegetation of these mountains has been
compared to that of Crete. European visiters have
dined under the shade of a lemon-tree as large as
one of our strongest oaks, and have seen sycamores,
the foliage of which was sufficient to cover thirty per-
sons, along with their horses and camels. On the
eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould
yields a less magnificent crop. From the summit of
the hills a desert stretches along to the Lake Asphal-
tites, presenting nothing but stones and ashes, and a
few thorny shrubs. The sides of the mountains en-
large, and assume an aspect at once more grand and
more barren. By little and little, the scanty vegeta-
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*. In the centre of this amphitheatre there is an
arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits scat-
tered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and afford-
ing a single aperture to the east, through which the
surface of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Ara-
bia present themselves to the eye. In the midst of
this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we perceive
titensive ruins, stunted cypresses, bushes of the aloe
aad prickly pear, while some huts of the meanest or-
4*r, ruecbling whitewashed sepulchres, are spread
'in; to? desolated mass. This spot is Jerusalem.
Mm, Observations, &c. ,p. 140. --Hasielquist, Trav-
ail, p. tt. --Shultze's Travelt, vd. 2, p. 86. )--This
nelancholy delineation, which was suggested by the
Mate of the Jewish metropolis in the third century, is
not -i'. i itr inapplicable at the present hour. The scen-
ery if external nature is the same, and the general as-
pect of the venerable city is very little changed. But
is beauty is strictly a relative term, and is everywhere
greatly affected by association, we must not be sur-
prised when we read in the works of Eastern authors
the high encomiums which are lavished upon the vi-
cinity of the holy capital. Abulfeda, for example,
maintains, not only that Palestine is the most fertile
part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood of Jeru-
valem is one of the most fertile districts'of Palestine.
In his eye, the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-
graves, with which the limestone cliffs of Judxa were
once covered, identified themselves with the richest
returns of agricultural wealth, and more than com-
pensated for the absence of those spreading fields,
waring with corn, which are necessary to convey to
the mind of a European the ideas of fruitfulness, com-
fort, and abundance. --Following the enlightened nar-
ntive of Malte-Brun, the reader will find that south-
ward of Damascus, tbe point where the modern Pal-
estine may be said to begin, are the countries called
? f the Romans Auranitis and Gaulonitis, consisting
ef one extensive and noble plain, bounded on the north
? ? by Hermon or Djibel-cl-Sheik, on the southwest by
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUDAEA.
J I. G
>>y toe densest fogs--The Shechem of the Scriptures,
successively known by the names of Neapolis and Nab-
lous, still contains a considerable population, although
is dwellings are mean and its inhabitants poor. The
luina of Samaria itself are now covered with orchards;
and the people of the district, who have forgotten their
native dialect, as well, perhaps, as their angry disputes
with tho Jews, continue to worship the Deity on the
verdant slopes of Gerizim. --Palestine, agreeably to
the modern acceptation of the term, embraces the
country of the ancient Philistines, the most formida-
ble enemies of the Hebrew tribes prior to the reign
of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, we recog-
nise tl e celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, correspond-
ing to the Joppa mentioned in the sacred writings.
Repeatedly fortified and dismantled, this famous har-
bour has presented such a variety of appearances, that
the description givon of it in one age has hardly ever
been found to apply to its condition in the very next.
Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a
large village inhabited promiscuously by Christians and
Mussulmans, who agree in nothing but their detestation
of the tyranny by which they are both unmercifully
oppressed. The locality of the sacred manger is oc-
cupied by an elegant church, ornamented by the pious
offerings of all the nations of Europe. It is not our
intention to enter into a more minute discussion of
those old traditions, by which the particular places
rendered sacred by the Redeemer's presence are still
marked out for the veneration of tho faithful. They
present much vagueness, mingled with no small por-
tion of unquestionable truth. At all events, we must
not regard them in the same light in which we are
compelled to view the story that claims for Hebron
the possession of Abraham's tomb, and attracts on this
account the veneration both of Nazarenes and Mos-
lems. --To the northeast of Jerusalem, in the large and
""ertib valley called El-Gaur, and watered by the Jor-
dan, wa iuid t:v village of Rir. ha, near the ancient Jeri-
*r/J, denominated by Moses the City of Palms. This
is a name to which it is still entitled; but the groves
of opobalsamum, or balm of Mecca, hare long disap-
peared ; nor is the neighbourhood any longer adorned
with those singular flowers known among the Crusa-
ders by the familiar appellation of Jericho roses. A
little farther south two rough and barren chains of
afcills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin
wormed in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-
salt. The water contained in this hollow . s impreg-
nated with a solution of different saline substances,
having lime, magnesia, and soda for their base, par-
tially neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid.
The salt which it yields by evaporation is about one
fourth of its weight. The bituminous matter rises
from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats
on the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where
it is gathered for various purposes. (Vid. Mare
Mortuum. )--This brief outline of the geographical
limits and physical character of the Holy Land must
suffice here. Details much more ample are to be
found in numerous works, whose authors, fascinated
by the interesting recollections which almost every
object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endeav-
. oured to transfer to the minds of their readers the
profound impressions which they themselves experi-
enced from a personal review of ancient scenes and
monuments. But we purposely refrain from the mi-
? ? nute description to which the subject so natuially in-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUL
JUL
however, he obtained from the consul C'alpurnius,
under the most favourable conditions, the quiet pos-
session of the usurped kingdom. But this treaty was
not ratified at Rome; Calpurnius was recalled, and
the new consul Posthumius Albums was appointed to
the command in Africa. Meanwhile Jugurtha, being
summoned, appeared at Rome; but as he then suc-
ceeded in bribing several of the senators, and also
Batbius, a tribune of the people, no judgment was giv-
en. Imboldened by this success, he thereupon caus-
ed Massiva, son of his uncle Gulussa, whom he sus-
pected of aiming at the kingdom, to be assassinated
in the Roman capital. The crime was fixed upon
him; but as he was under the public guarantee, the
senate, instead of bringing him to trial, ordered him
to leave Rome immediately. It was while departing
from the city on this occasion that he is said to have
uttered those memorable words against the corrup-
tion of the Roman capital which arc recorded in the
pages of Sallust: "Ah, venal city, and destined quick-
ly to perish, if it could but find a purchaser! " Pos-
thumius was now sent to his province in Africa, to
prosecute the war; but he soon returned to Rome
without having effected anything, leaving the army
under the command of his brother Aulus Posthumius,
who allowed himself to be surprised in his camp by
Jugurtha, to whom he surrendered; and his troops,
having passed under the yoke, evacuated Numidia.
The new consul Metellus, arriving soun after with
fresh troops, carried on the war with great vigour,
and, being himself above temptation, reduced Jugur-
tha to the last extremity. Caius Marius was serving
as lieutenant to Metellus, and in the year B. C. 107,
supplanted him. in the command. Jugurtha, mean-
time, having allied himself with Bocchus, king of
Mauritania, gave full employment to the Romans.
Marius took the townofCapsa, and in a hard-contest-
ed battle defeated the two kings. Bocchus now made
offers of peace, and Marius sent to him his quaestor
Sylla, who, after much negotiation, induced the Mau-
ritanian king to give up Jugurtha into the hands of
the Romans, as the price of bis own peace and secu-
rity. Jugurtha followed in chains with his two sons,
the triumph of Marius, after which he was thrown into
a subterraneous dungeon, where he was starved to
death, or, according to others, was strangled. His
sons were sent to Venusia, where they lived in ob-
scurity.
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITA
ITALIA
Kura-hcrmon, or "the black fortress. " Istropolis is
said to have been founded bv a Milesian colonv.
(Plin, 4, 11. )
ItabyrIus, a mountain of Oalilca Inferior, near the
southern limits of the tribe of Zebulon, and southeast
from Carmel. According to Josephus (Bell. Jud. , 4,6),
it was 30 stadia high, and had on its summit a plain
of V. stadia in extent. Its modern name is Thabor.
This mountain is supposed by some to have been the
scene of our Saviour's transfiguration. Jerome, Cy-
ril), and other writers, sre in favour of the position,
but it is opposed by Reland (Pal<utin. , p. 247). The
name Thabor or Tabor, which was also the ancient
one among the natives, appears to be derived from the
Hebrew labbor, "a height" or "summit. " (Reland,
I. e. ) The Greek writers call it Qa6up and 'AraW-
piov (or itodvoiov) opoc. (Compare the Jupiter Ala-
byrius of Rhodes and Agrigentum, and the remarks
of Hitter, Vorhalle, p. 339. ) On the summit of this
mountain was situate a fortified town called Atabyrion.
(Polyb. , 5, 70. --Via". Atabyrion. ) Mount Thabor is
situate two leagues southeast of Nazareth, rising out
of the great plain of Esdraelon, at its eastern side. Its
figure is that of a truncated cone, and its elevation,
according to Buckingham, about 1000 feet; but, from
the circumstance mentioned by Burckhardt, of thick
clouds resting on it in the morning in summer, and his
being an hour in ascending it, it may perhaps be con-
sidered as higher than Buckingham supposed, though,
from the same time occupied in the ascent, not more
than 400 or 500 feet, or from 1400 to 1500 in all. It
is represented as entirely calcareous. Dr. Richardson
describes it as a dark-looking, insulated conical mount-
ain, rising like a tower to a considerable height above
those around it. On the summit is a plain about a
mile in circumference, which shows the remains of
the ancient fortress mentioned above. The view
from this spot is said to be one of the finest in the
5"untry.
Italia, a celebrated country of Europe, bounded on
the ncrth by the Alps, on the south by the Ionian Sea,
on the northeast by the Adriatic or Mare Superum,
and on the southwest, by tho Mare Tyrrhcnum or In-
ferum. It was called Hosperia by the Greeks, from
its western situation in relation to Greece (Virg. ,
JEn. , 1, 530), and received also from the Latin poets
the appellation of Ausonia (Virg. , JEn. , 7, 54), Sa-
turnia (Virg. , Georg. , 2, 173), and ffinotria. The
name Italia some writers deduce from Italus, a chief
of the CEnotri or Siculi (Antioch. Syrac. , ap. Dion.
Hal. , 1,2. --Thucyd. , 6,2). Others sought the origin
of the term in the Greek word iraXor, or the Latin
titulus, which corresponds to it (Varro, R. R , 2, 5.
--Dion. Hal. , 1, 35); and others again make the
name to have belonged originally to a small canton in
Calabria, and to have become gradually common to
the whole country. The ancients differed from us in
their application of names to countries. They re-
garded the name as belonging to tho people, not to
the land itself; and in this they were more correct
than wo are, who call nations after the countries they
inhabit. Asia Minor, for example, was an appellation
unknown to the earlier classic writers, and only began
to come into use after the country had fallen into the
hands <if the Romans. Previous to this, the different
. nations which peopled that peninsula had their re-
spective names, and were known by these. In the
? ? same way, a general name for what we now term Italy
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? TTAT. 1A.
ITALIA.
spread fror. i the Alps to the southernmost extremity
of the land. T\iis position receives very strong sup-
port from the fact that the name Italus w as in gen-
eral use among the various nations of the Italian
peninsula. In the language cf fable it was the appel-
lation of an ancient monarch. We find mention made
of a King Italus among the Ausones and Opici, and
likewise among lb* Morgetes, Siculi, and Sabini.
We find, moreover, all these early tribes using one
lommon dialect, the Oscan. Now, that such a being
is lulus ever existed, appears extremely improbable;
ind still more so the assertion that Italy was named
after this ancient king. Daily experience proves that
cettr. irU* are called after the nations who inhabit
them; and few, if any, examples can be adduced of
nations taking an appellation from their rulers. In the
? resent case it appears scarcely credible. We know
if no period when the different Italian tribes were
inder the control of a single ruler, and yet each have
heir Italus. Was there a monarch of this name in
very district cf Italy t and, still more, did each sep-
Tate community form the resolution of deriving from
deir lespective monarch a name for themselves and
iie region they inhabited, so that, finally, the common
>>ame for the whole land becamo Italia 1 Either sup-
position is absurd. --The name Italus, then, was the
jeneric name of the whole race, and the land was
called after it, each community being known at the
same time by a specific and peculiar appellation, as
Latini, Umbri, exi. The fact of the universal preva-
lence of the Oscin tongue is strongly corroborative of
what has just been advanced. But, it may be con-
tended, no proof exists that any king named Italus was
acknowledged by the traditions of the Tusci or Umbri.
The answer is an easy one. Antiquity makes mention
of these as the piogenitors of the Latini, among whom
? King Italus apj-ears; and Scymnus records an old
lut'nority, which snakes the Umbri to have been de-
scended from La'. inus, the son of Ulysses and Circe.
That these two nations, moreover, spoke a language
based on the old Italic or Oscan form of speech, was
discovered by thf. Romans in the case of the Rheti, a
branch of the former, who had retired to thefAlps
cpon the invasion of the Gauls. The original popula-
tion of Italy then was composed of the Itali. To
these came various nations, which we shall now enu-
merate in the order of history. The earliest of these
new-comers appear to have been the Illyrian tribes,
and, i'i particular, I ho Libumi, who may, with truth, be
regr. ded as the earl iest of European navigators. They
extended thcmselvi-s along the coast of the Adriatic as
far as Iipygia. Jiiext in the order of lime were the
Veneti, a branch o) the great Sclavonic race (vid. Ve-
neti), who settled between the mouths of the Po and
the Illyrian Alps. Were they the earliest possessors
of this part of Italy, or did they expel the Tuscan Eu-
ganei 7 All is unce tainty. Of the origin of the great
Etrurian nation, we have already spoken under tho ar-
ticle Hctruria. Thn Siculi, who appear to have been
'he original inhabitants of Latium, and who were sub-
sequently driven out and retired to Sicily (vid. Siculi),
are falsely considered by some to have been of Iberian
origin. A fourth people, however, who actually came
into Italy, were '-ho Greeks. Before the time of the
Trojan war th' re are no traces of any such emigration;
hot after \>x termination of that contest, accident
Shrew mativ of the returning bands upon the Italian
? ? eoast. We find them in Apulia, on the Sinus Taren-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITALIA.
ITALIA.
me peninsular form of Italy mast at all limes have had
an effect in soften. ng the climate, still the woods and
marshes of Cisalpine Gaul, and the perpetual snows of
the Alps, far more extensive than at present, owing to
the then uncultivated and uncleared state of Switzer-
land and Germany, could not but have been felt even
in the neighbourhood of Rome. Besides, even on the
Apennines, and in Etruria and Latium, the forests oc-
cupied a far greater apace than in modern times; this
would increase the quantity of rain, and, consequently,
the volume of water in the rivers; the floods would
be greater and more numerous, and, before man's do-
minion had completely subdued the whole country,
there would be large accumulations of water in the low
grounds, which would still farther increase the coldness
of the atmosphere. The language of ancient writers,
on the whole, favours the same conclusion, that the
Roman winter, in their days, was more severe than it
is at present. It is by no means easy to know what
weight is to be given to the language of the poets, nor
how far particular descriptions or expressions may have
been occasioned by peculiar local circumstances. The
statement of the younger Pliny (Evitt. , 2,17), that the
bay-tree would rarely live through the winter without
shelter, either at Rome or at his own villa at Lanuvium,
if taken absolutely, would prove too much; for, although
the bay is less hardy than some other evergreens, yet
how can it be conceived that a climate in which the
olive would flourish could be too severe for the bay 1
There must either have been some local peculiarity of
winds or soil which the tree did not like, or else the fact,
as is sometimes the case, must have been too hastily
assumed; and men were afraid, from long custom, to
! eave the bay unprotected in the winter, although, in
/act, they might have done it with safety. Yet the
elder Pliny (17, 2) speaks of long snows being useful
to the corn, which shows that he is not speaking of
the mountains; and a long snow lying in the valleys
of centra! or southern Italy would surely be a very un-
teard-of phenomenon now. Again: the freezing of
the rivers, as spoken of by Virgil and Horace, is an
image of winter which could not, we think, naturally
, *uggcst itself tj Italian poets of the present day, at
any point to the south of the Apennines. Other ar-
guments to the same effect may be seen in a paper by
Dames Barrington, in the 58th volume of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. Gibbon, too, after stating the
arguments on both sides of the question, comes to the
same conclusion. {Misc. Works, I. c. ) He quotes,
however, the Abbe de Longuerue as saying that the
Tiber was frozen in the bitter winter of 1709. --Again:
the olive, which cannot bear a continuance of severe
cold, was not introduced into Italy till long after the
vine: Feneatella asserted, that its cultivation was un-
known as late as the reign of Tarquinius Priscus
(Plin. , 15, 1); and such was the notion entertained
of the cold of all inland countries, that Theophrastus
(Plin. , 15, 1) held it impossible to cultivate the olive
at the distance of more than 400 stadia from the sea.
But the cold of winter is perfectly consistent with great
heat in the summer. The vine is cultivated with suc-
cess on the Rhine, in the latitude of Devonshire and
Cornwall, although the winter at Coblentz and Bonn
is far more severe than it is in Westmoreland; and
evergreens will flourish through the winter in the
Westmoreland valleys far better than on the Rhine or
in the heart of France. The summer heat of Italy
? ? was probably much the same in ancient times as it is
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? ITH
JUB
<<ei from the surface, has been the increased unhealthi-
ntsa of the country, and the more extended range of
the malaria. 'ArnolVt History of Rome, vol. 1, p.
501, seqq. )
ItalIca, I. the capital of the Peligni in Italy. (Vid.
Cornnium. j--II. A city of Spain, north of Mispalis,
and situate on the western side of the river Banis.
(Strabo, Hl. --Oros. , 5, 23. ) It was founded by Pub-
lius Scipio in the second Punic war, who placed here
tho old soldiers whom age had incapacitated from the
performance of military service. (Appian, B. Hisp. ,
c. 38 -- Cat. , B. Civ. , 2, 20. ) It was the birthplace
of the Emperor Trajan, and is supposed to correspond
with Sevilla la Vieja, about a league distant from the
city of Seville. (Surita, ad It. Ant. , p. 413, 432. --
Florez, Esp. S. F. , 12, p. 227. --Vkert, Geogr. , vol.
S, p. 372. )
ItalIcus, a poet. (Vid. Sihua Italicus. )
Italus, a fabled monarch of early Italy. (Consult
remarks under the article Italia, page 693, col. 1. )
Ithaca, a celebrated island in the Ionian Sea, north-
east of Cephallenia. It lies directly south of Leuca-
dia, from which it is distant about six miles. The ex-
tent of this celebrated island, as given by ancient au-
thorities, does not correspond with modern computa-
tion. Dicaarchus describes it as narrow, and meas-
uring eighty stadia, meaning probably in length (Grac.
Stat. v. 51), but Strabo (455) affirms, in circumfer-
ence, which is very wide of the truth, since it is not
less than thirty miles in circuit, or, according to Pliny
(4, 12), twenty-fire. Its length is nearly seventeen
miles, but its breadth not more than four. Ithaca is
well known as the native island of Ulysses. Eusta-
thius asserts (ad 11.
, 2, 632) that it derived its name
from the hero Ithacus, who is mentioned by Homer
(Oi, 17, 207). That it was throughout rugged and
mountainous we learn from more than one passage of
the Odyssey, but especially from the fourth book, v.
805, scqq--It is evident, from several passages of the
same poem, that there was also a city named Ithaca,
probably the capital of the island, and the residence of
Ulysses (3,80). Its ruins are generally identified with
those crowning the summit of the hill of Aito. (Dod-
vell, vol. I, p. 66. ) "The Venetian geographers,"
observes Sir William Gell, "have in a great degree
contributed to raise doubts concerning the identity of
the modern with the ancient Ithaca, by giving in their
charts the name of Vol di Compare to this island.
That name, however, is totally unknown in the coun-
try, where the isle is invariably called Ithaca by the
upper ranks, and Theaki by the vulgar. It has been
asserted in the north of Europe, that Ithaca is too in-
considerable a rock to have produced any contingent of
ships which could er. tr. '. e its king to so much consider-
ation among the neighbouring isles; yet the unrivalled
excellence of its port has in modern times created a
fleet of 50 vessels of all denominations, which trade to
every part of the Mediterranean, and from which four
might be selected capable of transporting the whole
army of Ulysses to the shores of Asia. " The same
writer nukes the population of the island 8000. It is
said to contain sixty-six square miles. (GcWs Geog-
raphy and Antiquities of Ithaca, p. 30. )
Ithacesia, I. three islands opposite Vibo, on the
coast of Bruttium. They are thought to answer to
the modern Brace*, Praca, and Torricella. (Bisehqff
and Miller, Worterb. der Geogr. , p. 651. )--II. Baira
? ? is called by Silius Italicus "sedes Ithacesia Baii," be-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JTJD
moved, it is said, to this course by a gross insult which,
in his youth, he had received from Cesar. He gained,
B. C. 49, a great victory over Curio, Ceaar's lieuten-
ant in Africa. After the battle of Pharaalia and the
death of Pompey, he continued steady to his cause;
and when Caesar invaded Africa, B. C. 46, he support-
ad Scipio and Cato with all his power, and in the first
instance reduced the dictator to much difficulty. The
battle of Thapsus, however, turned the scale in Cae-
aar'a favour. Juba fled, and, finding that his subjects
would not receive him, put an end to his life in de-
spair, along with Petreius. (Vid. Petreius. ) His con-
nexion with Cato has suggested the underplot of Ad-
dison's tragedy. (Plut. , Vit. Pomp. --Id. , Vit. Cas.
--Ftor. , 4, 13. -- Sutton. , Vit. Jul. , 35. -- Lucan, 4,
490. --Patere. , 2, 54. )--II. The second of the name,
was son of the preceding. He was carried to Rome
by Cesar, kindly treated, and well and learnedly ed-
ucated. He gained the friendship, and fought in the
cause, of Augustus, who gave him the kingdom of
Mauritania, his paternal kingdom of Numidia having
been erected into a Roman province. Juba cultivated
diligently the arts of peace, was beloved by his sub-
ccts, and had a high reputation for learning. He
wrote, in Greek, of Arabia, with observations on its
natural history; of Assyria; of Rome; of painting
and painters; of theatres; of the qualities of animals;
on the source of the Nile, dec, all which arc now lost.
Juba married Cleopatra, the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. Strabo, in his sixth book,
speaks of Juba as living, and in his seventeenth and
last book as then just dead. This would probably fix
his death about A. D. 17. (Clinton, Fast. Hellen. ,
vol. 2, p. 651, in notis. --Phot. , Cod. , 161. --Athena-
us, 8, p. 343, e. -- Plut. , Mar. , p. 269, c, dec. -r-
Consult the dissertation of the Abbe Sevin, Sur la Vit
tt Us Outrages de Juba, in the Mem. de VAead. ties
hser. , Ate, vol. 4, p. 457, seqq. )
JuDiBi, a province of Palestine, forming the southern
division. It did not assume the name of Judaea until
after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian cap-
ivity; though it had been denominated, long before,
ho kingdom of Judaea, in opposition to that of Israel.
After the return, the tribe of Judah settled first at Je-
rusalem; but afterward, spreading gradually over the
whole country, they gave it the name of Judaea. Ju-
daea, being the seat of religion and government, claimed
many privileges. It was not lawful to intercalate the
year out of Judaea, while they might do it in that coun-
try. Nor was the sheaf of first-fruits of the barley to
be brought from any other district than Judaea, and as
near as possible to Jerusalem. The extent of this re-
markable country has varied at different times, accord-
ing to the nature of the government which it has en-
loyed or been compelled to acknowledge. When it
was first occupied by the Israelites, the land of Ca-
naan, properly so called, was confined between the
shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of
the Jordan; the breadth at no part exceeding fifty
niles, while the length hardly amounted to three times
hat space. At a later period, the arms of David and
of his immediate successor carried the boundaries of
the kingdom to the Euphrates and Orontes on the one
hand, and in an opposite direction to the remotest con-
fines of Edom and Moab. The population, as might
be expected, has undergone a similar variation. It is
true, that no particular in ancient history is liable to a
better founded suspicion, than the numerical statements
? ? which respect nations and armies; for pride and fear
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUD. EA.
JUDAEA.
wnuh arc known in Italy, besides balm and dates.
Hut it has never been denied that there is a remarka-
ble difference between the two sides of the ridge which
forms the central chain of Judxa. On the western
itdivity, the soil rises from the sea towards the ele-
rated ground in four distinct terraces, which are cov-
ered with an unfading verdure. The shore is lined
with inastic-trees, palms, and prickly pears. Higher
op, the vines, the olives, and the sycamores amply re-
pay the labour of the cultivator; natural groves arise,
consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, andrachnes,
>>nd turpentines. The face of the earth is embellished
with the rosemary, tbe cytisus, and the hyacinth. In
I word, the vegetation of these mountains has been
compared to that of Crete. European visiters have
dined under the shade of a lemon-tree as large as
one of our strongest oaks, and have seen sycamores,
the foliage of which was sufficient to cover thirty per-
sons, along with their horses and camels. On the
eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould
yields a less magnificent crop. From the summit of
the hills a desert stretches along to the Lake Asphal-
tites, presenting nothing but stones and ashes, and a
few thorny shrubs. The sides of the mountains en-
large, and assume an aspect at once more grand and
more barren. By little and little, the scanty vegeta-
tion languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and
a rod, burning hue succeeds to the whiteness of the
rock*. In the centre of this amphitheatre there is an
arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits scat-
tered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and afford-
ing a single aperture to the east, through which the
surface of the Dead Sea and the distant hills of Ara-
bia present themselves to the eye. In the midst of
this country of stones, encircled by a wall, we perceive
titensive ruins, stunted cypresses, bushes of the aloe
aad prickly pear, while some huts of the meanest or-
4*r, ruecbling whitewashed sepulchres, are spread
'in; to? desolated mass. This spot is Jerusalem.
Mm, Observations, &c. ,p. 140. --Hasielquist, Trav-
ail, p. tt. --Shultze's Travelt, vd. 2, p. 86. )--This
nelancholy delineation, which was suggested by the
Mate of the Jewish metropolis in the third century, is
not -i'. i itr inapplicable at the present hour. The scen-
ery if external nature is the same, and the general as-
pect of the venerable city is very little changed. But
is beauty is strictly a relative term, and is everywhere
greatly affected by association, we must not be sur-
prised when we read in the works of Eastern authors
the high encomiums which are lavished upon the vi-
cinity of the holy capital. Abulfeda, for example,
maintains, not only that Palestine is the most fertile
part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood of Jeru-
valem is one of the most fertile districts'of Palestine.
In his eye, the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-
graves, with which the limestone cliffs of Judxa were
once covered, identified themselves with the richest
returns of agricultural wealth, and more than com-
pensated for the absence of those spreading fields,
waring with corn, which are necessary to convey to
the mind of a European the ideas of fruitfulness, com-
fort, and abundance. --Following the enlightened nar-
ntive of Malte-Brun, the reader will find that south-
ward of Damascus, tbe point where the modern Pal-
estine may be said to begin, are the countries called
? f the Romans Auranitis and Gaulonitis, consisting
ef one extensive and noble plain, bounded on the north
? ? by Hermon or Djibel-cl-Sheik, on the southwest by
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUDAEA.
J I. G
>>y toe densest fogs--The Shechem of the Scriptures,
successively known by the names of Neapolis and Nab-
lous, still contains a considerable population, although
is dwellings are mean and its inhabitants poor. The
luina of Samaria itself are now covered with orchards;
and the people of the district, who have forgotten their
native dialect, as well, perhaps, as their angry disputes
with tho Jews, continue to worship the Deity on the
verdant slopes of Gerizim. --Palestine, agreeably to
the modern acceptation of the term, embraces the
country of the ancient Philistines, the most formida-
ble enemies of the Hebrew tribes prior to the reign
of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, we recog-
nise tl e celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, correspond-
ing to the Joppa mentioned in the sacred writings.
Repeatedly fortified and dismantled, this famous har-
bour has presented such a variety of appearances, that
the description givon of it in one age has hardly ever
been found to apply to its condition in the very next.
Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a
large village inhabited promiscuously by Christians and
Mussulmans, who agree in nothing but their detestation
of the tyranny by which they are both unmercifully
oppressed. The locality of the sacred manger is oc-
cupied by an elegant church, ornamented by the pious
offerings of all the nations of Europe. It is not our
intention to enter into a more minute discussion of
those old traditions, by which the particular places
rendered sacred by the Redeemer's presence are still
marked out for the veneration of tho faithful. They
present much vagueness, mingled with no small por-
tion of unquestionable truth. At all events, we must
not regard them in the same light in which we are
compelled to view the story that claims for Hebron
the possession of Abraham's tomb, and attracts on this
account the veneration both of Nazarenes and Mos-
lems. --To the northeast of Jerusalem, in the large and
""ertib valley called El-Gaur, and watered by the Jor-
dan, wa iuid t:v village of Rir. ha, near the ancient Jeri-
*r/J, denominated by Moses the City of Palms. This
is a name to which it is still entitled; but the groves
of opobalsamum, or balm of Mecca, hare long disap-
peared ; nor is the neighbourhood any longer adorned
with those singular flowers known among the Crusa-
ders by the familiar appellation of Jericho roses. A
little farther south two rough and barren chains of
afcills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin
wormed in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-
salt. The water contained in this hollow . s impreg-
nated with a solution of different saline substances,
having lime, magnesia, and soda for their base, par-
tially neutralized with muriatic and sulphuric acid.
The salt which it yields by evaporation is about one
fourth of its weight. The bituminous matter rises
from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats
on the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where
it is gathered for various purposes. (Vid. Mare
Mortuum. )--This brief outline of the geographical
limits and physical character of the Holy Land must
suffice here. Details much more ample are to be
found in numerous works, whose authors, fascinated
by the interesting recollections which almost every
object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endeav-
. oured to transfer to the minds of their readers the
profound impressions which they themselves experi-
enced from a personal review of ancient scenes and
monuments. But we purposely refrain from the mi-
? ? nute description to which the subject so natuially in-
Generated for (University of Chicago) on 2014-12-26 09:11 GMT / http://hdl. handle. net/2027/uva. x001045523 Public Domain, Google-digitized / http://www. hathitrust. org/access_use#pd-google
? JUL
JUL
however, he obtained from the consul C'alpurnius,
under the most favourable conditions, the quiet pos-
session of the usurped kingdom. But this treaty was
not ratified at Rome; Calpurnius was recalled, and
the new consul Posthumius Albums was appointed to
the command in Africa. Meanwhile Jugurtha, being
summoned, appeared at Rome; but as he then suc-
ceeded in bribing several of the senators, and also
Batbius, a tribune of the people, no judgment was giv-
en. Imboldened by this success, he thereupon caus-
ed Massiva, son of his uncle Gulussa, whom he sus-
pected of aiming at the kingdom, to be assassinated
in the Roman capital. The crime was fixed upon
him; but as he was under the public guarantee, the
senate, instead of bringing him to trial, ordered him
to leave Rome immediately. It was while departing
from the city on this occasion that he is said to have
uttered those memorable words against the corrup-
tion of the Roman capital which arc recorded in the
pages of Sallust: "Ah, venal city, and destined quick-
ly to perish, if it could but find a purchaser! " Pos-
thumius was now sent to his province in Africa, to
prosecute the war; but he soon returned to Rome
without having effected anything, leaving the army
under the command of his brother Aulus Posthumius,
who allowed himself to be surprised in his camp by
Jugurtha, to whom he surrendered; and his troops,
having passed under the yoke, evacuated Numidia.
The new consul Metellus, arriving soun after with
fresh troops, carried on the war with great vigour,
and, being himself above temptation, reduced Jugur-
tha to the last extremity. Caius Marius was serving
as lieutenant to Metellus, and in the year B. C. 107,
supplanted him. in the command. Jugurtha, mean-
time, having allied himself with Bocchus, king of
Mauritania, gave full employment to the Romans.
Marius took the townofCapsa, and in a hard-contest-
ed battle defeated the two kings. Bocchus now made
offers of peace, and Marius sent to him his quaestor
Sylla, who, after much negotiation, induced the Mau-
ritanian king to give up Jugurtha into the hands of
the Romans, as the price of bis own peace and secu-
rity. Jugurtha followed in chains with his two sons,
the triumph of Marius, after which he was thrown into
a subterraneous dungeon, where he was starved to
death, or, according to others, was strangled. His
sons were sent to Venusia, where they lived in ob-
scurity.
